
Sin 

Hi 

BSlliil 




Class 
Book. 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 



A DICTIONARY 



MODERN GARDENING. 



BY 



GEORGE WILLIAM JOHNSON, ESQ., 

FELLOW OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF INDIA ; 

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF 

THE ROYAL CALEDONIAN AND MARYLAND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES J 

AUTHOR OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PRACTICAL GARDENING J . 

THE GARDENER'S ALMANACK, ETC 



ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY WOOD CUTS. 



EDITED, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, 

BY DAVID LANDRETH, 

OF PHILADELPHIA. 




PHILADELPHIA: 

LEA AND BLANCHARD 

1847. 



TO 



JOHN LINDLEY, Ph.D., F.B.S., 

VICE SECRETARY OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND PROFESSOR OF 
BOTANY IN ITN1VERSITY COLLEGE, 



AS ONE OF THE MOST EFFICIENT 

PROMOTERS OF MODERN HORTICULTURE, 

THIS VOLUME 

IS DEDICATED BY 



THE AUTHOR. 



Entered, according to die Act of Congress, in the year 1S47, by 

LEA AND BLANCHARD, 

in the Office of the Clerk of the District Court for the Eastern District of 
Pennsylvania. 



^ 



PHILADELPHIA : 

T. K. AND P. &. COLLINS, 

PRINTERS. 



s 



*1 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 



Utility, more than either originality of contents or elegance of phraseology, 
has been the author's principal object in the following pages. He has endea- 
voured to gather together in one volume, attainable at a moderate price, an 
arranged, easily consulted, record of Gardening, as it is. To effect this object, 
has obtained aid from the best living authorities, as well as from their 
lished works ; but he has not neglected those of other periods, where he 
found in them directions upon which the moderns have suggested no im- 
vements. Of all the authorities consulted, none has afforded such abundant 
irmation as the Gardeners' Chronicle, of which it is not too much to say that, 
t is the best of modern journals devoted to promoting the cultivation of the 
: , so, whoever is fortunate enough to possess a complete copy of its five 
jlished volumes, has a work of reference from which he will rarely turn away 
<atisfied if seeking for information relative to its peculiar subjects, 
n every instance, the author has endeavoured to give tribute where due, and 
ie has erred in this, or in any other particular, he will be highly obliged by 
rection. Besides the work already quoted, he has been much indebted to 
j. ^xton's Botanical Dictionary ; Whateley's Landscape Gardening ; Glenny's 
Practical Gardener and Florist; Maund's Botanic Garden; Lindley's Theory 
of Horticulture; and The United Gardener and Land Steward's Journal. The 
author does not wish to mislead his readers into the belief that this is a Botanical 
Dictionary. On the contrary, he has confined his notices to such genera of plants 
as deserve a place in some department of the garden ; and, for the most part, 
even in enumerating the number of species in each genus, only those have been 
reckoned that are worthy of cultivation. 

It only remains to be explained that, in the monthly calendars, b. intends the 
beginning, or first half of the month, and e. the end, or its closing half. 
The following works have also been freely consulted and quoted : — 
Cuthbert Johnson, On Fertilizers. 

Farmers' Encyloptzdia. 

Loudon and Westwood's Kollar on Predatory Insects. 
[ Loudon's Gardeners' Encyclopedia. 

Gardeners' Magazine. 

Johnson's Principles of Gardening. 

Abercrombie's Gardeners' Dictionary. 

Johnson's Gardeners' Almanack. 

Transactions of the London Horticultural Society. 

Caledonian Horticultural Transactions. 

Horticultural Magazine. 

Decandolle's Philosophy of Plants. 






PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 



The ordinary form in cases of reprint, with additions and explanatory notes, 
has been departed from in the present instance with a desire to preserve the 
book from the awkward aspect which it would necessarily present, if every 
addition by the American editor had been included within brackets, or printed 
in varied type. 

This edition has been greatly altered from the original. Many articles of 
little interest to Americans have been curtailed, or wholly omitted, and much 
new matter, with numerous illustrations, added; yet the present editor freely 
admits, and has desired the publishers to state, that he has only followed in the, 
path so admirably marked out by Mr. Johnson, to whom the chief merit of the 
work belongs. It has been an object with the publishers, and editor, to increase 
its popular character, thereby adapting it to the larger class of horticultural 
readers in this country, and they trust it may prove what they have desired it to 
be, an Encyclopaedia of Gardening, if not of Rural Affairs, so condensed as to 
be within reach of most persons whom those subjects interest. 

THE PUBLISHERS. 

Philadelphia, April, 1847. 

NOTE. 

It is evident that with a territory extending over so large a space, a monthly calendar, 
or direction for cropping, &c, cannot uniformly apply : Those who reside north or south 
of Pennsylvania, can readily make the necessary calculations as to time. 



THE 



GARDENERS' DICTIONARY 



ABE 

ABELE TREE. (Populus alba.) 

ABLACTATION, the same as In- 
arching, and so called because it is 
a gradual withdrawing of the scion from 
its parent, the same as weaning, which 
in Latin is ablactatio. 

ABLAQUEATION, baring the bodies 
of a tree's main roots. This was an old 
mode of checking the tree's over luxu- 
riance, for the purpose of making it fer-. 
tile. A much less injurious plan is to 
drain the soil, and mix it with sand, 
chalk, or other less rich addition. An- 
other method successfully pursued is to 
open a trench around the body, at a 
suitable distance, thus shortening the 
roots, and arresting the tree's rapid 
growth. 

ABNODATION, cutting off excres- 
cences and the stumps of branches 
close to the stem. The intention of 
this is to have the wound heal over, 
but it is very doubtful, in the case of 
branches, whether the extremity of a 
stump properly treated will not heal 
quicker than a wound close to the 
trunk. The unsightly aspect of pro- 
truding stumps will, however, induce 
close pruning. 

ABRICOCK, an old mode of spelling 
Apricot, Armeniaca vulgaris. 

ABRAXAS grossularia. Magpie 
Moth. The caterpillar of this moth 
often infests the leaves of the gooseber- 
ry bush, as well as the currant, sloe, 
and even the .peach, in early summer. 
" The caterpillar," says Mr. Curtis, " is 
white, slightly tinged with blue, and 
having numerous black spots on the 
back ; it is called a looper, from its pe- 
culiar mode of walking ; it fixes itself 
first firmly with its hind feet, and then 
extends its body fully ; after which it 
puts down its fore feet, and draws the 
hind part of its body as close after them 
2 



AC A 

as possible, thus forming an arch or 
loop." — Gard. Chron. 

ABROMA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Seed or cuttings. 
Loam and peal. 

ABRONIA. Two species. Hardy 
perennial trailers. Rooted slips. Sandy 
peat. 

ABRUS precatorius. Wild Liquorice 
Stove climber. Cuttings. Sand and 
peat. 

ABUTA rufescens. Stove evergreen 
climber. Rooted slips. Loam and 
peat. 

ABUTILON. Three species. One 
stove, and two green-house evergreen 
shrubs. Cuttings. Light rich loam. 
A. striatum. Green-house shrub. " As 
this seems likely to suit a bed in the 
flower garden, to increase it keep it in 
the stove, as it will there push even in 
winter, and every two joints will be 
sufficient for a cutting, which will make 
a plant in a fortnight or three weeks. 
By the time the cutting has pushed far 
enough to admit of being topped, ano- 
ther cutting may be made of it, and pro- 
ceeded with as before. If kept in the 
green-house during winter it will not 
move at all." — Gard. Chron. 

ACACIA. 274 species, stove and 
green-house evergreens. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

ACiENA splendens. Green-house 
evergreen. Seed. Loam and peat. 

ACANTHOPHIPPtUM. Three spe- 
cies. Stove epiphytes. Offsets. Sandy 
peat and light loam. 

ACANTHUS. Bear's Breech. Eight 
species. Six hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials ; division of roots. One green- 
house perennial seed. One stove 
evergreen ; cuttings. All require sandy 
peat and loam. 

ACARUS, the Plant Mite. Class 



AC A 



ACC 



Arachnids. The following are the 
chief of those known to the gardener. 
Acarus tellarius. the Red Spider, is one 
of the gardener's most troublesome 
foes. Its colour varies from yellowish 
to red-brown, and though almost invi- 
sible from its minuteness, yet it preys 
most destructively upon some trees and 
herbaceous plants in our hot-houses, 
as well as upon the kidney-bean, lime 
tree, &c, out of doors in dry summers. 
A. holosericeus is another species, dis- 
tinguishable to an unscienced eye 
chiefly by its scarlet colour. To de- 
stroy them in the hothouse, there is no 
plan so effectual as healing the flues or 
pipes, and sprinkling upon them sul- 
phur. The air is thus gently impreg- 
nated with the vapour of sulphur, for it 
begins to evaporate at a heat of 170 c . 
This vapour is fatal to the insect where 
the air is thoroughly impregnated with 
it, and the work of destruction is com- 
pleted by syringing the infested plants has been propagated from, and the dan 
with water. This last is the only piac- 



A. pseudo-platan aides, or Sycamore, are 
also desirable varieties. Seed, cuttings, 
and lavers. Common light garden soil. 

ACERAS. Two species, both tube- 
rous-rooted hardy perennials. Seeds. 
Light loam. 

ACERATIOI oppositifolium. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Peat and loam. Cut- 
tings. 

A^ETARIOUS PLANTS. Salading. 

ACCLIMATIZATION is rendering a 
plant capable of the production desired 
in a climate differing from that in which 
it is native. In our climate it is usually 
required to induce a plant to endure 
lower temperatures than those to which 
it has been accustomed, and this, though 
some are intractable, is more easy than 
is inducing the natives of colder re- 
gions to live in our latitudes. When a 
new plant arrives from a tropical coun- 
try, it is desirable to use every precau- 
tion to avoid its loss, but so soon as it 



tical remedy to plants in our bordeis, I 
unless they can be covered over so that i 
the fumes may be confined, whilst the j 
sulphur is volatilized over a hot-water 
plate. Potted plants maybe submitted j 
to the vapour of sulphur in a similar 
way. The vapour of spirit of turpen- 
tine is said to be as effectual as sulphur. 
Acarus hortensis, the Garden Mite, tho- 
rax ochreous, abdomen white, has been 
found upon the roots of the cucumber, 
upon which it is said to prey. I believe 
it to be the same Acarus often so abund- 
ant upon the root of cabbages affected 
with the Ambury. A. geniculates is a 
minute, red, shining mite, gregarious, 
and congregating during spring in pro- 
digious numbers upon the bark of the 
plum and other fruit trees, near the base 
of the twigs, and looking like a gummy 
exudation. By extracting the sap they 
doubtless weaken the tree, and reduce 
its productiveness. — Gard. Chron. 

ACER. Maple. Twenty- seven spe- 
cies, all hardy trees except Acer oblon- 
gum, which is half-hardy. The Sugar 
Maple, A. saccharinum of the Ameri- 
can forests, is perhaps one of the finest night, than gardeners of a previous cen 



ger of such loss is removed, from that 
moment ought experiments to com- 
mence, to ascertain whether its acclima- 
tization is attainable. That this should 
be done is self-evident; for the nearer 
such a desirable point can be attained, 
the cheaper will be its cultivation, and 
consequently the greater will be the 
number of those who will be able to de- 
rive pleasure from its growth. Hence 
it is very desirable that an extended se- 
ries of experiments should be instituted, 
to ascertain decisively whether many of 
our present green-house plants would 
not endure exposure to our winters, if 
but slightly or not at all protected. It 
may be laid down as a rule, that all 
Japan plants will do so in the southern 
states, but it remains unascertained to 
what degree of northern latitude this 
general power of endurance extends. 
Experiment, and experimentonly, ought 
to be relied upon ; for we know that 
the larch was once kept in a green- 
house in England. Many tropical 
plants of every order and species, have 
been found to require much less heat, 
both during the day and during the 



species. It forms a full round head, its 

deep green leaves changing in autumn 

to many shades of orange. The Silver 

Maple, A. desycarpum y l$B a light airy 

tree, of quick growth, and extensively 

planted in the streets of Philadelphia, but it endures uninjured the stern cli- 

A. platanoides, or Norway Maple, and ; mate of Sweden. Aucuba Japonica and 



tury believed. Other plants than those 
'ready noticed have passed from the 
tropics to our parterres, and even to 
those of higher northern latitudes. The 
horse chestnut is a native of the tropics, 



ACC 



ACH 



Pceonia Moutan, we all remember to 
have passed from our stoves to the 
green-house, and now they are in our 
open gardens. Every year renders us 
acquainted with instances of plants 
being acclimatized : and, in addition to 
those already noticed, we find that Mr. 
Buchan, Lord Bagot's gardener, at 
Blithfield House, in Staffordshire, has an 
old cinnamon tree (Laurus Cinnamo- 
mum) under his care, which ripens seed: 
from these many plants have been raised 
that endure the winters of England in a 
conservatory without any artificial heat. 
Then, again, there is no doubt that all 
the coniferas of Mexico, which flourish 
there at an elevation of more than 8000 
feet above the sea's level, will survive 
our winters in the open air. Among 
these are Pinus Llaveana, P. Teocate, P. 
patula, P. Hartwegii, Cupressus thuri- 
fera, Juniperus Jlaccida, Abies religiosa, 
and some others. Many natives of the 
southern states have been gradually ac- 
climated in Pennsylvania; experience 
has, however, demonstrated that the na- 
ture of the soil is all-important. On 
sandy or light loamy land with gravelly 
subsoil, many plants are found to with- 
stand the winter, which would surely 
perish on heavy or wet land. So also 
the aspect as regards exposure to the 
sun, it having been found from repeated 
observation that tender plants, espe- 
cially if evergreen, suffer less from cold 
when screened from the sun's rays. The 
cause is obvious. An extensive impor- 
tation of European Holly received at 
the Landreth Nurseries, were, as a pro- 
tection from the summer sun, planted 
on the north side of a high board fence, 
where they safely resisted the severity 
of winter : subsequently they were 
placed in open positions, and all were 
killed by the combined action of heat 
and cold. The following general rules 
are the results of experiments in the 
London Horticultural Society's Garden, 
conducted by Mr. Gordon. 1. " Plants 
intended to be acclimatized, should 
never be subjected to artificial heat dur- 
ing the winter that precedes their being 
planted out; if obtained from seeds, as 
little heat as possible should be em- 
ployed in raising them ; and starved or 
stunted plants are more likely to suc- 
ceed than such as have been forced into 
a rapid and luxuriant growth. 2. The 
plants should not be committed to the 
open ground earlier than the end of 



May ; the soil should be poor, dry, and 
thoroughly drained; if against a wall, 
the border should be protected through 
the entire winter by a roof of hurdles 
thatched with straw, and projecting 
about three feet." 

ACHILLEA. Milfoil. Sixty-four spe- 
cies, all, except A. JEgyptica, herba- 
ceous perennials. Common garden soil. 
Divisio-n of roots. A. JEgyptica is a 
green-house evergreen. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

ACHIMENES. Six species. Stove 
bulbs. " After the plants have done 
flowering, and the tops die down, in 
November, allow the bulbs to remain 
undisturbed in the pots, laid on their 
sides beneath the green-house stage, or 
some other place where frost and wet 
cannot reach them, where they may re- 
main until the latter part of January, 
then to be placed in a gentler heat, and 
watered until the soil becomes suffi- 
ciently moist to encourage vegetation. 
When the small scaly bulbs have made 
shoots about two inches in length, plant 
them singly in small sixties, in a mixture 
of leaf mould and a small portion of sil- 
ver sand. At the subsequent shifting, 
until the plants are finally placed in six- 
teens in June, the compost consists of 
light rich turf loam and peat, or leaf 
mould, when peat cannot be procured 
in equal proportions, and on no account 
sifted. The pots are thoroughly drained, 
a point which forms the basis of all 
good culture, both in pots and in the 
open ground. For growing several 
plants in one pot, take No. 12 size, into 
which turn five of the plants previously 
kept in sixties, placing one in the cen- 
tre, and four round the edges. These 
forma noble mass when in bloom ; but 
never assume the uniform conical shape 
of a single specimen. The main stem 
and side branches are to be neatly 
sticked and tied out as they advance in 
growth. The temperature of an early 
vinery is well adapted for these plants 
until the end of May, at which period 
they should be taken to a cool pit, where 
a steady moist heat can be maintained. 
They should be shaded in hot days be- 
tween 11 A.M. and 2 P.M., to prevent 
the sun from scorching the foliage, and 
they should never be watered over- 
head. The pots should be placed upon 
others, inverted, and the bottom of the 
pit should be kept moist, closing up 
early in the afternoon, and giving air ia 



ACH 



ACT 



clear weather about eight in the morn- 
ing, so that the damp may disperse be- 
fore the rays of the sun fall directly up- 
on the plants." — Gard. Chron. 

A. Long* 'flora. "The bulbs of this 
may be started in a warm cucumber 
frame towards the end of February. 
Each plant, when it has formed a few 
leaves, should then be potted off, sepa- 
rately, into small pots, or, preferably, 
several may be planted together in a 
shallow box. The temperature of a 
warm green-house suits them admira- 
bly." — Gard. Chron. 

ACHYRONIA villosa. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

ACIANTHUS. Three species. Tu- 
berous green-house plants. Division. 
Loam and peat. 

ACICARPHA spatulata. Herba- 
ceous stove perennial. Division. Loam 
and peat. 

ACIOTIS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

ACIS. Four species. Hardy bulbs. 
Offsets. Sandy loam. 

ACISANTHERA quadrata. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

ACMADENIA tetragona. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

ACMENA floribunda. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
Joam. 

ACONITUM. Eighty species hardy 
deciduous tubers; and thirty-four spe- 
cies hardy herbaceous perennials. "A. 
Napellus, from napus, a turnip, its gru- 
mous roots resembling little turnips, is 
a well known poisonous plant. Lin- 
naeus says, that it is fatal to kine and 
goats, especially when they come fresh 
to it, and are not acquainted with the 
plant; but that it does no injury to 
horses, who eat it only when dry. He 
also relates (from the Stockholm Acts) 
that an ignorant surgeon prescribed the 
leaves, and on the patient refusing to 
take them, he took them himself and 
died. The ancients, who were ac- 
quainted with chemical poisons, regard- 
ed the Aconite as the most violent of 
all poisons. Some persons, only by 
taking in the effluvia of the herb in full 
flower by trtie nostrils, have been seized 
with swooning fits, and have lost their 
sight for two or three days. But the 



root is unquestionably the most power- 
ful part of the plant. Matthiolus relates, 
that a criminal was put to death by 
taking one drachm of it. Dodonaeus 
gives us an instance, recent in his time, 
of five persons at Antwerp, who ate the 
root by mistake, and all died. Dr. 
Turner also mentions, that some French- 
men at the same place, eating the 
shoots of this plant for those of master- 
wort, all died in the course of two days, 
except two players, who quickly evacu- 
ated all that they had taken by vomit. 
We have an account, in the Philosophi- 
cal Transactions, of a man who was 
poisoned, in the year 1732, by eating 
some of this plant in a salad, instead of 
celery. Dr. Willis also, in his work De 
Anima Brutorum, gives an instance of a 
man who died in a few hours, by eating 
the tender leaves of this plant also in 
a salad. He was seized with all the 
symptoms of mania. The Aconite, ' 
thus invested with terrors, has, how- 
ever, been so far subdued, as to become 
a powerful remedy in some of the most 
troublesome disorders incident to the 
human frame. Baron Stoerck led the 
way by administering it in violent pains 
of the side and joints, in glandulous 
scirrhi, tumours, ulcerous tubercles of 
the breast, &c, to the quantity of from 
ten to thirty grains in a dose, of an ex- 
tract, the method of making which he 
describes." — Encyc. Plants. Division. 
Common garden soil. All are poison- 
ous. 

ACRONYCHIA cunninghami. Green- 
house shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

ACROPERA loddigesii. Stove epi- 
phyte. Division. Peat and potsherds. 

ACROPHYLLUM verticiUatum. 
Green-house shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

ACROSPIRE is the name whereby 
malsters, gardeners, and others describe 
the sprouts from barley and other seeds 
when germinating, and which are the 
radicle and plumule, the infant root and 
stem. 

ACROSTICHUM. Sixteen species. 
Chiefly stove herbaceous perennials. 
A. alcicorne and A. grande are green- 
house plants. Division and seed. Loam 
and peat. 

ACROTRICHE. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy peat. 

ACTINOMERIS. Four species. 



ACT 



21 



AGA 



Hardy herbaceous perennials. Divi- 
sion. Peat and loam. 

ACTINOTUS. Two species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. Division. 
Sandy loam. 

ACYNOS. Eleven species. All 
hardy. Seeds. Dry sandy soil. 

ADAMIA cyanea. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

ADAM'S NEEDLE. Yucca. 

ADDER'S TONGUE. Opioglossum. 

ADELIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

ADENANDRA. Thirteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

ADENANTHERA. Two species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

ADENANTHOS. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy peat and loam. A. obo- 
vata is best from seed. 

ADENOCARPUS. Six species. A. 
foliolosus and frankenioides are ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
The others are hardy deciduous shrubs. 
Seeds. Common garden soil. 

ADENOPHORA. Sixteen species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Com- 
mon garden soil. Peat and loam. 

ADESMIA. Eight species, of which 
A. viscosa is hardy. The others are 
green-house plants. A. viscosa and us- 
pallatensis are propagated by cuttings. 
The others from seed. All in sandy 
loam. 

ADIANTUM. Maidenhair. Twen- 
ty-nine species. All green-house or 
stove plants, except A. capillus veneris 
and pubescens. They are hardy herba- 
ceous perennials. Division. Loam and 
peat. 

ADINA globiflora. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

ADLUMIA cirrhosa. Hardy climb- 
ing biennial. Seeds. Sandy loam. 

ADONIS. Thirteen species. All 
hardy. Seed. Common garden soil. 

jEGIPHILA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

iEGLE marmelos. Bengal Quince. 
Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Loam. 

^ECHMEA. Three species. Stove 
perennials. Suckers. Loam, peat, and 
sand. 

^EGOCHLOA. Six species. All hardy 



annuals. Seeds. Light rich garden 
soil. 

iEOLLANTHUS suaveolens. Stove 
annual. Seeds. Sandy loam. 

iEONIUM Youngianum. Green- 
house. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

^SCHYNANTHUS. Two species. 
Stove epiphytes. Cuttings. Peat and 
potsherds, or wood. 

^ESCULUS. Horse-chestnut. 
JE. glabra. (Grafts.) 
JE. hippo cast anum, flore pleno. (Lay- 
ers.) 
JE. hippocastanum, fol. argenteis. (Lay- 
ers.) 
JE. hippocastanum variegatum. 
JE. ohiensis. 
M. pallida. (Grafts.) 
JE. rubicunda. (Grafts.) 
All hardy deciduous trees. The com- 
mon European horse-chestnut JE. hip- 
pocastanum, is a truly magnificent tree, 
at once grand from its magnitude and 
massy form, and beautiful when in 
bloom from being covered with large 
spikes of white and pink flowers, pro- 
truding beyond its elegant digitate 
leaves. Seeds (except where other- 
wise described). Common garden soil. 

AERANTHES. Two species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Peat and pot- 
.sherds, or wood. 

AERIDES, (air plant.) Nine spe- 
cies. All stove epiphytes. Cuttings, 
except A. cornutum, which is multi- 
plied by root-divisions. Peat and pot- 
sherds, or wood. 

iERUA. Two species. Stove her- 
baceous perennials. Cuttings. Rich 
moist soil. 

^ESCYNOMENE. Eleven species. 
JE. viscidula a green-house, and JE. 
hispida a hardy annual, the rest stove 
plants. Seeds. Sandv loam. 

^ETHIONEMA. Six species. All 
hardy. Seed or cuttings. Common 
soil. 

JETHIONIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Common soil. 

AFRICAN ALMOND. Brabejum. 

AFRICAN FLEABANE. Tarcho- 
nanthus. 

AFRICAN LILY. Agapanthus. 

AFRICAN MARIGOLD. Tagetes 
Erecta. 

AGAPANTHUS. African Lily. 
Three species. Nearly hardy bulbs. 
Common soil. Offsets. 

AGASTACHYS odorata. Green- 



AGA 



22 



AGR 



house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

AGATH.F.A. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

AGATHOPHYLLUM aromaticum. 
Madagascar nutmeg. Stove evergreen 
tree. Cuttings. Peat or rich loam. 

AGATHOSMA. Twenty-two spe- 
cies. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

AGATHYRSUS. Seven species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Cuttings and di- 
visions. Common soil. 

AGATI. Two species. Stove ever- 
green trees. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

AGAVE. Aloe. Nineteen species. 
Chiefly stove plants. Suckers. Rich 
loam. " The name is altered from 
ay&vcc, admirable, which this genus may 
well be said to be, considering its ap- 
pearance, its size, and the beauty of its 
flowers. In mythology, Agave is the 
name of one of the Nereids. A. america- 
na is a popular succulent throughout Eu- 
rope. It grows wild or is acclimated in 
Sicily, the south of Spain, and Italy, and 
is much used in the latter country, plant- 
ed in vases as an ornament to piers, pa- 
rapets, and about houses. About Milan 
and other towns in Lombardy, where it 
will not endure the winter, they use 
imitations of copper so well formed and 
painted, as to be readily mistaken for 
the original. Tn France and Germany 
it is still very common ; and in this 
country formerly used to be the regular 
companion of the orange, myrtle, and 
pomegranate, then our principal green- 
house plants. An idea used to prevail 
that the American Aloe only flowered 
once in a hundred years; but, inde- 
pendently of this unnatural application 
of time to the inflorescence, it has long 
been known to flower sooner or later 
according to the culture bestowed on 
it. : > — Encyc. Plants. 

AGERATUM. Six species. Chiefly 
hardy annuals. Seed. Light rich soil. 



arts and sciences." It is " the basis of 
all other arts, and in all countries co- 
eval with the first dawn of civilization. 
Without agriculture, mankind would be 
savages, thinly scattered through inter- 
minable forests, with no other habita- 
tions than caverns, hollow trees or huts, 
more rude and inconvenient than the 
most ordinary hovel or cattle-shed of 
the modern cultivator. It is the most 
universal as well as the most ancient of 
the arts, and requires the greatest num- 
ber of operators. It employs seven- 
eighths of the population of almost 
every civilized community. — Agricul- 
ture is not only indispensable to nation- 
al prosperity, but is eminently condu- 
cive to the welfare of those who are 
engaged in it. It gives health to the 
body, energy to the mind, is favourable 
to virtuous and temperate habits, and to 
knowledge and purity of moral charac- 
ter, which are the pillars of good gov- 
ernment and the true support of nation- 
al independence. — With regard to the 
history of agriculture, we must confine 
ourselves to slight sketches. The first 
mention of agriculture is found in the 
writings of Moses. From them we learn 
that Cain was a ' tiller of the ground,' 
that Abel sacrificed the 'firstlings of 
his flock,' and that Noah 'began to be 
a husbandman, and planted a vineyard.' 
The Chinese, Japanese, Chaldeans, 
Egyptians and Phoenicians appear to 
have held husbandry in high estimation. 
The Egyptians were so sensible of its 
blessings, that they ascribed its inven- 
tion to superhuman agency, and even 
carried their gratitude to such an ab- 
surd excess as to worship the ox, for his 
services as a labourer. The Carthagin- 
ians carried the art of agriculture to a 
higher degree than other nations, their 
cotemporaries. Mago, one of their 
most famous generals, wrote no less 
than twenty-eight books on agricultural 
topics, which, according to Columella, 
ere translated into Latin by an express 



AGNOSTUS sinuata. Green-house decree of the Roman senate. — Hesiod, 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy peat, j a Greek writer, supposed to be cotem- 
AGRICULTURE, as compared to [ porary with Homer, wrote a poem on 
Horticulture, is the culture and man- ! agriculture, entitled Weeks and Days, 
agement of certain plants and animals I which was so denominated because hus- 
bandry requires an exact observance of 
times and seasons. Other Greek writ- 



f'or the food and service of man : it is, as 
Marshall observes, "a subject which, 

viewed in all its branches, and to their; ers wrote on rural economy, and Xeno- 
ftillest extent, is not only the most im- 
portant and the most difficult in rural 
economies, but in the circle of human 



phon among the number, but their 
works have been lost in the lapse of 
ages. — The implements of Grecian agri- 



AGR 



culture were very few and simple. He- 
siod mentions a plough, consisting 
of three parts — the share-beam, the 
draught-pole and the plough-tail ; but 
antiquarians are not agreed as to its 
exact form ; also a cart with low wheels, 
and ten spans (seven feet six inches) in 
width; likewise the rake, sickle and j said to ridge.' Pliny mentions a plough 



\ AGR 

curious antiquarian, than of the practi- 
cal cultivator. The plough is repre- 
sented by Cato as of two kinds — -one for 
strong, the other for light soils. Varro 
mentions one with two mould-boards, 
with which, he says, ' when they 
plough, after sowing the seed, they are 



ox-goad ; but no description is given of 
the mode in which they were con- 
structed. The operations of Grecian 
culture, according to Hesiod, were 
neither numerous nor complicated. The 
ground received three ploughings — one 
in autumn, another in spring, and a third 
immediately before sowing the seed. 
Manures were applied, and Pliny as- 
cribes their invention to the Grecian 
king Augeas. Theophrastus mentions 
six different species of manures, and 
adds, that a mixture of soils produces 
the same effect as manures. Clay, he 
observes, should be mixed with sand, 
and sand with clay. Seed was sown 
by hand, and covered with a rake. 
Grain was reaped with a sickle, bound 
In sheaves, threshed, then winnowed by 
wind, laid in chests, bins or granaries, 
and taken out as wanted by the family, 
to be pounded in mortars or quern mills 
into meal. — The ancient Romans vene- 
rated the plough, and, in the earliest 
and purest times of the republic, the 
greatest praise which could be given to 
an illustrious character was to say that 
he was an industrious and judicious hus- 
bandman. M. Cato, the censor, who 
was celebrated as a statesman, orator 
and general, having conquered nations 
and governed provinces, derived his 
highest and most durable honours from 
having written a voluminous work on 
agriculture. In the Georgics of Vir- 
gil, the majesty of verse and the har- 
mony of numbers add dignity and grace 
to the most useful of all topics. The 
celebrated Columella flourished in the 
reign of the Emperor Claudius, and 
he wrote twelve books on husbandry, 
which constituted a complete treatise 
on rural affairs. Varro, Pliny and Pal- 
ladius were likewise among the distin- 
guished Romans who wrote on agricul- 
tural subjects. — With regard to the Ro- 
man implements of agriculture, we 
learn that they used a great many, but 
their particular forms and uses are very 
imperfectly described. From what we 
can ascertain respecting them, they ap- 
pear more worthy of the notice of the 



with one mould-board, and others with 
a coulter, of which he says there were 
many kinds. — Fallowing was a practice 
rarely deviated from by the Romans. 
In most cases, a fallow and a year's 
crop succeeded each other. Manure 
was collected from nearly or quite as 
many sources as have been resorted to 
by the moderns. Pigeon's dung was 
esteemed of the greatest value, and, 
next to that, a mixture of night soil, 
scrapings of the streets and urine, 
which were applied to the roots of the 
vine and olive. — The Romans did not 
bind their corn into sheaves. When 
cut, it was sent directly to the area to 
be threshed, and was separated from 
the chaff by throwing it from one part of 
the floor to the other. Feeding down 
grain, when too luxuriant, was practised. 
Virgil says, 'What commendation shall 
I give to him, who, lest his corn should 
lodge, pastures it, while young, as soon 
as the blade equals the furrow!' (Geor., 
lib. i., 1. 111.) Watering on a large 
scale was applied both to arable and 
grass lands. Virgil advises to ' bring 
down the waters of a river upon the 
sown corn, and, when the field is 
parched and the plants drying, convey 
it from the brow of a hill in channels.' 
(Geor., lib. L, 1. 106.) — -The farm man- 
agement most approved of by the sci- 
entific husbandmen of Rome was, in 
general, such as would meet the appro- 
bation of modern cultivators. The im- 
portance of thorough tillage isillustrated 
by the following apologue: A vine- 
dresser had two daughters and a vine- 
yard ; when his oldest daughter was 
married, he gave her a third of his vine- 
yard for a portion, notwithstanding 
which he had the same quantity of fruit 
as formerly. When his youngest daugh- 
ter was married, he gave her half of 
what remained ; still the produce of his 
vineyard was undiminished. This re- 
sult was the consequence of his bestow- 
ing as much labour on the third part left 
after his daughters had received their 
portions, as he had been accustomed to 
give to the whole vineyard. — The Ro~ 



AGR 



24 

— * 



AGR 



mans, unlike many conquerors, instead 
of desolating, improved the countries 
which they subdued. They seldom or 
never burned or laid waste conquered 
countries, but laboured to civilize the 
inhabitants, and introduce the arts ne- 
cessary for promoting their comfort and 
happiness. To facilitate communica- 
tions from one district *or town to an- 
other, seems to have, been a primary 
object with them, and their works of 
this kind are still discernible in nume- 
rous places. By employing their troops 
in this way, when not engaged in active 
service, their commanders seem to have 
had greatly the advantage over our 
modern generals. The Roman soldiers, 
instead of loitering in camps, or rioting 
in towns, enervating their strength, and 
corrupting their morals, were kept re- 
gularly at work, on objects highly bene- 
ficial to the interests of those whom they 
subjugated. — In the ages of anarchy 
and barbarism which succeeded the fall 
of the Roman empire, agriculture was 
almost wholly abandoned. Pasturage 
was preferred to tillage, because of the 
facility with which sheep, oxen, &c, 
can be driven away or concealed on 
the approach of an enemy.— The con- 
quest of England by the Normans con- 
tributed to the improvement of agri- 
culture in Great Britain. Owing to that 
event, many thousands of husbandmen, 
from the fertile and well-cultivated 
plains of Flanders and Normandy, set- 
tled in Great Britain, obtained farms, 
and employed the same methods in cul- 
tivating them, which they had been ac- 
customed to use in their native coun- 
tries. Some of the Norman barons 
were great improvers of their lands, and 
were celebrated in history for their skill 
in agriculture. The Norman clergy, 
and especially the monks, did still more 
in this way than the nobility. The 
monks of every monastery retained such 
of their lands as they could most con- 
veniently take charge of, and these they 
cultivated with great care under their 
own inspection, and frequently with 
their own hands. The famous Thomas 
a Becket, after he was Archbishop of 
Canterbury, used to go out into the field 
with the monks of the monastery where 
he happened to reside, and join with 
them in reaping their corn and making 
their hay. The implements of agricul- 
ture, at this period, were similar to 
those in most common use in modern 



times. The various operations of hus- 
bandry, such as manuring, ploughing, 
sowing, harrowing, reaping, threshing, 
winnowing, &c, are incidentally men- 
tioned by the writers of those days, but 
it is impossible to collect from them a 
definite account of the manner in which 
those operations were performed. — 
The first English treatise on husbandry 
was published in the reign of Henry 
VIII., by Sir A. Fitzherbert, Judge of 
the Common Pleas. It is entitled the 
Book of Husbandry, and contains direc- 
tions for draining, clearing and enclos- 
ing a farm, for enriching the soil, and 
rendering it fit for tillage. Lime, marl 
and fallowing are strongly recommend- 
ed. ' The author of the Book of Hus- 
bandry,' says Mr. Loudon, s writes 
from his own experience of more than 
forty years, and, if we except his biblical 
allusions, and some vestiges of the su- 
perstition of the Roman writers about 
the influence of the moon, there is very 
little of his work which should be omit- 
ted, and not a great deal that need be 
added, in so far as respects the culture 
of corn, in a manual of husbandry adapt- 
ed to the present time.' — Agriculture 
attained some eminence during the 
reign of Elizabeth. The principal writ- 
ers of that period were Tusser, Googe 
and Sir Hugh Piatt. Tusser's Five 
Hundred Points of Husbandry was pub- 
lished in 1562, and conveys much use- 
ful instruction in metre. The treatise 
of Barnaby Googe, entitled Whole Art 
of Husbandry, was printed in 1558. Sir 
Hugh Piatt's work was entitled Jewel 
Houses of Art and Nature, and was 
printed in 1594. In the former work, 
says Loudon, are many valuable hints 
on the progress of husbandry in the early 
part of the reign of Elizabeth. Among 
other curious things, he asserts that the 
Spanish or Merino sheep was originally 
derived from England.— -Several writers 
on agriculture appeared in England dur- 
ing the commonwealth, whose names. 



with notices of their works, may be seen 
in Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agricul- 
The famous Thomas I ture. From the Restoration down to 
the middle of the eighteenth century, 
agriculture remained almost stationary] 
Immediately after that period, consider- 
able improvement in the process of cul- 
ture was introduced by Jethro Tull, a 
gentleman of Berkshire, who began to 
drill wheat and other crops about the 
year 1701, and whose Horse-hoeing 



AGR 



25 



AI T 



Husbandry was published in 1731. 
Though this writer's theories were in 
some respects erroneous, yet even his 
errors were of service, by exciting in- 
quiry, and calling the attention of hus- 
bandmen to important objects. His 
hostility to manures, and attempting, in 
all cases, to substitute additional tillage 
in their place, were prominent defects in 
his system. — After the time of Tull's 
publication, no great alteration in Bri- 
tish agriculture took place, till R,obert 
Bakewell and others effected some im- 
portant improvements in the breed of 
cattle, sheep and swine. By skilful 
selection at first, and constant care 
afterwards to breed from the best ani- 
mals, Bakewell at last obtained a va- 
riety of sheep, which, for early maturity 
and the property of returning a great 
quantity of mutton for the food which 
they consume, as well as for the small 
proportion which the weight of the offal 
bears to the four quarters, were with- 
out precedent. Culley, Cline, Lord 
Somerville, Sir J. S. Sebright, Darwin, 
Hunt, Hunter, Young, &c. &c, have all 
contributed to the improvement of do- 
mestic animals, and have left little to 
be desired in that branch of rural econo- 
my. — Among other works on agricul- 
ture, of distinguished merit, may be 
mentioned the Farmer's Letters, Tour 
in France, Annals of Agriculture, &c. 
&c, by the celebrated Arthur Young ; 
Marshall's numerous and excellent 
works, commencing, with Minutes of 
Agriculture, published in 1787, and 
ending with his Review of the Agricul- 
tural Reports in 1816; Practical Agri- 
culture, by Dr. R. W. Dickson, &c. &c. 
The writings of Kaimes, Anderson and 
Sinclair exhibit a union of philosophical 
sagacity and patient experiment, which 
have produced results of great import- 
ance to the British nation and to the 
world. To these we shall only add the 
name of John Loudon, F. L. S. H. S., 
whose elaborate Encyclopaedia of Gar- 
dening and Encyclopaedia of Agricul- 
ture have probably never been sur- 
passed by any similar works in any 
language. — The establishment of a 
national Board of Agriculture was of 
very great service to British husbandry. 
Hartlib, a century before, and Lord 
Kaimes, in his Gentleman Farmer, had 
pointed outthe utility of such an institu- 
tion, but it was left to Sir John Sinclair 
to carry their ideas into execution. To 



the indefatigable exertions of that wor- 
thy and eminent man the British public 
are indebted for an institution, whose 
services cannot be too highly appre- 
ciated. ' It made farmers, residing in 
different parts of the kingdom, acquaint- 
ed with one another, and caused arapid 
dissemination of knowledge amongst 
the whole profession. The art of agri- 
culture was brought into fashion, old 
practices were amended, new ones in- 
troduced, and a degree of exertion call- 
ed forth heretofore unexampled among 
agriculturists in this island.' " — Encyc. 
Am. 

AGRIMONfA. Agrimony. Nine 
species. Hardy. Division. Common 
soil. 

AGROMYZA viola. Pansy Fly. 
It attacks the flower by puncturing the 
petal, and extracting the juice; the 
puncture causes the colouring matter to 
fade. This very minute fly is shining 
black, bristly, eyes green, head orange. 
It appears in May and lives throughout 
the summer. Where it deposits its 
eggs is unknown. — Gard. Chron. 

AGROSTEMMA. Four species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division. Common 
soil. 

AILANTUS. Two species. Hardy 
deciduous trees. The glandulosa is o f 
rapid growth, and thrives admirably on 
light thin soils, where many forest trees 
do not succeed — it is objectionable by 
reason of suckering, and to many from 
the unpleasant odour of the flowers. 
Cuttings. Loamy peat. 

AIR. Atmospheric air is uniformly 
and universally composed of 
Oxygen .... 21 
Nitrogen ... 79 

Every 100 parts, even in the driest 
weather, containing, in solution, one 
part of Water; and every 1000 parts 
having admixed about one part of Car- 
bonic Acid. The average proportions 
are 

Air 98.9 

Watery Vapour . 1.0 
Carbonic Acid Gas 0.1 

All these are absolutely necessary to 
every plant to enable it to vegetate with 
all the vigour of which it is capable; and 
on its due state of moistness depends, in 
a great measure, the health of any plant 
requiring the protection of glass. See 
Leaves, Roots, Stove. 

AITONIA capensis. Green-house. 
Cuttings. Rich mould. 



A JU 



ALS 



AJUGA. Bugle. Eleven species. 
Hardy. Division or seed. Sandy peat 
or loam. 

AKEE-TREE. Blighia sapida. 

ALANGIUM. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

ALBUCA. Nineteen species. Green- 
house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

ALBURNUM. The soft white sub- 
stance which in trees is found between 
the liber or inner bark and the wood, 
and in progress of time acquiring solid- 
ity, becomes itself the wood. A new 
layer of wood, or rather of alburnum is 
added annually to the tree in every 
part, just under the bark. 

ALCHEMILLA. Ladies' Mnntle. 
Eleven species. Chiefly hardy. Seeds 
or division. Common soil. 

ALCOVE, is a seat in a recess, 
formed of stone, brick, or other dead 
material, and so constructed as to shel- 
ter the party seated from the north and 
other colder quarters, whilst it is open 
in front to the south. 

ALDER. Alnus. 

ALETRIS. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous plants. Offsets. Peat or 
leaf soil. 

ALEURITES. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loamy 
soil. 

ALEXANDRIAN LAUREL. Rus- 
cus Racemoms. 

ALHAGI. Manna. Two species. 
Green-house plants. Young cuttings or 
seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

"ALKALI, in chemistry; from the 
Arabian kali, the name of a plant from 
the ashes of which one species of alkali 
can be extracted. The true alkalies 
have been arranged by a modern che- 
mist in three classes: — 1, those which 
consist of a metallic basis, combined 
with oxygen ; these are three in num- 
ber — potash, soda and lithia; 2, that 
which contains no oxygen, viz., ammo- 
nia ; 3, those containing oxygen, hydro- 
gen and carbon ; in this class are placed 
aconita, atropia, brucia, cicuta, datura, 
delphia, hyoscyamia, morphia, strych- 
nia. And it is supposed that the vege- 
table alkalies may be found to be as nu- 
merous as the vegetable acids. The 
original distribution of alkaline sub- 
stances was into volatile and fixed, the 
volatile alkali being known under the 
name of ammonia; while, of the two 



fixed kinds, one was called potash or 
vegetable, because procured from the 
ashes ofvegetables generally; the other, 
soda or mineral, on account of its hav- 
ing been principally obtained from the 
incineration of marine plants." — Encyc. 
Am. The sulphate of ammonia has 
been used with success as a stimulant to 
vegetable growth — and is now prepared 
and sold by chemists for that purpose. 

ALLAMANDA cathartica. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich 
loamy soil. 

ALLANTODIA. Five species. 
Green-house herbaceous plants. Di- 
vision. Loamy peat. 

ALLEYS are of two kinds. 1. The 
narrow walks which divide the com- 
partments of the kitchen garden ; and 
2. Narrow walks in shrubberies and 
pleasure-grounds, closely bounded and 
overshadowed by the shrubs and trees. 

ALLIONIA. Three species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Sandy peat or loam. 

ALLIUM. Garlic or onion tribe. 
126 species. Hardy bulbous plants. 
Offsets or seed. Common soil. 

ALLSEED. Polycarpon. 

ALLSPICE. Calycanthus. 

ALLSPICE-TREE. Pimenta. 

ALMOND. Amygdalus. 

ALNUS. Alder. Nineteen species. 
Hardy deciduous trees. Layers or 
seeds. Moist soil. 

ALOE. Forty-seven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Suckers. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

ALOMIA Ageratoides. Half-hardy 
dwarf evergreen plant. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

ALONSOA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs, except A. cau- 
lialata, which is half-hardy. Cuttings 
or seeds. Rich mould. 

ALOYSIA citriodora. Green-house 
deciduous shrub. Cuttings or seeds. 
Rich mould. 

ALPINIA. Twenty-five species. 
Stove herbaceous perennials. Division. 
Rich sandy soil. 

ALSINE. Chickweed. Six species. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

ALSODEIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

ALSTONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich light 
soil. 

ALSTRCEMERIA. Twenty-five spe- 
cies. The seeds should be sown im- 



AL 



27 



ALT 



mediately, in sandy loam and rotten 
dung, and kept in a green-house, as 
they will not require heat. When the 
plants are about an inch high, they may 
be potted singly into very small pots, 
and kept in a growing state till they 
have formed their tubers; if suffered to 
die down before that period, they will 
never shoot again, which is the cause of 
many persons losing them after they 
have got them up from seeds. A. acu- 
lifolia is hardy. The seeds are sown 
in heat in February or March, and the 
young plants make their appearance 
in about six weeks afterwards. When 
strong enough, they are potted singly in 
sixty-pots and shifted progressively into 
larger sizes, as they require more room ; 
and by autumn many of them are full 
four feet in height. These should be 
kept cool, and rather dry during winter, 
and then planted out against a wall, 
where they are finally to remain. The 
soil for potting them in is light sandy 
peat and loam : and when planted out 
they should be also placed in a light 
sandy soil, two feet deep, on a perfectly 
dry bottom. 

ALTERNANTHERA. Twelve spe- 
cies. Stove herbaceous ; except A. 
frutescens, which is a green-house ever- 
green. Cuttings. Light rich soil. 

ALTHAEA. Marsh mallow. Seven- 
teen species. Hardy plants. Division 
or seed. Common soil. 

ALTINGIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen trees. Cuttings and 
seeds. Deep loamy soil. 

ALTITUDE, or elevation above the 
sea, has a great influence over a plant's 
vegetation. The greater that altitude 
the greater the reduction of tempera- 
ture, so much so that every 600 feet of 
altitude are believed to reduce the an- 
nual temperature as much as receding 
a degree from the equator, either to the 
north or to the south. But this rule is 
far from universally applicable, for the 
limit of perpetual snow at the equator 
is at the height of 15,000 feet, whereas 
in the 35th degree of north latitude, the 
limit is at 11 ,000 feet, being an average. 
of about 120 feet of altitude for every 
degree of recession from the equator. 
In the 45th degree, the limit is 8,400 
feet, being an average of 146 feet for 
every degree ; in the 50th degree, 6,000 
feet, or ISO feet for each degree ; in the 
60th, 3,000 feet, or 200 feet for a de- 
gree ; and in the 70th, from 1,200 to 



2,000 feet, or about the same for each 
degree as to the 60th degree of latitude. 
Now I know of no reason why the tem- 
perature of elevations below the snow 
line should not follow the same gra- 
dations ; and if this be so, these may 
be taken as a rule. All plants growing 
above 7,000 feet under the equator, 
ought to grow in the open air, in the 
latitude of London. In general, the 
same vegetation is produced at the same 
distance from the snowline in the same 
latitudes; though, when a place is very 
near to the pole, a better vegetation is 
produced in a short period of summer 
than in places near the snow line under 
the equator, the plants in the former 
being there exposed to uninterrupted 
sunlight. 

" At the foot of Mount Ararat, Tour- 
nefoot met with plants peculiar to Ar- 
menia ; above these he met with plants 
which are found also in France ; at a 
still greater height he found himself 
surrounded with such as grow in Swe- 
den, and at the summit, with such as 
vegetate in the polar regions. Baron 
Humboldt, in his Personal Narrative, 
gives us a similar account of the several 
zones of vegetation existing in a height 
of 3,730 yards on the ascent of Mount 
Teneriffe. The first zone is the region 
of vines, extending from the shores of 
the ocean to a height of from 400 to 
600 yards, well cultivated, and produc- 
ing date trees, plantains, olives, vines, 
and wheat. The second zone is the 
region of laurels, extending from about 
600 to 1,800 yards, producing many 
plants with showy flowers, and moss 
and grass beneath. The third zone is 
the region of pines, commencing at 
1,920 yards, and having a breadth of 
850 yards. The fourth zone is the re- 
gion of Retama, or broom, growing to 
a height of nine or ten feet, and fed on 
by wild goats. The last zone is the re- 
gion of grasses, scantily covering the 
heaps of lava, with cryptogamic plants 
intermixed, and the summit ofthe moun- 
tain bare." — Farmer's Encyclop. 

" Of perfect plants, the Daphne Cne- 
orum seems in Europe to hold the most 
elevated station, since, on Mont Blanc, 
it stands at 10,680 feet, and on Mont 
Perdu at 9,036 feet high. The growth 
of woody plant's ceases on the Alps of 
central Europe at the height of 5,000 
feet ; and on theRiesengebirge at 3,800* 
Oats grow on the southern Alps at 



AL Y 



28 



AMB 



3,300, and on the northern, scarcely at 
1,800 feet. The fir grows on Sulitel- 
ma, in Lapland (6S degrees north lati- 
tude), scarcely at the height of 1,200 
feet. On the other hand, upon the Alps 
which divide Italy from France and 
Switzerland, oaks and birches grow at 
3,600; firs at 4,800; and the same 
plants grow on the Pyrenees above the 
height of 600 feet. In Mexico, the 
mountain chains, and in particular the 
Nevado of Toluca, are covered, above 
12,000 feet high, with the occidental 
pine (Pinus occidentalis), and above 
9,000 feet, with the Mexican oak (Quer- 
cus Mexicana spicata), as also with the 
alder, of Jorullo (Alnus Jorullensis). 
On the Andes, palms grow at the height 



mental plunged at the side of a warm 
sandy pond, forming a good contrast 
with Crinum, capense, Nymphcea alba, 
&c. About October they are removed 
into winter quarters, increase pretty 
fast by offsets, taken off and fresh potted 
in April, and treated as theparent bulbs, 
which should at that time have their 
decayed outer skin removed." — Gard. 
Chron. 

AMBURY is a disease peculiar to the 
Brassica tribe, and is known by the 
various names of Hanbury, Anbury, and 
Club Root. Fingers and Toes, a name 
applied to it in some parts, alludes to 
the swollen state of the small roots' of 
the affected plants. 

Cabbage plants are frequently in- 



of 3,000 feet. The woody ferns (Cya- fected with ambury in the seed-bed, 

thea speciosa, Meniscium arborescens, 

Aspidium rostratum) are found as high 

as 6,600 feet; as are also the pepper 

species, Melastomece, Cinchonas, Dor- 

steniae; and some Scitaminese rise to 

the same elevation. At the height of 

14,760 feet, we still find the wax palms, 

some Cinchonas, Winters, Escallomas, 

Espelettise, Culcitia, Joanneae, Vallea 

stipularis, Bolax aretioides, and some 

others." — Be Candolle's Philos. of 

Plants. 

ALYSICARPUS. Two species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Seeds, and root 
division. Rich light soil. 

ALYSSUM. Twenty-one species. 
All hardy plants. Seeds, cuttings, and 
division. Common soil. 

ALYXIA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

ALZATEA verticillata. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Root cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

AMARANTHUS. Eighteen species. 
Hardy annuals. Seed. Rich garden 
soil. 

AMARYLLIS. Seventy-six species, 
and many varieties. A. aulica and bel- 
ladonna are hardy ; the others, a few 
green-house, but mostly hot-house bulbs. 

A (Vallota) purpurea. " Pot in good- 
sized pots, in a mixture of loam, sandy 
peat, and leafmould, being merely 
kept in a green-house, with but little 
water through the winter, and about 
May set in the open air inpans of water, 
under a south wall, where about June 
or July they throw up their splendid 
scarlet flowers, which last fully a week 
or more. They would be very orna- 



and this incipient infection appears in 
the form of a gall or wart upon the 
stem immediately in the vicinity of the 
roots. If this wart is opened, it will 
be found to contain a small white mag- 
got, the larva of a little insect called 
the weevil. If, the gall and its tenant 
being removed, the plant is placed 
again in the earth, where it is to re- 
main, unless it is again attacked, the 
wound usually heals, and the growth is 
little retarded. On the other hand, if 
the gall is left undisturbed, the maggot 
continues to feed upon the alburnum, 
or young woody part of the stem, until 
the period arrives for its passing into the 
other insect form, previously to which it 
gnaws its way out through the exterior 
bark. The disease is now almost be- 
yond the power of remedies. The gall, 
increased in size, encircles the whole 
stem ; the alburnum being so exten- 
sively destroyed, prevents the sap as- 
cending, consequently, in dry weather, 
sufficient moisture is not supplied from 
the roots to counterbalance the transpi- 
ration of the leaves, and the diseased 
plant is very discernible among its 
healthy companions by its pallid hue 
and flagging foliage. The disease now 
makes rapid progress, the swelling con- 
tinues to increase, for the vessels of 
the alburnum and the bark continue to 
afford their juices faster than they can 
be conveyed away; moisture and air 
are admitted to the interior of the ex- 
crescence, through the perforation made 
by the maggot; the wounded vessels 
ulcerate, putrefaction supervenes, and 
death concludes the stinted existence 
of the miserable plant. The tumour 



AMB 



AMB 



usually attains the size of a large hen's 
egg, has a rugged, ichorous, and even 
mouldy surface, smelling strong and of- 
fensively. The fibrous roots, besides 
being generally thickened, are distorted 
and monstrous from swellings, which 
appear throughout their length, appa- 
rently arising from an effort of nature to 
form receptacles for the sap, deprived 
as it is of its natural spissation in the 
leaves. These swellings do not seem 
to arise immediately from the attacks 
of the weevil, for I have never observ- 
ed them containing its larva. 

Mr. Marshall very correctly describes 
the form which this disease assumes 
when it attacks the turnip. It is a large 
excrescence appearing below the bulb, 
growing to the size of both hands, and, 
as soon as the hard weather sets in, or 
it is, by its own nature, brought to ma- 
turity, becoming putrid and smelling 
very offensively. 

These distortions manifest themselves 
very early in the turnip's growth, even 
before the rough leaf is much developed . 
Observation seems to have ascertained, 
that if the bulbs have attained the size of 
a walnut unaffected, they do not subse- 
quently become diseased. The maggot 
found in the turnip ambury is the larva 
of a weevil called Curculiopleurostigma. 
" I have bred this species of weevil," 
says Mr. Kirby, " from the knob-like 
galls on turnips called the ambury, and 
I have little doubt that the same in- 
sects, or a species allied to them, cause 
the clubbing of the roots of cabbages." 

Marsham describes the parent as a 
coleopterous insect of a dusky black 
colour, with the breast spotted with 
white, and the length of the body one 
line and two-thirds. The general ex- 
perience of all the farmers and garden- 
ers with whom I have conversed upon 
the subject, testifies that the ambury 
of the turnip and cabbage usually at- 
tacks these crops when grown for suc- 
cessive years on the same soil. This 
is precisely what might be expected, 
for where the parent insect always de- 
posits her eggs, some of these embryo 
ravagers are to be expected. That they 
never attack the plants upon a fresh 
site is not asserted ; Mr. Marshall's 
statement is evidence to the contrary ; 
but it is advanced that the obnoxious 
weevil is most frequently to be observed 
in soils where the turnip or cabbage has 
recently and repeatedly been cultivated. 



Another general result of experience 
is, that the ambury is most frequently 
observed in dry seasons. This is also 
what might be anticipated, for insects 
that inhabit the earth just beneath 
its surface, are always restricted and 
checked in their movements by its 
abounding in moisture. Moreover, the 
plants actually affected by the ambury, 
are more able to contend against the in- 
jury inflicted by the larva of the weevil, 
by the same copious supply. 

In wet seasons, I have, in a very few 
instances, known an infected cabbage 
plant produce fresh healthy roots above 
the swelling of the ambury. Mr. Smith, 
gardener .to M. Bell, Esq., of Woolsing- 
ton, in Northumberland, expresses his 
conviction, after 'Several years' expe- 
rience, that charcoal-dust spread about 
half an inch deep upon the surface, 
and just mixed with it by the point of a 
spade, effectually prevents the occur- 
rence of this disease. That this would 
be the case we might have surmised 
from analogy, for charcoal-dust is offen- 
sive to many insects, and is one of the 
most powerful preventives of putrefac- 
tion known. Soot, I have reason to 
believe, from a slight experience, is 
as effectual as charcoal-dust. Judging 
from theoretical reasons, we might con- 
clude that it would be more specifical ; 
for, in addition to its being, like char- 
coal, finely divided carbon, it contains 
sulphur, to which insects also have an 
antipathy. 

I have a strong opinion that a slight 
dressing of the surface soil with a little 
of the dry hydro-sulphuret of lime, that 
may now be obtained so readily from 
the gas-works, would prevent the oc- 
currence of the disease by driving the 
weevils from the soil. It would proba- 
bly as effectually banish the turnip fly or 
flea, if sprinkled over the surface im- 
mediately after the seed is sown. I 
entertain this opinion of its efficacy in 
preventing the occurrence of the am- 
bury, from an instance when it was ap- 
plied to some brocoli,ignorantly endea- 
voured to be produced in successive 
crops on the same plot. These had in- 
variably failed from the occurrence of 
the ambury, but the brocoli was now 
uninfected. The only cause for this 
escape that I could trace was, that, just 
previously to planting, a little of the 
hydro-sulphuret of lime had been dug 
in. This is a very fetid powerful com- 



AMB 



AME 



pound. Where dry lime purifiers are 
employed at gas works, it may be ob- 
tained in the state of a dry powder, but 
where a liquid mixture of lime and wa- 
ter is employed, the hydro-sulphuret 
can only be had in the form of a thick 
cream. Of the dry hydro-sulphuret I 
would recommend eight bushels per 
acre to be spread regularly by hand up- 
on the surface after the turnip seed is 
sown, and before harrowing. If the 
liquid is employed, I would recommend 
thirty gallons of it to be mixed with a 
sufficient quantity of earth or ashes, to 
enable it to be spread over an acre in 
a similar manner. For cabbages, twelve 
bushels, or forty-five gallons per acre, 
would not probably be too much, spread 
upon the surface and Turned in with the 
spade or last ploughing. To effect the 
banishment of the turnip-flea I should 
like a trial to be made of six or eight 
bushels of the dry, or from twenty-two 
to twenty-eight gallons of the liquid, 
hydro-sulphuret being spread over the 
surface immediately after the sowing, 
harrowing, and rolling are finished. 
Although I specify these quantities as 
those I calculate most correct, yet in 
all experiments it is best to try various 
proportions. Three or four bushels 
may be found sufficient, perhaps twelve, 
or even twenty, may not be too much. 
In cabbages the ambury may usually be 
avoided by frequent transplantings, for 
this enables the workman to remove 
the excrescences upon their first appear- 
ance, and renders the plants altogether 
more robust and ligneous; the plant in 
its tender sappy stage of growth being 
most open to the insect's attacks. The 
warts or galls that so frequently may be 
noticed on the bulbs of turnips, must 
not be mistaken for the ambury in a 
mitigated form. If these are opened, 
they will usually be found to contain a 
yellowish maggot, the larva probably 
of some species of cynips. This insect 
deposits its eggs in the turnip when of 
larger growth than that at which it is 
attacked by the weevil, and the vegeta- 
ble consequently suffers less from the 
injury.; but from some slight observa- 
tions, I am inclined to conclude, that 
the turnips thus infested suffer most 
from the frosts of winter, and are the 
earliest in decay. — Johnson's Principles 
of Gardening. 

The Ambury occasionally exhibits it- 
self around Philadelphia, principally in 



small gardens, where the same crop is 
too frequently repeated : also in market 
gardens. In the latter case it may be 
attributable to the putrid manure used 
to produce excessive luxuriance. Lime, 
change of manure, rotation of crops, but 
above all deep tillage, bringing the 
subsoil to the surface, are the remedies 
adopted. 

AMELANCHIER. Four species. 
Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers. 
Common moist soil. 

AMELLUS. Three species. A. 
LyrJmitis, green-house evergreen ; 
others hardy and deciduous. Cuttings. 
Loam. 

AMERICAN ALOE. Agave Ameri- 
cana. 

AMERICAN COWSLIP. Dodeca- 
theon. 

AMERICAN BLIGHT, (Aphis la- 
nigera — Eriosoma lanigera.) The cot- 
tony matter in the cracks and excres- 
cences of apple tree branches in the 
spring envelops an insect known by 
the above names, and which, when 
crushed, exudes a reddish fluid. These 
insects are injurious by piercing the sap 
vessels with their probosces, sucking 
the juice of the tree, and causing 
wounds which ulcerate and finally de- 
stroy the branch attacked by corroding 
through all the sap vessels. The cot- 
tony matter is abundant, and, wafted to 
other trees, probably conveys to them 
infection, by bearing with it the eggs 
or embryo insect. But this is not the 
exclusive mode of diffusing the disease, 
for although the females are usually 
wingless, yet, like many other insects, 
some are probably produced with wings 
at the season propitious to coloniza- 
tion. The males are uniformly winged. 
In the winter these insects retire under 
ground, and prey upon the roots of the 
apple tree. A tree thus ravaged at all 
seasons will soon be killed, if prompt 
and vigorous remedies are not adopted. 
The affected roots may be bared and 
left exposed for a few days to the cold, 
and the earth, before being returned, 
be saturated with ammoniacal liquor 
from the gas works. In early March 
the branches should be scraped, and 
scrubbed with the same ammoniacal 
liquid, or a strong brine of common salt; 
but whatever liquid is employed, the 
scraping and hard bristles of the brush 
should penetrate every crack in the 



AME 



bark. This treatment, repeated and 
persevered in so long as the least ap- 
pearance of the insect is observed, 
never fails of a cure. Linseed or rape 
oil or spirit of tar applied to the infected 
part, and repeated a second or third 
time with a brush, are also effective 
remedies. They suffocate the insects. 
Strong pyroligneous acid applied in the 
same mode is also said to destroy this 
as well as the scale insect. The codlin 
and June eating, are particularly liable to 
be infected ; but I never observed it upon 
any of the russet apples: and theCrofton 
pippin is also said to be exempted. 

AMERICAN CRANBERRY, (Oxy- 
coccus macrocarpa.) 

Soil. — A light soil, well incorporated 
with peat, and occasionally manured 
with rotten leaves. 

Situation. — It requires a constant 
supply of water, and on a south bank 
where this supply can be obtained, it 
may be planted in rows four feet apart 
each way, and the water made to circu- 
late in a small ditch between the rows. 
But the edge of a pond will suit it al- 
most as well. 

After -culture. — The shrubs require 
no other attention than to be kept free 
fi-om weeds. 

Produce. — This is so abundant that a 
bed six yards long is sufficient for the 
largest family. 

AMERICAN CRESS, (Barbarea pre- 
cox.) 

Soil and Situation. — For the win- 
ter standing crops, a light, dry soil, in 
an open but warm situation, should be 
allotted to it; and for the summer, a 
rather moister and shady border is to 
be preferred. In neither instance is it 
required to be rich. 

Time and mode of sowing. — It is pro- 
pagated by seed, which must be sown 
every six weeks from March to August 
for summer and autumn, but only one 
sowing is necessary either at the end of 
August or beginning of September, for 
a supply during winter and spring. It 
may be sown broadcast, but the most 
preferable mode is in drills nine inches 
apart. Water may be given occasion- 
ally during dry weather, both before 
and after the appearance of the plants. 
If raised from broadcast sowings, the 
plants are thinned to six inches apart: 
if in drills, only to three. In winter 
they require the shelter of a little lit- 
ter, or other light covering ; and to pre- 



AMH 

vent them being injured by its pressure, 
some twigs may be bent over the bed, 
or some light bushy branches laid among 
them, which will support it. The only 
cultivation they require is to be kept 
clear of weeds. 

In gathering, the outside leaves only 
should be stripped off, which enables 
successive crops to become rapidly fit 
for use. 

When the plants begin to run, their 
centres must be cut away, which causes 
them to shoot afresh. 

To obtain Seed. — For the production 
of seed, a few of the strongest plants, 
raised from the first spring sowing, are 
left ungathered from. They flower in 
June or July, and perfect their seed be- 
fore the commencement of autumn. 

AMERICAN PLANTS. In England 
and the European continental gardens, 
apartments are allotted to collections 
ofour native plants, and usually denomi- 
nated the American department. It is 
somewhat amusing to read the direc- 
tions laid down as to its soil, situation, 
&c, as if our country, which presents 
the greatest diversity of soil, climate 
and altitude, with corresponding vege- 
table productions, some delighting in 
the swamp, others in the mountain, 
some sustaining the frosts of high north- 
ern latitudes, others luxuriating in the 
sunny south, each choosing for itself 
its own peculiar soil — were as bounded 
and contracted as the British Isle. We 
annex a specimen. " American Plants. 
These comprise many very different 
species, which, resembling each other 
in requiring a peaty soil and abundance 
of water, are usually cultivated in a 
separate department, where the garden 
establishment is extensive; and, wher- 
ever grown, should have a compart- 
ment to themselves, a very acutely 
sloping bank, facing the north or east; 
and some of them, as the Rhododendron, 
Andromeda, and Azalea, do not object 
to being overshadowed by trees. The 
soil, as already stated, must be peat; 
and the best annual dressings that can 
be applied are such matters as decayed 
leaves, and the bottom of old wood 
stacks ; or any other mixture of de- 
cayed woody fibre." 

AMERIMNUM. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam. 

AMETHYSTIA ccerulea. Hardy an- 
nual. Seed. Peat. 

AMHERSTIA nobilis. Stove ever- 



A Mil 



32 



ANE 



green. A most lovely tree. Cuttings. 
Rich clayey loam. 

A MIC I A zigomeris. Stove ever- 
green climber. Cuttings. Loan}. 

AMIROLA nitida. Stove: evergreen 
tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

AMMONIUM. Two species. Half- 
hardy herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat and 
sand. 

AMMOCNARIS. Brunsvigia. 

AMMYR8INE. Two species. Hardy 
evergreen shrubs. Layers. Sand and 
peat. 

AMOMUM. Thirteen species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
rich hoi!. 

AMORPHA. Eleven species. Chiefly 
hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers and 
cuttings. Common light soil. 

AMPELOPSIS. Four species. Hardy 
deciduotls climbers, except A. bipin- 
natct, which is B shrub. Layers or cut- 
tings. Common soil. 

AMPELYGONUM chinense. Green- 
house herbaceous. Seed. Sand, loam, 
and peat. 

AMPHEREPHI8. Three species. 
Hardy annuals. Send. Common soil. 

AMP11 [CARP A* Two species. 
Hardy deciduous twiners. Seed or cut- 
tings. Loam, peat and sand. 

AMPHICOME arguta. Half-hardy 
evergreen. Seeds or cuttings. Loam, 
sand, and peat. Suited lor rock-work. 

AMPIHLOIMUM paniculatum. Stove 
evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat.. 

AMSONIA. Three species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Cuttings or division. 
Common soil. 

AMYGDALUS. Almond. Six spe- 
cies, and many varieties. Seed and 
grafts. Rich loam. For culture, see 
Peach. 

AMY HIS. Ten species. Stove ever- 
green trees. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

ANACAMPSEROS. Ten species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Suck- 
ers. Common li^ht, soil. 

ANACARDIUM. Two species. 

Stove, evergreen trees. Cuttings. Light 
loam. 

ANACYCLUS. Three species. 
Hardy annuals. Seed, Common sod. 

AN A I) EN I A pulchella. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

ANAGALLIS. Pimpernel. Ten 
species. Some are hardy annuals — 
seed ; others green-house biennials ; 



these and the perennial species are 
propagated by cuttings. Common light 
soil suits all. 

ANAGYRIS. Three species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or 
seed. Rich light soil. 

ANANASSA. Pine Apple. Four 
species and many varieties. See Pine- 
Applb. 

ANANTHERIX viridis. Hardy pe- 
rennial. Seed or division. Light rich 
soil. 

ANARRHINUM. Three species. 
Hardy biennials. Seed. Common soil. 

ANASTATICA hierochuntina. Rose 
of Jericho. Hall-hardy annual. Seed. 
Common soil. 

ANCHIETEA pyrifolia. Stove ever- 
green climber. Peat and loam. 

ANCHOVY-PEAR. Grias cavlijlora. 

ANCHUSA. Twenty-seven species. 
All hardy but A. capensis. This re- 
quires to he raised in a frame ; the 
others may be sown in open borders. 

ANDFRSONJA sprengeloid.es. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. 

ANDIRA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

ANDROCYMBIUM. Three species. 
Green-house bulbs. Offsets. Peat and 
sandy loam. 

ANDROMEDA. Twenty-nine spe- 
cies and many varieties Mostly hardy 
evergreens. A. buxifolia, fasciculata, 
jamaicensis, and rubiginosa are stove 
evergreens. A. hypnoides, jnponica, 
oval if oli a, sinensis, and tetragona are 
half-hardy. The United States has 
contributed the larger portion of this 
interesting genus. Seed. Peat. 

ANDROSACE. Eighteen species. 
Mostly hardy. Seed or division. Peat 
and turfy loam. 

ANDRYAI.A. Nine species. Some 
hardy, others green-house plants. Seed 
and division. Common soil. 

ANEILEMA. Eleven species. Stove 
and green-house. Division or seed. 
Peal and sandy loam. 

ANEMIA. Eleven species. Stove 
ferns. Division and seed. Light loam. 

ANEMONE. Wind- (lower. Forty- 
seven species ; numerous varieties. 
Some hardy herbaceous, others hardy 
tuberous ; A. vitifolia'lB half-hardy, and 
A. capensis green-house. A. thalic- 
Iro/i/fs fipre plena is a very beautiful and 
chaste (lower, an artificial product from 



ANE 



33 



ANE 



a well known American species. Divi- 
sion, offsets, or seeds. Light loam. 

The anemone, the florist's flower of 
our gardens, is the offspring of the A. 
coronaria (poppy anemone), and A.hor- 
tensis (star-leaved anemone). Sprung 
from these there are now about eighty 
varieties in our catalogues. A variety 
lasts about twelve years. The follow- 
ing is a good selection. 



Agnita. 
Belle Hortense. 
Bellona. 

Couleur de Sang. 
Court de France. 
Cramoisie Superbe 
Grand Duke. 
High Admirable. 
Imperatrice. 
Incomparable A- 

zure. 
Olyinpia. 
Regina Augusta, 



Regina Rubrorum. 
Heine Caudale. 

des Fleurs. 

- of Anemones. 

Remarkable. 

Rosalia. 

Rose Agreeable. 

Jolie. 

Mernette. 

Parfaite. 

■ Surpassante. 
Superbe Royale. 
Triu mphante. 



Characteristics of a good anemone. — 
The stem should be strong, elastic, and 
erect, not Jess than nine inches high. 
The blossom or corolla should be at 
least two inches and a half in diameter, 
consisting of an exterior row of large 
substantial well-rounded petals or 
guard-leaves, at first horizontally ex- 
tended, and then turning a little up- 
wards, so as to form a broad shallow 
cup, the interior part of which should 
contain a great number of long small 
petals imbricating each other, and 
rather reverting from the centre of the 
blossom : there are a great number of 
small slender stamens intermixed with 
these petals, but they arc short and not 
easily discernible. The colour should 
be clear and distinct when diversified 
in the same flower, or brilliant and 
striking if it consists only of one colour, 
as blue, crimson, or scarlet, &c, in 
which case the bottom of the broad ex- 
terior petals is generally white; but the 
beauty and contrast are considerably in- 
creased when both the exterior petals 
are regularly marked with alternate 
blue and white, or pink and white, &c, 
stripes, which, in the broad petals, 
should not extend quite to the margin. 

Propagation. — All the varieties are 
propagated by offsets from the root, 
and new varieties are obtained from 
seed. 

By offsets all the kinds increase ex- 
ceedingly every year, so the roots ot 
all the host kinds should be taken up 
3 



annually at the decay of the leaf, and 
the root may be divided or broken into 
as many pieces or knobs as are furnished 
with an eye or bud, observing, how- 
ever, that if they are divided very 
small, they flower very weak the first 
year ; therefore, if you would have 
strong flowers from the main root, only 
break off' those small ones that are 
slightly affixed thereto, but they should 
not be thus divided until autumn, or 
near the time for planting them again. 

The time for taking up the roots is in 
May and June, when the leaf and stalk 
are withered, for then the roots cease 
to grow for a month or six weeks; but 
if they arc permitted to stand to put 
forth fresh fibres again, they should not 
be removed that season. 

They should be taken up in dry 
weather, and spread in an airy place 
out of the sun for about a week, then 
cleared from earth and put up in bags 
or boxes till the planting season arrive. 

The seed should be sowed from the 
best single or semi-double flowers; the 
full doubles afford none. 

The time to sow it is March, either 
in boxes, large pots, or pans, of light 
compost, or in a bed of such earth ; sow 
it moderately thick, and cover it near a 
quarter of an inch deep with sifted 
mould. From this time occasional shade 
and moderate waterings in dry weather 
are necessary, and in six weeks the 
plants will appear. Keep them clear 
from weeds, and when the leaves decay, 
sift a quarter of an inch of earth over 
the bed, which is all that is necessary 
till the second summer, when they are 
to be taken up at the decay of the leaf, 
and managed as the old roots in the 
manner already directed. 

Time for planting. — The best time to 
plant the principal sorts for the general 
bloom is October, or early in. Novem- 
ber, and the plants will come into flower 
in April and beginning of May ; but if 
some are planted in the middle of Sep- 
tember, and a second parcel towards 
the middle or latter end of October, 
they will afford a succession of bloom 
from the beginning of April until the 
middle of May ; and if a third plantation 
is made in February or beginning of 
March, they will come into flower about 
the middle of May, and continue until 
the middle of .lime. 

Those planted early in autumn come 
up before Christmas, and always pro- 



ANE 



34 



ANG 



duce the largest flowers, and continue 
in beauty ; the roots too afford a larger 
increase than those planted in spring. 

Soil and site. — The situation proper 
for the anemone should be thoroughly 
drained, and open to the south, and un- 
incumbered by the shade of trees. The 
anemone 'will prosper and flower in 
tolerable perfection in any common 
moderately light earth, only observing 
to avoid planting in overmoist and stiff 
soils, which rot the roots in winter ; 
and if any addition is necessary to raise 
or form the beds, no more is needful 
than common light soil from the quar- 
ters of the kitchen garden, or any other 
well-wrought garden earth, working 
the whole one good spade deep. The 



row, and two inches deep, and when 
one bed is planted, run over it lightly 
with the rake. 

Those of the autumn plantation will 
come up in leaf in November, but as the 
plants are hardy, nothing is needful to 
be done till the bloom begins to ap- 
pear; and then, if you think proper to 
bestow a little care upon the superior 
sorts, by arching the beds with hoops, in 
order to cover the bloom with mats 
occasionally, to protect it from cutting 
black frosts, which often prevail in 
April. 

Protection. — An easy way of protect- 
ing Anemones and Ranunculuses is to 
bend across the beds wooden or iron 
hoops, securely fixed in the ground; 



beds, however, are often formed of upon these mats can be thrown in cases 



composts. Take maiden loam from the 
surface of a pasture, the top spit turf 
and all ; to every load of this add one 
of neats' dung, and half a load of sea 
or drift sand ; blend the whole together, 
and form it in a ridge, in which let it 
remain a year at least, turning it over 
once in two or three months. 

But in default of pasture earth, a good 
compost may be formed of common 
light garden soil and rotted neats' dung, 
adding to every load of the former half 
a load of the latter, and about a quarter 
of that of drift or sea sand; and of either 
of which composts the bed is to be form- 
ed, about twelve or fifteen inches in 
depth, and three feet and a half broad. 

Planting. — In the borders, plant them 
in patches three, four, or five roots to- 
gether, in a patch of five or six inches 
breadth, putting them two or three 
inches deep. 

Beds. — Mark out three feet and a half 
broad, the length according to the num- 
ber of plants, with alleys eighteen inches 
wide between bed and bed. The beds 
must be worked fifteen or eighteen 
inches deep; break the earth small, but 
do not sift it, observing that to prevent 
lodgment of wet, and to give the beds 
a good appearance, as well as to show 
the flowers to the best advantage, it is 
eligible to elevate them three inch 



above the common level or general sur- celery 



of frost or snow, but care must be taken 
that they are firmly secured to the hoops 
by pegs. — Gard. Chron. 

Forcing. — "Double Anemones may 
be potted in October, and the soil should 
be composed as follows: — One-half 
maiden loam, fresh from the pasture, 
with one-quarter well-rotted cow dung, 
and one-quarter fine sand (sea or river 
sand if possible). After potting, they 
may be placed in a cold frame or pit, 
and watered but sparingly until the fol- 
lowing spring, when they may be put 
into a warmer place. They will not 
stand much forcing by artificial means." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Mildew. — This disease first appears 
as pale spots on the under sides of the 
leaves. These spots gradually rise into 
tubercles, and a minute fungus bursts 
through, shedding its seed, and diffusing 
the disease. This parasitical fungus is 
JEcidium quadrifidum. Sea sand, or a 
little salt mixed with the compost of the 
bed, is a good preventive ; and a syring- 
ing with very diluted gas-water, is a 
good application after infection. 

ANETHUM. Four species. All 
hardy, including Fennel and Dill, 
which see. 

ANGELICA, (Angelica Archan- 
gefica.) Stalks cut in May, for candy- 
ing. Formerly blanched and eaten like 



face, but if there is danger of moisture 
standing in winter, double or treble that 
is a proper height, working the whole 
a little rounding and raking the surface 
smooth. 

In each bed plant six rows lengthwise, 
the roots at six inches distance in each 



Soil and Situation. — It may be grown 
in any soil and exposure, but best in 
moist situations, consequently the banks 
of ponds, ditches, &c, are usually allot- 
ted to it. 

Time of Sowing. — Sow soon after the 
seed is ripe, about September, being 



ANG 



ANI 



almost useless if preserved until the 
spring; if, however, neglected until that 
season, the earlier it is inserted the 
better. 

Mode of Cultivation. — Sow mode- 
rately thin, in drills a foot asunder, and 
half an inch deep. When arrived at a 
height of five or six inches, the plants 
must be thinned, and those removed 
transplanted, to a distance of at least 
two feet and a half from each other, 



carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, 
with a small addition of saline matters. 
The general consideration of Manures 
will be found under that title, and other 
relative information under the heads 
Dung and Vegetable Matters, and in 
this place I shall confine my attention to 
some of the most available of strictly 
animal matters. See also the article 
Bones. 

Blubber, or fat of the whale, contains 



either in a bed, or on the sides of ditches, train oil , composed of 



&c. Water in abundance must be given 
at the time of removal, as well as until I 
they are established ; but it is better 
to discontinue it during their further 



I. 



ith 



Carbon .... 6S.87 
Hydrogen . . . 16.10 
Oxygen .... 15.03 
a little animal skin and muscle. 



growth, unless the application is regular I Forty gallons of train oil, mixed with 



and frequent. In the May, or early 
June of the second year, they flower, 
when they must be cut down, which 
causes them to sprout again, and if this 
is carefully attended to, they will con- 
tinue for three or four years; but if per- 
mitted to run to seed, they perish soon 
after. 

Seed. — A little seed should be saved 
annually, as a resource in case of any 
accidental destruction of the crop. 

ANGELICA-TREE, Aralia spinosa. 

ANGEONIA salicariafolia. Stove 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Sandy rich loam. 

ANGIANTHUS aureus. Green-house 
herbaceous. Division. Loam and peat. I are ample 

ANGLE-SHADES MOTH. SeeP/io- 
logophora. 

ANGOPHORA. Two species. Green- 



120 bushels of screened soil, grew 
twenty-three tons of turnips per acre, 
on a soil where forty bushels of bone? 
broken small, and eighty bushels of 
burnt earth, produced only twenty-one 
tons. 

Fish generally, such as sprats, her- 
rings, pilchards, five-fingers, and shell- 
fish, owe their powerful fertilizing quali- 
ties not only to the oil they contain, but 
also to the phosphate of lime in their 
bones. From twenty-five to forty-five 
bushels per acre are the extreme quan- 
tities to be applied broad-cast, but if in 
j the drills, with the crop sixteen bushels 



They are beneficial to all 
the gardener's crops, but especially to 
asparagus, parsnips, carrots, beets, on- 
ions, and beans. Shell-fish should be 



house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat, broken before being applied. 



sand, and loam 

ANGR^CUM. Nine species. Stove 
epiphytes. Cuttings. Wood, or moss 
and potsherds, in baskets. 

ANGUILLARIA. Three species. 
Half-hardy herbaceous. Offsets. Sandy 
peat. 

ANGURIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Division. Loam 
and peat. 

ANIA bicornis. Stove epiphyte. Off- 
sets. Peat and potsherds. 

ANIGOZANTHOS. Three species. 
Green-house herbaceous. 
Sandy peat. 

ANIMAL MATTERS, without any 
exception, are beneficial as manures, for 
they all yield during putrefaction eases 
and soluble substances that are imbibed 
greedily by the roots of plants. That 
this is the case affords no cause for won- 
der, because animal matters and vege 



Blood is a very rich manure, and has 
been used with especial benefit to vines, 
and other fruit trees. The blood of the 
ox contains about eighty per cent, of 
water, and twenty per cent, solid mat- 
ter. The latter contains in 100 parts 
when dried, 

Carbon. . . . 51.950 
Hydrogen . . . 7.165 
Azote .... 17.172 
Oxygen. . . . 19.295 
Ashes .... 4.41S 
The ashes contain various salts, as 
Division, chloride of sodium, (common salt,) 
j phosphate of lime, with a little oxide of 
iron. Sugar-baker's skimmings owe 
their chief fertilizing qualities to the 
blood used in clarifying the sugar, and 
which is combined with vegetable albu- 
men and extractive. 

Woollen Rags, cut into very small 
pieces, are a good manure, decomposing 



table matters are alike compounded of, slowly, and benefiting the second as 



ANI 



36 



ANN 



much as the first crop. Hops and turnips | stove annual 
have been the crops to which they have | dry soil, 
been chiefly applied. Half a ton per 
Wool is corn- 



Division or seed. Light 



acre is a fair dressing 
posed of 

Carbon . . . 

Hydrogen . . 

Azote . . . 

Oxygen ) 
iur) 



50.653 
7.029 
17.710 

24.608 



Sulphi 
It leaves a very slight ash, containing 
minute quantities of muriate of potash, 
lime, and probably phosphate of lime. 
Feathers and hair closely resemble it in 
their components. Horns are composed 
of 

Carbon. . . . 51.578 
Hydrogen. . . 6.712 
Azote .... 17.284 



Oxygen ) 
iurj * 



. 24.426 
Sulphury 
besides minute proportions of sulphate, 
muriate and phosphate of potash, phos- 
phate of lime, and other less important 
matters. 

Shells. — Those of the following fish 
are thus composed: — 



Oyster . . 
Lobster . . 
Hen's Eggs 



Phosphate 
of Lime. 



1.2 

7.0 
5.7 



98.3 
63.0 

89.6 



0.5 

30.0 
4.7 



They have all been found good in a 

pounded form, as manures for turnips; 

and must be for all other plants, and on 

all soils where calcareous matters are 

deficient. For more extensive notices 

of these and similar manures, the reader I of autumn ^ , 

is referred to a useful work, recently practice of growing annuals and other 



ANISOPIA horticola, is a beetle which 
often attacks the rose flowers about 
June. Its maggots live under turf, and 
feed on its roots. 

ANNUALS, are plants which live but 
one year, and, consequently, require to 
be raised from seed annually. By a 
particular mode of culture some of them 
may be made to live longer. Thus 
mignonette will continue to bloom for 
two or more years if not allowed to 
ripen its seeds. 

Hardy Annuals are sown where they 
are to remain in the open borders, in 
March or April, as the latitude and 
temperature may make expedient, of 
which the cultivator can readily judge ; 
it is usually safe to sow them when the 
peach expands its blossoms. Whether 
sown in patches or broad masses, 
whether mixed or separate, must be left 
to the taste of the sower — guided by his 
knowledge of the colours of the flowers. 
These should be well contrasted. No 
one but an ignoramus would have many 
sorts of the same colour together. Every 
patch should be properly labelled, which 
is easily done by having some deal laths, 
one inch broad, planed smooth, cut into 
nine-inch lengths, and painted white. 
On these the names can be written with 
a lead pencil. 

Dr. Lindley truly observes, that "It 

is possible to maintain a garden in a 

state of the greatest beauty from the 

first visit of spring to the last fading ray 

sunshine, by the simple 



published in this country, "The Eco 
nomy of Waste Manures." 

ANLSACANTHA divaricata. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

ANISANTHUS. Three species, 
(ireen-house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy soil. 

ANISE, (Tragium anisum.) 'Half- 
hardy annual, used for garnishing or 
seasoning. Sow during April in pots 
plunged in a hotbed ; remove to a warm, 
light border in May. Thin the plants to 
six inches apart. The seed is ripe in 
August or September. It does not bear 
transplanting. 

ANISEED-TREE, lllicium anisatum. 

ANISOCHILUS carnosa. Stove her- 
baceous. Cuttings. Rich light soil. 

ANISOMELES. Four species. Three 



plants of a similar nature in pots. And 
for this purpose an ample variety may 
be had for three-pence a seed-paper, 
without having recourse 'to any means 
more costly. 

"Not that the common method of 
growing plants in pots will answer this 
end ; on the contrary, managed as they 
usually are, annuals, in pots, are the 
most miserable objects in the garden, 
for the pots become so dry, from the 
continual evaporation of water, through 
their porous sides, that the plants are 
literally starved. 

" The method to pursue in preparing 
pots for receiving annuals, is this : — in 
the first place, lay a crock over the hole 
in the bottom of the pot, then fill the 
pot to about one-third or one-half of its 



are stove evergreens, and A. ovata, a | depth with wet moss pressed very close, 



ANN 



and over that put rich light soil, in which 
the annual seeds are to be sown, or 
young plants are to be pricked out. The 
pot is then placed in a common pan, and 
the latter is filled with water in wet 
weather. The moss absorbs the water 
freely, and parts with it slowly ; at the 
same time it forms a mass of moist mate- 
rials, in which the roots of a plant will 
freely spread. By these simple means, 
the annuals are completely guarded 
from all the evils of dryness, and they 
grow with the same health, though not 
to the same size, perhaps, as if planted 
out in the open border. Such pots can 
be distributed over the garden, wher- 
ever a vacancy occurs, and will decorate 
the borders beneath trees and bushes, 
where no such plants will grow in the 
open ground itself. Their sidesj are 
rapidly covered with their own lower 
branches, or may be concealed by the 
foliage of each other: as soon as one is 
shabby, it is removed, and succeeded by 
another in full beauty ; and, by a little 
management, chiefly consisting in re- 
peated sowings at short intervals, no 
interruption to the succession of flowers 
need be experienced. Another advan- 
tage of this plan consists in the facility 
with which the arrangement of colours 
and grouping of individuals can be ef- 
fected and varied. 

" Bulbs may be treated in the same 
manner, and then will never be destroy- 
ed by the careless spade of the garden 
labourer. The only point to observe is, 
that each pot should rarely contain more 
than a single plant, unless in the case of 
species of very small size naturally, or 
of bulbous plants." — Gard. Chron. 

The following is a good selection, and 
may be obtained at most seed stores. It 
should, however, be observed , in justice 
to seedsmen, that as the seeds of many 
annuals are extremely minute and deli- 
cate, so is" the difficulty of causing them 
to vegetate increased, especially in sea- 
sons of too much or too little moisture, 
and due allowance should be made 
therefor. 

HARDY ANNUALS. 

Bartonia aurea. 
Calandrinia discolor. 

(Talinum) speciosa. 

Callichroa platyglossa. 
Campanula Lorei. 
Chrysanthemum carinatum. 
Clarkia pulchella. 



7 ANN 

Clintonia pulchella. 
Collinsia bicolor. 

grandiflora. 

Collomia coccinea. 

Convolvulus tricolor. 

Coreopsis (Calliopsis) atro purpurea. 

Emilia (Cacalia) coccinea. 

Erysimum Perofskianum. 

Eutoca viscida. 

Gilia tricolor. 

Godetia Lindleyana. 

((Enothera) rubicunda. 

tenuifolia. 

Hibiscus Africanus. 

Kaulfussia (Amellus) amelloides. 

Leptosiphon androsaceus. 

densiflorus. 

Lupinus Hartwegii. 

nanus. 

Malope grandiflora. 
Nemophila atomaria. 

■ insignia. 

Nolana atriplicifolia. 
(Enothera tetraptera. 
Phlox Drummondii. 
Platystemon californicum. 
Schizopetalum Walkeri. 
Sphenogyne speciosa. 
Viscaria (Agrostemma) cceli-rosa. 

HALF-HARDY ANNUALS 

Are sown in a gentle hot-bed early 
in April, or late in March, then to be 
transplanted into the borders, and at- 
tended like other annuals. These spe- 
cifications as to time, apply to the 
middle states, and may also serve to 
guide those north or south. The ten- 
der annuals may generally be planted 
out with safety, when the later sprout- 
ing forest trees put forth. 

Argemone grandiflora. 

Mexicana. 

Aster sinensis. 

Atropa physaloides. 

Bid ens heterophylla. 

Cacalia coccinea. 

Carthamus tinctorius. 

Centaurea Americana. 

Celsia orientalis. 

Chrysanthemum. 

Cistus niloticus. 

Coboea scandens (climber). 

Convolvulus discolor. 

michauxii. 



purpurea. 



Coreopsis (Calliopsis) Drummondii. 
Cucumis colocynthis. 

dudaim. 

flexuosus. 



ANN 



3S 



ANN 



Datura ceratocaulon. 

metel. 

Dianthus sinensis. 
Elichrysum macranthum. 
Fumaria vesicaria. 
Galinsogia parviflora. 

triloba. 

Gnaphalium fetidum. 

undulatum. 

Helianthus animus. 
Ipomasa coccinea. 

phoenicea. 

Loasa aurantiaca (climber). 
Lobelia azurea. 
Lopezia racemosa. 
Lophospermum scandens (climber). 
Mirabilis jalapa. 
lutea. 



longiflora. 



Momordica balsamina. 

luffa. 

Monopsis scintillaris. 
Nicotiana glutinosa. 

paniculata. 

tabac. 

Nolana prostrata. 

Pharbitis (IpomoEa) hispida (climber). 
Podolepis gracilis. 
Polygonum orientale. 
Ricinus communis. 

inermis. 

■■ viridis. 

Ricotia segyptiaca. 
Rudbeckia amplexifolia. 
Schizanthus pinnatus. 
Senecio elegans. 
Spilanthes acmella. 
Stevia pedata. 

serrata. 

Tagetes erecta. 
lucida. 

nana. 

patula. 

tenuifolia. 

Trichosanthes anguina. 

cucumeri. 

Tropoeolum atrosanguineum (climb- 
er). 

peregrinum (climber). 

Verbena Aubletia. 

Viscaria oculata. 
Xeranthemum lucidum. 
Ximensia encelioides. 
Zinnia coccinea. 
multiflora. 

lutea. 

pauciflora. 

revoluta. 

verticillata. 

violacea. 



TENDER ANNUALS. 

The following are rather more tender 
than those classed as half-hardy, but 
may be managed in the same manner. 

Achillea sgyptiaca. 

Agapanthus umb. maj. 

media. 

— minor. 

Amaranthus bicolor. 

cruentus. 

rubicaulis. 

tricolor. 

Amethystea crerulea. 
Antirrhinum molle. 
Brachycome iberifolia. 
Browallia demissa. 

elata coerulea. 

flo. albo. 

Buchnera capensis. 

fetid a. 

Calceolaria pinnata. 
Campannula capensis. 

debilis. 

mollis. 

Cardiospermum halicacabum. 
Cassia chamaechrista. 

tora. 

Celosia argentea. 

cernua. 

cristata rub. 

dwarf, red. 

tall, buff. 

dwarf. 

imperial red. 

purple. 

buff. 

■ varieg. 

Cleome pentaphylla. 

spinosa. 

viscosa. 

Clitoria brasiliana. 

ternata. 

flo. albo. 

Convolvulus pes caprae. 

nil. 

tridendatum. 

Crotalaria juncea. 

■ verrucosa. 

Datura fastuosa. 



flo. albo. 



Gnaphalium orientale. 
Gomphrena globosa. 

flo. albo. 

stri. 

Hedysarum gangeticum. 

■ vespertilio. 

Heliophila integrifolia. 
Heliotropium indicum. 
Impatiens balsamina. 
flesh col. dble. 



ANN 

Impatiens bizar, tall, dble. 

dwarf, dble. 

pur. stri., dble. 

scarl. stri., dble. 

Ipomcea Phoenicea. 

quamoelit. 

flo. albo. 

Linum flavum. 

suffruticosum. 

Lotus creticus. 
Lobelia gracilis. 

ramosa. 

Martynia fragrans. 

proboscidea. 

Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. 

glabrum. 

pinnatifidum. 

(tricolor) pyropoeum. 

Mimosa pudica. 

sensitiva. 

Ononis natrix. 



ANT 



crispa 



Pentapetes Phoenicea. 
Physalis prostrata. 
Portulaca splendens. 

Thellussoni. 

Rhodanthe Manglesii. 
Salpiglossis atropurpurea. 
Sedum caeruleum. 
Sida cordifolia. 

dilleniana. 

hastata. 

Solanum melongam 



fruct. purp. 



Sowerbia juncea. 

Statice mucronata. 

Thunbergia (alata) aurantiaca. 

albiflora. 

Trachymene (Didiscus) coerulea. 

Watsonia corymbosa. 

ANODONTIA. Four species. Hardy 
and half-hardy plants. Seeds, cuttings, 
or division. Common soil. 

ANGECTOCHILUS setaceus. Stove 
terrestrial orchidaceous plant. 

ANOMATHECA. Two species. 
Half-hardy bulbs. Seeds. Common 
light soil. 

ANON A. Custard apple. Seventeen 
species. Cuttings or seeds. Rich loam. 

ANT, (Formica.) To drive this in- 
sect away, sprinkle flowers of sulphur 
over its nests and haunts. To kill it, 
pour over the nest at night a strong de- 
coction of elder leaves. To trap it, 
smear the inside of a garden pot with 
honey, invert it over the nest, and when 
crowded with them, hold it over the 
steam of boiling water. They may be 
kept from ascending standard and espa 



lier trees, by tying a piece of wool round 
the stems and the supporters. 

ANTENNARIA. Eight species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous. A. hyperborea 
is an evergreen creeper. Cuttings or 
divisions. Light rich soil. 

ANTHEMIS. Forty-six species. All 
hardy except A. apifolia and punctata, 
which are green-house plants. Seed. 
Common soil. See Chamomile. 

ANTHERICUM. Twenty-six species. 
Green-house herbaceous, except J., scro- 
tinum and sulphureum, which are hardy. 
Cuttings or seed. Loam and sandy peat. 

ANTHOCERCIS. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cutr 
tings. Loam and peat. 

ANTHOCLEISTA macrophylla. 
Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

ANTHODON. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich loam 
and peat. 

ANTHOLOMA montana. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam and 
peat. 

ANTHOLYZA. Three species. 
Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Sandy south 
border. 

ANTHOMYIA, a genus of fly, very 
injurious to the gardener. 

A. brassica, cabbage fly, says Mr. 
Curtis, " is found on the wing through 
the summer, and is the parent of a mag- 
got which has been known to lay waste 
whole fields of cabbag%s by diseasing the 
roots, in which they feed, as well as at 
the base of the stalk. Successive gene- 
rations are feeding until November; the 
latter families lying in the pupa state 
through the winter, and most probably 
some of the flies survive that season, 
secreted in holes and crevices. 

" When the Cabbage-leaves assume a 
lead or yellow colour, and droop in mid- 
day from the effect of the sun, such 
plants being diseased should be taken 
up, carried away, and burnt, and brine 
or lime put into the holes. Gardeners, 
in some instances, have collected large 
quantities of the pupa? from the roots, 
by drawing away the earth; and as these 
insects are exceedingly rapid in their 
transformations, it is very likely that it 
may have a very material effect in check- 
ing their increase, and giving the suc- 
ceeding crop a better chance of escap- 
ing the fate of the preceding one. 

"The male of A. brassica is dark 
bright grey, with black bristles; there is 



ANT 



ANT 



a black stripe halfway down the middle ing towards the head, which is pointed, 
of the thorax, and a curved one on each j and armed with two short, black claws 
side ; the body has a more decided black at the nose. 



stripe down the centre-, and the seg- 



These maggots live in the involucra 



ments are marked by a line of the same of different varieties of Lettuce, feeding 
colour; legs and antennae blackish; wings upon the grains and receptacle; and 
a little smoky. The female is pale ashy | when these are consumed they wriggle 

themselves out backward, either to en- 
ter another seed-vessel or fall to the 



grey; the eyes remote, with a dark 
chestnut-coloured stripe on the crown; 
the wings are similar in tint to those of I ground and become pupa?. 



the foregoing species, but the insects are 
considerably smaller." — Gard. Chron. 

A. ceparum, Onion fly. For the fol- 
lowing particulars I am indebted to the 
work of M. Kollar. 

" The fly lays her eggs on the leaves 
of the onion, close to the earth. 

"The newly-hatched maggot bores 
through the first leaf and then descends 



When the seed-stems are gathered 
and dying, the larvae change to pupae, 
called shucks in Surrey, being bright 
chestnut-coloured, oval cases, which 
are rough when viewed under a lens, 
with two minute tubercles at the head, 
and two hooks and a few other tubercles 
at the tail. 

6 In the second week of May a few 



between the leaves into the onion to its i of the pupae hatch ; they have, however, 

been observed as early as April, and as 
late as July. The male is intense black, 
clothed with short hair and bristles; the 
eyes reddish-brown and meeting above; 
face inclining to chestnut colour, with a 
bright spot of the same on the crown ; 
the fore part of the trunk bears four 
v-arying whitish stripes ; the body is ashy 
grey, the segments blackish, at the base 
a deep black ; wings two, stained with 
black, and beautifully iridescent; the 
base and poisers ochreous, the nervures 
of the wings pitchy. 

' The female is entirely ashy grey, 



base, when it entirely destroys the bulb 
which soon becomes rotten. It leaves 
the onion to undergo its transformation 
in the earth, and becomes an elliptical, 
reddish-brown, wrinkled pupa, out of 
which the perfect fly is developed in 
summer in from ten to twenty days. 
The later brood pass the winter in the 
pupa state. 

" The perfect insect or fly is entirely 
of an ash grey colour in the female, or 
with black stripes on the back of the 
male; the wings clear like glass, with 
broad iridescent reflections, and vellow- 



ish-brown veins. It is found through- i and less bristly; the eyes not meeting 
out the summer in several generations, on the crown, with a bright chestnut- 
" The larva lives during that season coloured stripe between them; body 
singly, and also gregariously, on the dif- j oval, the apex cone-shaped; horns and 

legs blackish; wings and nervures lighter 
than in the male, which it equals in 
size." — Gard. Chron. 
ANTHONOMUS. 

A.pomorum, Apple weevil. Mr. Curtis 
of the lime from the dry purifiers of the : truly observes, that "this insect com- 
gas-works be dug in and a less quantity mits great devastation in apple orchards, 
raked in with the seed. This may now by destroying the stamens, pistil, and 
be obtained almost in every district of receptacle of the flower. As soon as 
Great Britain; but should it be neglected, j the blossom buds begin to swell, the fe- 
or not obtainable, soot applied in the j male beetle begins to deposit her eggs. 



ferent sorts ofleeksand onions, and does 
great damage among the white onions." 
The maggot is conical, white, and 
smooth. It will never make its appear- 
ance, if, at the time of sowing, a little 



same mode, with the addition of one or 
two plentiful waterings, during April 
and the present month, with strong 
soapsuds, will generally prevent the 
evil. — Johnson's Gard. Almanack. 

A. laetucce, Lettuce fly. Mr. Curtis 
says, " The larvae first make their ap- 



In calm weather she selects a good bud, 
and makes a hole in it with her pro- 
boscis ; she fixes herself at the hole, 
lays one egg, and goes on till she has 
deposited a considerable number of eggs 
in separate buds. 

" The bud continues to swell and the 



pearance in August, but they are abund- ' petals nearly expand, when suddenly 
ant in September ; they closely resemble the growth ceases and the petals wither 



those from the Cabbage and Turnip, 
being of a yellowish-white colour, taper- 



and assume a shrivelled appearance. If 
one of these flower buds be examined 



ANT 



41 



APH 



when nearly expanded, a small white 
grain with a black head will be found in 
the centre, which begins to assume a 
yellowish colour; a few days later the 
grub will be found either wholly or 
partially changed to a beetle, and should 
there be a small hole on the side of the 
receptacle the beetle will have escaped; 
the transformation from the egg to the 
perfect state not having occupied more 
than a month. When this beetle, which 
is dark brown with grey stripes, leaves 
the receptacle, it feeds during the sum- 
mer on the leaves of the trees, and is 
seldom to be seen. In the autumn, the 
weevils leave the trees and search for 
convenient hiding-places under stones 
about the trees, or under the rough bark, 
in which they pass the winter. 

"Consequently, as they commence 
their operations early in the spring, care 
should be taken to remove all stones, 
dead leaves, and other litter from under 
the trees, as well as to scrape off the 
rough dead bark from them in the winter 
season. 

" The apple weevil is also very in- 
jurious to pear trees." — Gard. Chron. 

ANTHOPHYUM lanceolatum. A 
stove fern. Seed. Light rich soil. 

ANTHOSPERMUM cethiopicum. 
Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

ANTHYLLIS. Twenty-two species. 
Hardy herbaceous and green-house ever- 
greens. Seeds or cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

ANTIDESMA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich loam. 

ANTIRRHINUM. Snap-dragon. 
Twelve species. Hardy herbaceous, 
except A. marina and molle, which are 
half-hardy evergreens. Cuttings or seeds. 
Common soil. 

ANTLER MOTH. Char anas. 

ANTWERP HOLLYHOCK. Althaea 
ficifolia. 

ANYCHIA dichotoma. Hardy bien- 
nial. Division and seed. Sand and 
loam. 

A T U S . Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and sandy peat. 

APEIBA. Four species. Stove ever- 
green trees. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

APHANANTHE celosioides. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

APHANOCHILUS incisus. Hardy 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Light soil. 



APHELANDRA cristata. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

APHELEXIS*. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
and sandy loam. 

APHIS, the Plant Louse, Puceron, or 
Vine fretter. This insect, so destructive 
from its multitude, attacks fruit trees, 
juicy kitchen vegetables, and other 
plants, weakening and rendering them 
incapable of development by sucking 
from them their juices. The exhaustion 
thus occasioned is sometimes so com- 
plete as to destroy the plant. Each 
vegetable subject to its ravages has its 
peculiar species. 

Aphis pyri mali is of a grass green 
colour, attacking the apple and pear. 

A. persica is dark green, and is pe- 
culiar to the peach and nectarine. 

A. pruni ravages the plum tribes, and 
is a very light green. 

A. roscB. Light green, found upon 
the rose genus. 

A.fabce, known popularly as the Black 
Dolphin and Elephant, is black, and at- 
tacks the common bean. 

The tops of beans attacked by the 
Black Dolphin should be forthwith re- 
moved ; and smaller plants may be sy- 
ringed with tobacco-water, or water in 
which elder leaves have been boiled ; 
which applications are all fatal to the 
aphis. 

A.pisi is green, and affects the pea. 

A. lonicera, Woodbine louse. Dingy 
green. 

A. cerasi, Morello cherry louse. Ap- 
pears black. Infests the under sides of 
the leaves, especially on wet soils. 

A. coryli, Nut louse. Pale green. 

A. Dahlia, Dahlia louse. Amber 
coloured. 

A. ribis, Red currant louse. Blackish. 

A. ligustri, Privet louse. Dark brown. 

A. ribis-nigri, Black currant louse. 
Transparent green. 

A- lathyri, Sweet pea louse. Dark 
purple. 

A. (Cinara) raphani, Radish louse. 
Females, green ; males, lightish red. 

The aphides on the peach appear the 
earliest, being, as are all the others, the 
produce of eggs deposited during the 
previous autumn. During the spring and 
summer they are viviparous, and breed 
with extraordinary rapidity. The gar- 
dener does well, therefore, to scrub the 
branches of his wall trees, and to boil 



APH 



42 



APP 



or change the shreds every winter, for 
he thus destroys the pest in embryo. So 
soon as they appear in spring, over each 
wall tree a mat should be fastened, and 
tobacco burnt beneath it. Peas, whilst 
the dew is upon them, may be dusted 
with Scotch snuff. Over the apple, plum, 
and other standards, the only available 
remedy is a repeated application of 
quicklime, at the same early period of 
the day, by the means of Curtis' Lime 
Duster. Most of these insects are readily 
destroyed by an application of diluted 
whale oil soap; it is probable a solution 
of common soft soap would be equally 
effective. The inexperienced operator 
should be careful lest he apply it in too 
powerful a state. 

The larvae of the Coccinella or Lady- 
bird, especially C. punctata, the Syrphus 
or bee-like fly, the Hemerobius or golden- 
eyed fly, the ant, some caterpillars, and 
many of the Ichneumonidce, are great 
destroyers of the Aphis, and should be 
encouraged rather than removed. See 
American Blight. 

APHYLLANTHES monspelien- 
sis. Half-hardy herbaceous. Division 
and seed. Sandy peat. 



APICRA. Twelve species. Green- 
house succulents. Suckers. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

APIOS tuberosa. Hardy tuber. Root. 
Sand and peat. 

APIUM. Six species. See Celery, 
Celeriac, and Parsley. 

APONOGETON. Four species. 
Stove or green-house aquatics. Offsets 
or seeds. Loam and peat in water. 

APPLE. (Pyrus malus.) 

Varieties. — There are 1,496 named 
varieties in the last edition of the 
London Horticultural Society's List of 
Fruits, of which they have 897 cultivat- 
ed in their gardens. It may readily be 
presumed that in such a multitude there 
are many of inferior quality: indeed it is 
not improbable there are some utterly 
unworthy of culture. The object in thus 
congregating them was praiseworthy — 
to determine their comparative value. 
The true policy is evidently to select 
from the mass those which, from some 
special quality, are most deserving of 
perpetuity. The following named va- 
rieties are believed to be eminently 
worthy of culture. We copy from the 
catalogue of D. Landreth and Fulton. 



Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — r red ; str striped; y yellow ; 
g green. Size — l large ; m medium ; s small. 



Those marked * are of American origin. 
Those marked t are celebrated for the table. 

SUMMER APPLES. 



NAME. 


CO- 
LOUR. 


FORM. 


1 

a 


H 
Of 

1 


SEAS ON. 


Red Astrachan . . . ■ . 


r 


roundish 


M 


July 


to Aug. 


*tBevan 








str r 


flat 


L 


1 


July 


Aug. 


English Codlin 








y 


'conical 


L 


1 


Aug. 


Sept. 


tEarly Queen 








r str 


roundish 


M 


1 


July 


Aug. 


*tEarly Harvest 








y 


roundish 


M 


1 


July 


Aug. 


Summer Queen 








str 


roundish" 


M 


1 


July 


Aug. 


*Lippincott 








r 


oblong 


M 


1 


July 


Aug. 


Siberian .Crab 








y 


conical 


S 


2 


Aug. 


Oct.'j 


Woolman's Harvest 








str 


roundish 


*M 


1 


Aug. 


Sept. 


*tSummer Pearmain 








r 


oblong 


L 


1 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Juneating Red - . 








y str 


ovate - 


M 


1 


July 


Aug. 


FALL AND WINTER APPLES. 




Alexander 


y str 


conical 


L 


1 


Oct. 


to Dec. 


tBaldwin 




. 


r 


roundish 


L 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


*tBellflower, Yellow 




. 


y 


conical 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Feb. 


*Carthouse 




, 


r 


flat 


M 


1 


Dec. 


Apl. 


Codlin Irish 








y 


conical 


L 


2 


Oct. 


Dec. 



APP 



APP 



NAME. 


CO- 
LOUR. 


FORM. 


h 

N 


>< 

H 

9 


SEASON. 


Codlin White 


y« 


conical 


L 


2 


Oct. 


to Dec. 


*Cumberland Spice 








y 


flat 


M 


1 


Nov. 


Feb. 


Doctor or Dewitt 








str 


roundish 


L 


2 


Oct. 


Jan. 


*tGreening, Rhode Islanc 








g 


roundish 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Feb. 


Ladies' Sweeting 








y r 


roundish 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Apl. 


Gates' Apple . 








y 


roundish 


M 


] 


Nov. 


Feb. 


*Grindstone 








str 


roundish 


L 


2 


Oct. 


June 


Gravenstien 








str 


roundish 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Hawthornden . 








y 


roundish 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Dec. 


Harrison 








y 


conical 


M 


2 


Nov. 


Apl. 


Lady Apple, pomme d' Ap 


'. 






y 


flat 


S 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


Tolman's Sweeting . 








y 


roundish 


M 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


Lady Finger 








r 


oblong 


M 


2 


Nov. 


Feb. 


*tMaiden's Blush . 








y r 


flat 


M 


1 


Sept. 


Nov. 


*Morgan 








r 


roundish 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Dec. 


*tNorthern Spy 








r 


conical 


L 


1 


Dec. 


April 


Pearmain, Blue winter 








r 


conical 


L 


1 


Nov. 


Jan. 


*Pennock's Red 








g 


roundish 


L 


2 


Nov. 


Mar. 


Pippin, Bullock 








y 


roundish 


S 


2 


Dec. 


Mar. 


" Golden 








y 


roundish 


S 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


" ^American . 








y 


roundish 


L 


1 


Dec. 


Mar. 


" *Michael Henry 








y 


oblong 


M 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


" Fall, or Holland 








y 


flat 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Jan. 


" Blenheim 








y 


roundish 


L 


2 


Nov. 


Jan. 


" Ribston 








y 


roundish 


M 


1 


Nov. 


Jan. 


«« *Hollow Core 








y 


roundish 


L 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


" *tGreen Newton 






g 


roundish 


M 


1 


Dec. 


April 


« *tYellow Newton 






y 


roundish 


M 


1 


Dec. 


April 


Priestley 






str 


oblong 


L 


1 


Dec. 


April 


Pound Apple 








g 


roundish 


L 


2 


Oct. 


Jan. 


*tPorter 








y 


oblong 


L 


1 


Sept. 


Nov. 


*tRoxbury Russet . 










roundish 


L 


1 


Dec. 


May 


Roman Stem . 








y 


round 


L 


1 


Oct. 


Jan. 


Rambo 








y 


flat 


M 


1 


Oct. 


Dec. 


*Seek-no-further, Red 








r 


round 


L 


1 


Nov. 


Apl. 


Newton Spitzenburg 








y r 


roundish 


M 


2 


Nov. 


Feb. 


*tSpitzenburg, Esopus 








str 


conical 


L 


1 


Nov. 


Apl. 


*tSpitzenburg, Kaighn's 








r 


round 


L 


1 


Nov. 


April 


Sweeting, Moore's 








y 


round 


L 


1 


Dec. 


Mar. 


*Swaar 








y 


roundish 


L 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


*tTewksbury Blush 








r 


round 


S 


1 


Jan. 


May 


*tVandervere 








y 


flat 


M 


1 


Oct. 


Feb. 


*Wine, or Hay's . . 








r 


round 


L 


1 


Nov. 


Mar. 


*Winesap 








r 


round 


M 


1 


Nov. 


Apl. 


*Winter Queen 








r 


conical 


L 


2 


Nov. 


Mar. 


Yorkshire Greening . 








g 


round 


L 


1 


Dec. 


Feb. 



The following outlines and descrip- 
tions of a few prominent varieties of 
apples, may be interesting to those who 
do not possess a more elaborate work, 
or one wholly devoted to Fruits, and are 
inserted with a desire to increase the 
popular character of the Dictionary, and 
render it of increased interest to the 
mass of readers. 



Summer Queen. Coxe. (Fig. 1.) 
This is quite a distinct variety from one 
long known around Philadelphia as the 
Early Queen. It is of full medium 
size, the outline in some specimens 
rather longer than broad, the blossom 
end occasionally quite pointed. Skin 
yellow, clouded and striped with red, 
so much so in some instances as to 



APP 



44 

— ♦- 



APP 



obscure the ground colour. Flesh yel- 
low, rich and aromatic. Stem long, 
deeply planted. Ripe in August, but 
fit for cooking in July. Coxe describes 
it as an apple of the finest quality^ and 



of uncommonly beautiful appearance. 
It is certainly a superior dessert fruit ; 
its sprightly aroma is agreeable to most 
palates, and makes it a popular apple in 
the Philadelphia market. 



Fig. 1.— (P. 43.) 




Summer Pearmain. Coxe. (Fig. 2.) 
This is unquestionably the finest apple 
of its season, possessing more of the 
character of the pear than an ordinary 
apple ; its appearance is by no means 
prepossessing, and those who look to 
exteriors only would pass it by unno- 
ticed. The colour is usually dull red, 
slightly streaked and spotted, occasion- 
ally in the sun of a brighter hue. Coxe 
says it has proved well adapted to light 
lands, and correctly describes it as 
singularly tender, bursting from its own 
weight, when falling. The outline is 
oblong, uniformly regular; stem and 
calyx deeply seated ; ripe in August and 
September. 

Woolman's Harvest. (Striped 
Harvest.) (Fig. 3.) This apple is 
known in New Jersey as above ; its ori- 
gin is obscure, nor have we found it 
described by any American authority. 



The size is much below medium, weigh- 
ing scarcely two ounces. Ground colour 
a delicate whitish yellow, beautifully 
streaked and pencilled with bright red 
of different depths, giving it rather an 
artificial aspect, as though an artist had 
coloured it to suit his fancy; flesh white, 
crisp and tender, juicy, but not rich: — 
its early maturity commends it to notice; 
ripe in July. 

Maiden's Blush. Coxe. (Fig. 4.) 
There is not, perhaps, a more popular 
summer apple in the Philadelphia mar- 
ket than this; it ripens in August, and 
is in fruitful seasons abundant until the 
first of October. The size is above me- 
dium ; skin smooth, yellow, with a lively 
carmine cheek ; the general outline is 
flattened. Flesh white, tender, admi- 
rably adapted to drying. Stem short, 
and both it and the eye seated in a 
deep cavity. The habit of the tree is 



APP 



APP 



Fig. 2.— (P. 44.) 




Fig. 3.— (P. 44.) 




vigorous, forming an open and rather 
spreading head. 

Early Bough. Ken. (Bough Apple. 
Coxe.) (Fig. 5.) The Early Bough is 
frequently above medium size ; outline 
rather longer than broad. Stern seldom 
rising to the crown of the fruit. Skin 
smooth, of a pale yellow hue. Flesh 
white, with more than ordinary juice ; 
sweet and well-flavoured, though by no 



means rich. It is of fair quality, and 
because of its early maturity generally 
esteemed. Ripe in July and August. 

Hagloe. {Hagloe Crab of Coxe: 
Downing.) (Fig. 6.) There is evidently 
some blunder as regards this apple, 
which was imported by Coxe, and de- 
scribed by him. It is unquestionably 
not the Hagloe Crab of the English, a 
cider apple of high repute, to which, 



APP 



APP 




APP 



APP 



it is believed, this has no pretension. 
It is said that Coxe himself discovered 
the error, and designed correcting it in 
a future edition of his work. It occurred 
from the label having been lost in the 
original package, and a loose Hagloe 
Crab label being found, was supposed to 
attach to the tree in question. 

It is now well known in Pennsylvania 
and New Jersey, as the Hagloe, the 
Crab having been dropped, and is much 
esteemed in the Philadelphia market 
as a cooking apple; its fair size, above 



medium, and great beauty, recom- 
mend it for the table. The prevail- 
ing colour is yellow, streaked with 
red of darker or lighter shades, and 
with a delicate bloom on well-ripened 
specimens. The outline round, some- 
times a little irregular. Stem short; 
the eye deeply seated. The flesh is 
soft and woolly, as it is termed, which 
of course detracts from its quality as a 
table fruit. Ripe, August and Septem- 
ber. 



Fig. 6.— (P. 45.) 




Early Queen. (Fig. 7.) The ap- 
ple here represented, has been known 
for many years around Philadelphia by 
the above name ; it is one of the earli- 
est seen in our market, making its ap- 
pearance early in July and continuing 
throughout August. When ripened in 
the sun it ifnearly of a uniform aspect 
— striped and clouded with red of darker 
or lighter shades on a greenish-yellow 
ground, the red frequently the prevail- 
ing colour : others ripened in the shade 
have but little red, the stripes more dis- 
tinctly marked on a greenish ground, 
thus presenting fruit from the same tree 



of very different appearance. The size 
is in good specimens, above medium ; 
outline rather flattened, and narrowing 
towards the blossom end. Calyx quite 
small, nearly closed and set in a shal- 
low basin. Stem short, seldom rising 
to the crown of the fruit. Flesh white, 
with occasional pink streaks and clouds; 
crisp, and when over ripe, mealy. 

Baldwin. Ken : Down. (Fig. 8.) 
The Baldwin, partially known as the 
Woodpecker, is nearly confined to New 
England; but ought to be an apple of 
the world. It has few superiors, and is 
above average quality in all respects. 



APP 



48 



APP 



Fig. 7.— (P. 47.) 




Fig. 8.— (P. 47.) 




APP 



APP 



Its flavour is rich and sprightly. Flesh 
yellowish and crisp ; few taste it with- 
out admiration. 

The outline is round, flattened at the 
stern end and narrowing towards the 
eye ; ground colour yellow obscured by 
red and crimson shading and slightly 
marked by russet near the stem, which 
is rather deeply planted. In season 
from November to March. 

Lady Apple. Coxe. (Pomme d' 
Api, Rouge. Petit and Gros Api. 
Rouge, of the French.) (Fig. 9.) The 
small size of this beautiful fruit may be 



an objection with many, but it is un- 
doubtedly worthy a place in every 
orchard from its exquisite beauty and 
fine quality. The Lady Apple is highly 
prized wherever quality, rather than 
bulk is considered as the test of value. 
At Philadelphia it is a great favourite, 
and commands ready sale. The out- 
line is flat, colour when well ripened a 
lively yellow, with a bright carmine 
cheek. Flesh white and crisp ; juice 
sprightly and agreeable; bears abund- 
antly. Ripe in December, and keeps 
well during winter. 



Fig. 9. 




Gloria Mundi. Thomp. Mon- 
strous Pippen. Coxe. Golden Ball. Ken. 
(Fig. 10.) Coxe says this imposing ap- 
ple originated on Long Island, N. Y. 
Downing supposes it to be originally 
from Maine; the fact is unimportant. Its 
large size renders it an object of popular 
regard; it is an admirable cooking ap- 
ple though not profitable, from liability 
to be blown off prematurely. Skin 
yellow, marked by bright spots or dots. 
Flesh juicy and sprightly. The outline 
is round; stem short; eye bushy. In 
season, November to March. A speci- 
men at the Pennsylvania Horticultural 
Society's exhibition, September, 1846, 
weighed 27 ounces. 

Bell Flower. (Fig. 11.) "A re- 
markably large, beautiful and excel- 
lent apple, both for the dessert and 
for cooking — it is of a pale, but bright 
and fair yellow colour; the cheek next 
the sun has sometimes a blush, but more 
frequently is without any red : the form 
is oblong, somewhat pointed at the 
blossom end — both ends are deeply in- 
dented — the flesh is rich, juicy, tender 
and sprightly; it has uncommonly large 
full seeds, which are lodged in a peri- 



carpium of unusual size, and if shaken 
can be distinctly heard ; it ripens late 
in October, when its great weight 
causes it to fall in windy weather — if 
carefully picked before they are too 
ripe, they will keep in high perfection 
through the winter, till late in the 
spring, especially when they are shrivel- 
led or wilted — from their beauty and 
excellence, they are the most popular 
apple in the Philadelphia market: the 
tree grows very large and spreading; it 
should be trained high, or the limbs will 
touch the ground when in full bearing; it 
succeeds best on light rich soils." — Coxe. 
Rhode Island Greening. — Coxe. 
(Fig. 12.) A well known variety, ex- 
tensively disseminated throughout the 
Atlantic States. The size is large; 
outline round; skin of a yellowish 
green ; sometimes, though very sel- 
dom of a faint blush-like hue towards 
the stem. The flesh is crisp, abounding 
in juice, finely flavoured; stem short. 
Calyx rather small for so large an ap- 
ple, and placed in a shallow basin. In 
season from October to January, some- 
times later. 



Fig. 10.— (P. 49.) 



New England Russet. Boston or 
Roxbury Russet or Russeting. (Fig. 
13.) This is claimed as a native of 
Massachusetts, and is held throughout 
New England in high repute. It is 
usually considered the best of its class 
popularly termed "leather-coats." The 
size is full medium ; form irregularly 
round, flattened at both stem and blos- 
som end. When fully ripe of a russet 
hue,, occasionally with indications of 
blush. It is in season at mid-winter, 
but may be kept till May or June ; in- 
deed they may be seen sometimes in 



July. This property of long keeping in 
connection with its productive habit, 
has secured it great popularity. 

Yellow Newtown Pippin. (Fig. 
14.) " This is in most of its varieties 
the finest apple of our country, and 
probably of the world. It varies much 
in quality, with soil, aspect, cultivation, 
climate and age. The form is rather 
flat, the size large, the skin a greenish 
yellow, with black clouds, and fre- 
quently with red spots or blotches. It 
ripens in November, and is often kept 
till May and June. It will produce fine 



APP 



APP 



Fig. 11.— (P. 49.) 




apples on even a light sandy soil, aided 
by the application of river or meadow 
mud as a manure, two or three cart 
loads to a tree." — Coxe. 

Wine Apple. (Fig. 15.) This is a 
well known variety in Philadelphia. It 
is unusually large, and attractive from 
its beautifully fair and handsome ap- 
pearance. The outline is round, rather 
flattened at the poles; prevailing colour 
red, shaded and spotted with yellow. 
Stalk quite short, never rising to the 
crown of the fruit, which is occasion- 
ally of a russet hue, Calyx large and 
deeply seated, ripe in October, and in 
eating through the antumn and winter. 
It is equally adapted to the table, 
kitchen and press. The habit of the 
tree is open, growth large and hand- 



iEsopus Spitzenburg. Thomp. Lind. 
Ken. (Fig. 16.) There are but few, 
very few apples to which higher rank is 
awarded than to this variety, which has 
the rare advantage of beauty and good- 
ness combined. It is said to have origi- 
nated at ./Esopus on the Hudson river. 
The size full medium, with an oblong out- 
line. Skin fair and smooth, of a fine clear 
red, in some specimens of a brilliant hue 
on the sunny side, the opposite of a yel- 
lowish cast. Flesh yellow, and in the lan- 
guage ofCose, "singularly rich, juicy and. 
sprightly." Stem of medium length, well 
planted. Calyx in a shallow depression. 
In season November to February. 

Kaighn's Spitzenburg. Coxe. (Fig. 
17.) This variety takes its name from 
the original cultivator, the late Joseph 
Kaighn, of Kaighn's Point, New Jersey. 



APP 



52 



APP 



Fig. 12.— (P. 49.) 



Fig. IS.— (P. 50.) 




APP 



53 



APP 



Fig. 14.— (P. 50.) 




It somewhat resembles the JEsopus 
Spitzenburg. Colour bright red, deli- 
cately streaked and marked by white 
dots, which strongly characterize it. 
Skin smooth; flesh juicy and well 
flavoured ; stem rather long, deeply 
seated ; blossom end frequently more 
pointed than in the drawing. 

Propagation by seed. — When it is in- 
tended to raise stocks to be engrafted, 
the only matter to be observed in se- 
lecting the seed is, that it be from vigo- 
rous healthy trees. Keep the seed in 
sand, or earth moderately damp,*during 
autumn and winter, and sow quite early 
in the spring, and in drills, so as to ad- 
mit of more easy culture. The second 
season the young stocks may be trans- 
planted, and again the third season, 
(each transplantation tending to secure 
success on the final transfer to the or- 
chard ground.) When three years old, 
they will be, if well managed, stout 
stocks, ready for grafting. 

Where the object is to produce new 
varieties, select the f seed from favourite 
fruits and sow as above directed. 

If it be the purpose to allow the seed- 
lings to bear, they may be suffered to 
remain where they have first grown, or 
they may be transplanted to any other 
position. But a more speedy method 



to reach results is to graft a shoot of 
the seedling in a branch of a vigorous 
tree. The second season fruit may be 
obtained, especially if the shoot is bent 
downwards, or inclined, so as to arrest 
the free flow of sap, which would rather 
tend to preserve wood than fruit. By 
this means curiosity can be early satis- 
fied, and those which prove worthless, 
by far the larger portion, cast out as 
cumberers of the ground. 

Mr. Knight states that " the width 
and thickness of the leaf generally in- 
dicates the size of the future apple, but 
will by no means convey any correct 
idea of the merits of the future fruit. 

" When these have the character of 
high cultivation, the qualities of the 
fruit will be far removed from those of 
the native species ; but the apple may 
be insipid or highly flavoured, green or 
deeply coloured, and of course well or 
ill-calculated to answer the purposes of 
the planter. An early blossom in the 
spring, and an early change of colour 
in the autumnal leaf, would naturally 
be supposed to indicate a fruit of early- 
maturity, but I have never been able to 
discover any criterion of this kind on 
which the smallest dependence may be 
placed. The leaves of some varieties 
will become yellow and fall off, leaving 



APP 



APP 



Fig. 15.— (P. 51.) 




the fruit green and immature ; and the i 
leaves in other kinds will retain their I 
verdure long after the fruit has perished. 
The plants whose buds in the annual 
wood are full and prominent are usually 
more productive than those whose buds 
are small and shrunk in the bark ; but 
their future produce will depend much 
on the power the blossoms possess of 
bearing the cold, and this power varies 
in the varieties, and can only be known 
from experience. Those which pro- 
duce their leaves and blossoms rather 
early in the spring are generally to be 
preferred, for, though they are more 
exposed to injury from frost, they less fre- 
quently suffer from the attacks of insects 



— the more common cause of ailure. 
The disposition to vegetate early or 
late in the spring, is, like almost every 
other quality in the apple tree, trans- 
ferred in different degrees to its off- 
spring ; and the planter must therefore 
seek those qualities in the parent tree 
which he wishes to find in the future 
seedling plants. The ^best method I 
have been able to discover of obtaining 
such fruits as vegetate very early in the 
spring, has been by introducing the 
farina of the Siberian Crab into the blos- 
som of a rich and early apple, and by 
transferring, in the same manner, the 
farina of the apple to the blossom of the 
Siberian Crab. The leaf and the habit 



APP 



55 



APP 



Fig. 16.— (P. 51.) 




of many of the plants that I have thus 
obtained, possess much of the character 
of the apple, whilst they vegetate as 
early in the spring as the crab of Sibe- 
ria, and possess at least an equal power 
of bearing cold; and I possess two 
plants of the family which are quite as 
hardy as the most austere crab of our 
woods." 

By cuttings. — All the varieties may 
be raised in this mode, though some, 
as the Burr-knot, Codling, and June- 
eating, more readily than others. Trees 
so raised are said to be not so liable as 
their parents to canker. In February 
take cuttings of young shoots from some 
of the horizontal branches, about eight 
inches long, cutting off a portion of the 
old wood of the branch attached to the 
shoot ; remove all the buds except the 
upper three. Plant these firmly in 
sandy loam, giving water and covering 
with g. hand-glass until the cuttings have 
well vegetated. Shade from the mid- 
day sun ; remove the hand-glass in Au- 



gust ; and remove the plants into the 
nursery early in November. 

Soil. — The most favourable soil is a 
strong loam, two feet deep, on a dry 
subsoil, thoroughly drained, for stag- 
nant root moisture induces canker and 
moss. 

Planting.— The soil should be trench- 
ed, and some cultivators place imme- 
diately beneath each tree, according to 
the extent of its roots, chalk, stones, 
or brick-bats rammed so as to form a 
kind of pavement to direct the roots 
horizontally. Plant so that the roots 
nearest the surface are twelve inches 
below it. 

Espaliers. — In America the apple is 
seldom trained as an Espalier, though 
they might thus be cultivated in gar- 
dens of limited extent, and in some 
cases serve a double purpose, affording 
shade and fruit. When first planted 
the young plant is cut down to within 
about a foot of the ground, and only 
three shoots permitted to spring from it, 



APP 



56 



APP 



Fig. 17.— (P .51.) 




one of which will be the leader, and 
the others will form the first or lower 
tier of bearing branches, which are to 
be secured to small stakes, so as to 
keep them in their proper places. 

The following season the upright 
leader must be shortened to nine inches 
or a foot above the two horizontal 
branches, and deprived of all its shoots 
excepting the three uppermost, which 
are to be treated the same as before. 
In this way the leading shoot is to be 
stopped at the requisite distance above 
the horizontal ones, until it has reached 
the height of five feet. It is then cut 
off, and no more allowed to grow up- 
right, the whole strength of the tree 
being directed to the fruiting branches. 
— Gard. Chron. 

Espalier apple trees should be at not 
less than twenty feet distance ; but five- 
and-thirty feet is better, especially for 
trees grafted on crab or apple stocks, 
which are free shooters ; for trees graft- 
ed on codlin and paradise stocks eigh- 
teen or twenty feet may be a sufficient 
distance. They should be planted with 



their heads entire, only removing any 
very irregular growths that do not range 
consistent with the intended form, and 
pruning any broken roots. Let all the 
branches be trained horizontally to the 
right and left, an equal number on each 
side, all at full length, five or six inches 
asunder, and, according as they shoot 
in summer, still continue them along 
entire. At the same time train in a 
further supply of new shoots, to increase 
the number of horizontals or bearers, 
and thus continue increasing their num- 
bers every year, till the espalier is 
regularly filled from the bottom to top, 
I preserving all the branches at full 
| length, as far as the allotted space will 
admit. 

They must have a summer and a 
winter pruning annually ; in the sum- 
mer cut out all the superfluous and ill— 
j placed shoots of the year, and train 
regular ones towards the lower parts in 
vacant spaces, at least to remain till 
winter, some of which may be then 
wanted to fill some unforeseen vacancy, 
clearing out all others at this time as 



APP 



57 



APR 



close as possible. And in winter, if I middle of the head, and all dead wood 
any worn out or decayed parts appear, 
then is the time to retrench them, re- 
taining young branches in their places, 
and if any vacancy occurs, retain some 
contiguous young shoot to fill it. Cut 
clean out close to the branches, still 
continuing all the branches, and any 
occasional supply of shoots, at full 
length, as far as their limited bounds 
will allow; then train the whole regu- 
larly, tying them in as straight and 
close to the railing as possible, about 
six inches asunder. 

Standards, or Orchard Trees. — The 
standards having been trained in the 
nursery with tolerably good heads, they 
should be planted with those heads en- 
tire ; if any are intended for the kitchen 
garden, plant them at least forty feet 
distance; and, for a full plantation, to 
form an orchard, allow thirty feet dis- 
tance every way. 

Trim any broken roots, but leave all 
the others entire. 

As soon as planted, let every one be 
well staked, to support them firmly up- 
right, and prevent their being disturbed 
in rooting by winds. 

Smaller growing standards, such as 
codlins and dwarfs upon paradise stocks, 
may, if required, be planted only at 
twenty feet distance, though, if there 
is room to allow a greater distance, it 
will be the greater advantage. 

Let them also, in future, advance with 
all their branches at full length, taking 
their own natural growth, and they 
will soon form numerous natural spurs 
in every part for bearing. 

With respect to pruning these stand- 
ards very little is required, probably 
not more than once in several years, 
and then only the retrenching any very 
irregular cross-placed bough, or reduc- 
ing to order any very long rambler ; or 
when the head is become greatly crowd- 
ed and confused, to thin out some of 
the most irregular growth, likewise all 
strong shoots growing upright in the 



and suckers from the stem and root. 

Home persons, however, prefer more 
pruning, and Mr. Clarke, gardener to 
the Earl of Lonsdale, says, " My sea- 
son for pruning commences as soon as 
the fruit is taken off* the trees, and con- 
tinues to the middle of March ; during 
that time cut out all the ill-placed 
shoots, such as incline to grow towards 
the centre, or into each other, and 
leave untouched all those that stand in 
such a way that the tree will form a cup, 
or something like a well blown tulip, 
all the branches standing perfectly clear 
of each other, so that they will bear 
fruit on the inside, the sun and air get- 
ting to all parts of the tree alike. Keep 
fruit trees as low as possible ; this may 
be done by removing a limb when it is 
likely to get over tall, leaving a young 
shoot at a proper place to succeed it. 
The apple is in America a hardy robust 
tree, and succeeds admirably through- 
out the middle and western states, 
though it were desirable it should re- 
ceive more attention than is frequently 
bestowed on it. Its principal enemy is 
the " Borer," (Saperda bivittata), which 
deposits its eggs in the body of the tree 
near the ground. The insects perforate 
the wood, causing disease, and if un- 
disturbed ultimately death. The reme- 
dy is the frequent use of pliant wire 
thrust into the wound, so as to pierce 
the grub ; a mound of ashes around the 
trunk is beneficial — alkali being ex- 
tremely offensive to insects. 

For full directions as to the manage- 
ment of apple trees see the "Fruit Cul- 
turistf by Thomas. " Fruits of Ame- 
rica," by Downing. " Kenrick's Or- 
chardist." 

APPLE-BARK BEETLE. Bostri- 
chus. 

APRICOT, (Armeniaca vulgaris.) 

Varieties. — The following list is from 
the catalogue of D. Landreth and Ful- 
ton, Philadelphia :— 



APR 




58 






APR 














Color. 






& 








y. yellow. 




Size. 




Season of 




Name. 


o. orange. 


Form. 


m. medium. 


"3 

3 


ripening 
at Philad. 


Remarks. 




r. red. 




l. large. 


& 




1. Roman. 


y- 


oblong 


M. 


2 


Aug. 


Very produc- 


Abricot Commun. 












tive and ex- 


Large French. 












cellent. 


2. Breda. 


0. 


round 


M. 


1 


Aug. 


Highly flavor- 


Holland. 












ed, produc- 


Brussels. 












tive. 


3. Large Early. 


o. 


oblong 


L. 


1 


July. 


Excellent. 


4. Moor Park. 


o. r. 


round 


L. 


1 


Aug. 


Considered 


Abricot Peche. 












the finest. 


Be Nancy. 














5. Masculine Red. 


o. r. 




M. 


2 


July. 


Earliest. 


Early Red Masculine. 














Brown Masculine. 














6. Orange. 


0. 


round 


M. 


2 


Aug. 


Abundant 


Royal Persian. 












bearer, good 


Early Orange. 












flavor. 


7. Peach. 


o. r. 


round 


L. 


1 


Aug. 


Good and 


De Nancy. 












productive. 


Latimer-s Peach. 














8. Turkey. 


y. 


round 


L. 


1 


Aug. 




Large Turkey. 















Propagation is best done by budding 
on a plum or peach stock in August 
or September, as the state of the 
wood may make expedient. European 
gardeners usually, for dwarfs, bud 
at eight inches from the ground ; for 
half-standards at three feet; and for 
standards at five feet. But that is un- 
important, the subsequent treatment of 
the tree may adapt it to the required 
purpose. With us it is the general 
practice to bud near the ground, and 
the usage would imply the practice has 
proved correct. 

Planting. — The best plants are with 
one stem, free from gum, clean barked ; 
and the more vigorous the better. They 
may be safely transplanted at any time 
in autumn after vegetation has ceased, 
until the buds are about to expand in 
spring. 

Aspect. — An eastern or western wall 
is best ; for on a south aspect the fruit 
becomes mealy even before it is ripe. 
A northern exposure sometimes proves 
most successful, as the bloom is late, 
and escapes frost, which is fatal to those 
in more sheltered situations. As a 
standard, the apricot is some years be- 
fore it bears, but it is then very prolific 
and high flavored. 

Soil. — The usual mellow loam of 
gardens is well suited to the apricot ; 



but its roots should be kept at less than 
eighteen inches from the surface, and 
the border be well drained. 

Training. — The branches should be 
on an average six inches apart, and 
kept as horizontal as possible. The 
nearer the form can be kept to the fol- 
lowing (Fig. 18) the better, unless the 
tree be weak, in which case the 

Fig. 18. 




branches may be trained a little more 
vertical. 

Pruning must be regulated by the 
knowledge that, with the exception of 
the Moor Park, each variety bears 
chiefly on the shoots of the previous 



APR 



APR 



years. The Moor Park mostly on spurs 
upon two and three years' old branches. 

Summer Pruning. — Take off all fore- 
right shoots and others that are irregular 
and misplaced ; reserving those that are 
vigorous and that will train in well for 
next year's bearing. If done early in 
May the finger and thumb will super- 
sede the knife for this pruning. Con- 
tinue to nail the shoots to the wall as 
necessary during all the summer. Over- 
vigorous shoots may be topped in June, 
and be thus induced to put forth more 
fertile laterals. 

Winter Pruning had best be done as 
soon as the leaves have fallen, though 
it may be carried on until the buds be- 
gin to swell in March. Cut out the 
most naked of the two previous years' 
shoots, and old branches not well sup- 
plied with young wood, to have their 
places re-occupied by younger and bet- 
ter branches. Keep a leading shoot at 
the end of each branch. Vigorous 
shoots of the last year shorten about 
one-eighth — weaker shoots about one- 
half. This promotes the production of 
laterals for next year's fruiting, and 
gives a fuller supply of sap to the blos- 
som buds ; but if the shortening is too 
great, the latter will be converted to 
leaf-buds. Cut off all fore-right spurs ; 
but lateral spurs may be retained, as 
they sometimes produce blossom buds, 
as they always do in the Moor Park. 

Espaliers are to be formed as those 
on walls, and standards only require 
dead, crowded, or chaffing branches to 
be removed. 

When an apricot gets old and dis- 
eased, it is much more profitable to re- 
place it by a younger, than to attempt 
its renovation. 

Gathering should take place before 
the fruit is quite ripe, or it will be 
mealy. 

Thinning, as soon as the fruit is large 
enough for tarts, in May or early in 
June, should be boldly done, no fruit 
being left nearer than six inches to 
another. 

Insects. — Wasps and flies are best 
kept off by a net, not nearer than a foot 
to the wall. 

Mildew is often the most formidable 
assailant of the apricot, as it usually 
arises from excess of moisture to the 
root ; draining the border, and mixing 
lime with the soil, will be in such case 
found efficacious as a preventive, and 



at the time a syringing with water 
containing one-eighth of gas ammonia- 
cal liquor. 

APRIL. In this fickle month the 
sheltering of wall fruit requires particu- 
lar attention. Easterly blighting winds 
always prevail towards its close, and 
early in May. 

The work required to be attended to 
in the various departments in the lati- 
tude of Philadelphia, is as follows. It 
should be performed early or later as 
we reside south or north of that lati- 
tude : — 

KITCHEN GARDEN . 

Alexanders, sow. — Angelica, sow. — 
Artichokes, plant, b. or dress. — Aspara- 
gus, sow, plant, force, and dress beds. 
— Balm, plant. — Basil, sow. — Beans, 
sow, hoe. — Beets, sow, b. — Borecole, 
sow, prick out, leave for seed. — Bro- 
coli, sow. — Borage, sow. — Burnets, 
sow, and plant. — Cabbages, sow, plant. 
— Capsicum, sow. — Cardoons, sow. — 
Carraway, sow. — Carrots, sow, weed. 
— Cauliflowers, late, sow in open 
ground, b. — Celery, sow, leave for seed. 
— Chamomile, plant. — Chives, plant. — 
Chervil, sow, leave for seed. — Cole- 
worts, plant. — Clary, sow. — Cress, sow. 
— Cucumbers, sow. — Dill, sow. — Earth- 
ing-up, attend to. — Fennel, sow or 
plant. — Finochio, sow. — Garlic, plant, 
b. — Horse-radish, plant, b. — Hotbeds, 
make and attend. — Hyssop, sow, plant. 
— Jerusalem Artichokes, plant, b. — Kale 
(Sea), sow and plant, b. ; dress beds. — 
Kidney beans (dwarfs), sow ; (runners), 
sow, e. — Lavender, plant. — Leeks, sow, 
b. e. ; leave for seed. — Lettuces, sow 
weekly; plant from frames. — Marigolds, 
sow. — Marjorams, sow and plant. — 
Melons, sow. — Mustard and Cress, 
sow; leave for seed. — Mushroom beds, 
make ; attend to. — Mint, plant. — Nas- 
turtiums, sow. — Onions, sow, b. e. ; 
weed ; plant and for seed ; (Potatoe and 
Tree), plant, b. — Parsley, sow ; leave 
for seed ; (Hamburgh), sow. — Parsnips, 
sow, b. ; hand weed. — Peas, sow ; hoe; 
stick. — Penny-royal, plant. — Pompions, 
sow, b. — Potatoes, plant; attend forc- 
ing. — Purslane, sow. — Radishes, sow ; 
thin. — Rape, sow. — Rocambole, plant.— 
Rue, plant. — Salsafy and Savory, sow, 
e. — Scorzonera and Skirrets, sow, e. — 
Shallots and Sage, plant, b.— Sorrels, sow 
and plant. — Spinach, sow; thin ; leave 
for seed. — Tansy and Tarragon, plant. 
— Thyme, sow and plant.— Tomatos, 



APR 



60 



APR 



sow. — Turnips, sow, 
for seed. — Turnip 
Wormwoods, sow. 



b. e. ; plant and 
Cabbage, sow. — 



ORCHARD. 



Apples may be planted. — Blossoms of 
wall fruit, protect. — Budded (Trees), last 
summer, remove insects from buds, and 
shoots from stocks below. — Cherries 



I move from borders to some place where 
they can complete their vegetation ; 
their decayed leaves are unsightly. — 
I Carnations, in pots, give liquid manure, 
| and water often ; stir the earth ; sow, 
e. ; plant into borders, b. — Climbing 
plants, train and regulate. — Dahlias, 
plant to remain, b., or in pots to for- 
ward in a frame until May. — Dress the 
borders, &c, indefatigably. — Ever- 



may be planted.— Disbud wall trees of greenS} p i an t, b. ; it is the best season 



superfluous buds. — Forcing fruits, in 
hot-house, attend to. — Grafting (late 
kinds of apples, pears, and plums), may 
be done still, b. — Grafts, lately inserted 



Frames, raise, by supporters at the 
bottom, as the plants within grow tall. 
— Roll ; trim edges ; dress with earth if 
poor. — Gravel, turn and lay afresh in 



see that the clay is firm, and rub off", dry wea ther ; roll once a week.— Hya- 
shoots below the scion.— Heading down { c i n tfa, shelter from sun by an awning 



wall and espalier trees, finish, b, if not 
done last month — Insects, search for 
and destroy. — Lime (early in the morn- 
ing), dust over the leaves of trees infest- 
ed by caterpillars. — Liquid Manure, 
give to trees newly planted. — Mulch 
round the roots. — Peaches may be 
planted. — Pears may be planted. — 
Plums may be planted. — Propagating 
by layers, cuttings, suckers, and seed, 
finish, b. — Pruning, finish, b. ; stop 
young shoots. — Stake trees newly 
planted. — Strawberries, water daily in 
dry weather those in bloom, if dry. — 
Vines, propagate by layers and cut- 



tings, 



summer dress 



or matting over the beds, from nine to 
four; give the same shelter in bad wea- 
ther day and night ; those done flower- 
ing take up ; separate offsets and store. 
— Insects, destroy with tobacco smoke 
or dusting of Scotch snuff. — Mignonette, 
sow in any warm border. — Mulch, put 
round trees newly planted. — Pinks, 
sow. — Polyanthuses, sow; plant out 
and propagate by offsets, b. ; last year's 
seedlings now in bloom, mark best for 
propagating. — Potted Plants, give fresh 
earth to, if not done last month ; shift 
into larger; water freely. — Perennials, 
those sown last spring may still be 



stake and hoe frequently ; old borders 
manure. — Wall-fruit, thin generally. — 
Wasps, destroy; every one now killed 
prevents a nest. 



; m vineyard I p] an ted, and propagated by offsets 



FLOWER GARDEN. 



Annuals (Tender), prick out those 
sown in February and March into a hot- 
bed ; water often ; sow in hotbed ; 
(Hardy), may be sown in borders, &c, 
to remain; thin those advancing. — Au- 
riculas in bloom, shelter. (See Hya- j abundant light ; syringe to destroy red 



finish sowing. — Sticks are required to 
blooming plants. — Tulips, take off pods 
to strengthen bulbs. — Watering plants 
in pots is now required more frequent- 
ly, yet moderately ; give it early in the 
morning. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely during the day. — 
Bark Beds, renew if not done in March. 
— Figs, first crop ripening, require 



cinth.) Supply with. water often ; those 
for seed plunge pots in a sheltered bor- 
der, where they can have sun until ele- 
ven o'clock ; piant offsets ; propagate 
by slips ; seedlings shade during mid- 
day. — Anemones and Auriculas done 
flowering, take up and separate offsets. 
— Box edgings may be made, and old 
taken up, slipped and replanted. — Bien- 
nials, finish sowing, b.; plant out those 
sown last spring. — Bulbs, in water 
glasses, done flowering, plantin ground 
after cutting down stalks ; autumn flow- 
ering, take up and store, ready for 
planting in July; spring flowering, re- 



spider ; give little water, and air freely. 
— Flowering Plants in pots, for succes- 
sion, continue to introduce. — Grafting 
flowering stove plants is worthy of prac- 
tice, either to get dwarfs or taller spe- 
cimens. — Insects, destroy by tobacco 
fumes. — Leaves, clean occasionally, 
either with the sponge or syringe. — Li- 
quid Manure, apply to fruiting vines and 
other plants requiring vigour. — Mush- 
room House, keep air in moist ; wood- 
lice destroy. — OrchidacecB, shade. — Pot- 
ted Plants, shift into larger as required. 
— Pines, continue to treat as in March ; 
shade during bright sun ; those shifted 



AQU 



61 



AQU 



in that month or February shift again, 
e. ; suckers remove ; plant crowns. — 
Propagate by layers, suckers, cuttings, 
and seed, according to the plants' ha- 
bits. — Red Spider is now apt to prevail ; 
put sulphur upon the flues to drive 
away. — Steam, admit frequently into 
house. — Syringe every plant that will 
bear the treatment to prevent the Red 
Spider. — Vines, treat as last month ; 
thin grapes, and tie up shoulders of the 
bunches ; water abundantly ; remove 
superfluous shoots, e. ; temp. about75o ; 
in the late green-houses, train up the 
rafters. — Water requires to be given 
oftener; sprinkle frequently about the 
house, and keep the pans full. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, admit daily, as weather permits. 
— Camellias, sow and graft. — Earth in 
pots stir frequently ; and add fresh if 
not done in March. — Greenfly or Aphis 
usually indicates the house has been 
kept too cold. — Hardiest Plants keep 
in coldest parts of house, near the 
ventilators. — Head-down irregular grow- 
ing shrubs, — Heat* increase if neces- 
sary. — Inarch shrubby exotics. — Leaves 
and Wood decayed, remove as they ap- 
pear; clean with sponge or syringe. — 
Liquid Manure apply to sickly shrubs. — 
Potted Plants, shift as they require 
room ; and water immediately. — Pro- 
pagate by seeds, cuttings, inarching, 
and other modes, as the species permit. 
— Prune Or Pinch off free growing 
shoots, to make shrubby growths. — 
Succulent plants shift ; plant cuttings 
and suckers. — Water often, guided al- 
ways by the plant's habits. 

AQUARIUM is the place devoted to 
the cultivation of aquatic or water 
plants. The majority of those culti- 
vated are exotic, and require the pro- 
tection of glass. If there are only a few 
of these they may be successfully 
grown in cisterns placed in a stove ; 
but if the collection be extensive, it re- 
quires a separate edifice. The tank 
system of heating by hot water offers a 
very superior mode of keeping the wa- 
ter at a fitting temperature. The leaden 
cistern in which the plants are sub- 
merged may rest readily upon the slates 
forming the cover of the tank. 

Mr. Loudon recommends an aqua- 
rium to be thus constructed : " The 
cistern to be close under the front 
glass, and have that glass rather flat, say 



at an agle of fifteen degrees, or two cis- 
terns might be formed, one in the back 
part of the house for tall plants, and the 
other in front, for plants with floating 
foliage, with a broad path between. 
But the most elegant plan would be to 
have a circular house, having glass 
on all sides, to have a cistern in the 
centre for river plants, and a surround- 
ing cistern for those which grow in 
stagnant water. To imitate the effect 
of the motion of water in the central 
cistern, the mould or pots in which the 
plants grow might be placed on a bot- 
tom, apart from that of the cistern, and 
this bottom being on the end of an up- 
right shaft, might, by the aid of proper 
machinery in a vault below, be kept 
in perpetual circular motion. Those 
plants which grow naturally in rapid 
streams, might be planted or placed on 
the circumference of the bottom, and 
those requiring less agitation towards 
its centre. If reversed motion was re- 
quired to imitate tides, (where marine 
aquatics were cultivated,) nothing could 
be easier than by the sort of wheel used 
in the patent mangle to produce it to 
any extent, or by another still more 
simple plan known to every engineer, 
it might be changed seldomer, say only 
once or twice in twenty-four hours. If 
a rapid and tortuous motion was re- 
quired, then let the bottom on which the 
plants are placed be furnished with 
small circular wheels placed on its mar- 
gin working on pivots, and furnished 
on their edges with teeth like a spur 
wheel. Then let there be a correspond- 
ing row of teeth fixed to the inside of 
the wall, or side of the cistern, into 
which they are to work, like a wheel 
and pinion. 

" By this means pots of plants set on 
the small wheels will have a compound 
motion, one round the centre of the 
small wheels, and another round that of 
the large bottom, something of the na- 
ture of the planetary motion, but more 
like that of the waltz dance. It is al- 
most needless to add, that exotic aqua- 
tic fowls and fishes might be kept in 
such an aquarium, and either of the sea 
or fresh water rivers, according as salt 
water or fresh was used. It may be 
thought by some that the machinery 
would be intricate and troublesome ; but 
the power requisite is so very small, 
that it might easily be obtained by ma- 
chinery on the principle of the wind-up 



AQU ( 

jack, such as is used by Deacon in his 
ventilating Eolians. 

" This kind of mechanism very sel- 
dom goes out of order or requires re- 
pairs, and would require no other atten- 
tion than being wound up twice in 
twenty-four hours, and oiled occasion- 
ally. The same vault that contained it 
might serve for the furnace or boiler 
for heating the house." — Gard.Enc. 

The following are aquatic stove 
plants : — 

Aponogeton angustifolium. 
distachvon. 



ARB 



monostachyon. 



Arum venosum. 
Cyperus alternifolius. 

papyrus. 

Damasonium indicum. 
Euryale ferox. 
Menyanthes indica. 

ovata. 

Nelumbium speciosum. 
Nymphaea caerulea. 

lotus. 

pubescens. 

pygmsea. 

rubra. 

stellata. 

■ versicolor. 

Philydrum lanuginosum. 
Pontederia cordata. 

dilatata. 

Sagittaria lancifolia. 

obtusifolia. 

Thalia dealbata. 

Propagation and culture. — Being all 
herbaceous plants, they are to be pro- 
pagated as these generally are ; some 
are raised from seeds, which, in gene- 
ral, should be sown as soon as ripe, and 
the pots plunged in shallow water; 
when the plants come up they may be 
transplanted into other pots, and shifted 
as they advance in growth, till in a pot 
of sufficient size to admit their flower- 
ing, which will generally take place the 
same season. Instead of being kept in 
pots, the plants may be inserted in a 
bed of earth on the bottom of the aqua- 
rium. Keep the water warm, say from 
70° to 75 D in summer, and leave them 
nearly dry in winter. Nelumbium spe- 
ciosum requires a water heat of S4°. 

Cyperus, Papyrus, Nelumbium, Nym- 
phaea, Limnocharis, Hydrocharis, Sagit- 
taria, and Pentederia, will furnish va- 
riety enough. 

Stove for aquatics. — For one com- 



bined with the culture of Orchideous 
Plants see the latter title. 

Hardy Aquatics require an aquarium 
proportioned to the size of the rest of 
the pleasure grounds ; and that its bot- 
tom be rendered retentive of water by 
puddling with clay. Its sides should be 
sloping, and cut into terraces, so as to 
be suited to the various heights of the 
plants, and its margins should be form- 
' ed of rough stones and fragments of 
rock, among which marsh plants will 
grow luxuriantly. 

AQUEDUCT', a conveyance of any 
kind for conducting water. The Ro- 
mans made prodigious structures of this 
: kind ; some are still in use, others, in a 
- state of decay, are among the greatest 
ornaments of Italy. In landscape gar- 
dening, the aqueduct enables the ope- 
rator to produce a fine effect, where the 
absence of water would render the 
scene tame and uninteresting. 

AQUILARIA malaccensis. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

AQUILEGIA, Columbine. Seven- 
teen species, and many varieties. 
Hardy herbaceous: Seed. Common 
soil. 

ARABIS. Thirty-one species, and 
some varieties. Hardy herbaceous and 
evergreen. Seeds or cuttings. Light 
soil. 

ARACHIS hypogeea. Stove annual. 
Seed. Sandy loam. 

ARALIA. Eighteen species. Chiefly 
stove evergreens, but a few hardy or 
green-house plants. Cuttings. Common 
soil. 

ARAUCARIA. Three species. Co- 
niferous green-house trees. Rich light 
soil. Cuttings planted in sand in Au- 
gust take freely. Cover with a bell- 
glass, and place in a cold frame or pit. 
Exclude frost and damp. In spring 
give a little bottom heat. Plants thus 
raised never form good leading shoots. 
— Gard. Chron. 

ARBORETUM is a collection of trees 
and shrubs capable of enduring expo- 
sure to our climate. These are usually 
arranged in genera according to their 
precedence in the alphabet ; or in 
groups conformably to the Jussieuean 
system ; and whichever is adopted it is 
quite compatiDle with an attention to 
facility of access by means of walks, as 
well as to picturesque effect. 

It is an evil growing out of the fre- 



ARB 



63 



A RM 



quent change in the ownership of es- 
tates, that most proprietors are indis- 
posed to plant for posterity; conse- 
quently we see but few grounds laid 
out with a view to permanent improve- 
ment. Those who plant are anxious 
themselves to reap the fruits of their 
exertions, not knowing, and conse- 
quently careless, who shall succeed 
them — where landed property is, by 
entail, transmitted from generation to 
generation, family pride, and the love 
of distinction, ensure every improve- 
ment being made in a permanent form 
— thus have been created the magnifi- 
cent parks of Europeans, and their 
stately mansions. Our American sys- 
tem deprives us of such monuments of 
taste — but we can bear the deprivation, 
seeing the greater good produced there- 
by. 

ARBOUR is a seat shaded by trees. 
Sometimes these are trained over a 
wooden or iron trellis-work, mingled 
with the everlasting sweet pea, clema- 
tis, and other climbing odorous plants. 
When the trellis-work is complicated 
and the structure more elaborate, with 
a preponderance of the climbers al- 
ready named, together with the honey- 
suckle, &c, they are described as 
French or Italian arbours. 

ARBOR YITM, Thuja. 

ARBUTUS, Strawberry tree. Four- 
teen species, and a few varieties. Ever- 
green shrubs, chiefly hardy in Great 
Britain, but require shelter in the Mid- 
dle States. Layers, budding, inarch- 
ing, and seed. Loam and peat. 

ARCHANGEL, Lamium. 

ARCHITECTURE. Rural architect- 
ure has been greatly improved within the 
last quarter of a century. Much greater 
attention is now paid to the structure of 
garden and farm buildings, and the do- 
mestic comfort of those employed in 
rural labour. There is of consequence 
an elevation of taste, and conduct, and 
beneficial results to all concerned. In 
England, Loudon has laboured to this 
end with great success, and his Ency- 
clopedia of Villa and Cottage Architec- 
ture, is a monument to his industry and 
indomitable energy. Downing, in this 
country, has followed the path so 
plainly marked by Loudon, and pro- 
duced a volume, which cannot but re- 
fine the taste, and correct much that 
offends the eve. 



ARCTOSTAPHYLOS. Four species. 
Hardy trees, raised like the Arbutus. 

ARCTOTHECA. Two species. 
Green-house herbaceous. Division. 
Loam and peat. 

ARCTOTIS. Thirty-one species. 
Chiefly green-house evergreens. A. vir- 
gata is a hardy annual. 

ARCUATION. The same as Layer- 
ing. 

ARDISIA. Twenty-five species. 
Stove or green-house evergreen shrubs. 
An ornamental genus of plants much 
valued by collectors for the beauty of 
their foliage and berries. They are of 
easy culture. Cuttings of branches or 
roots. Loam and peat. 

ARDUINA hispinosa. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

ARECA. Ten species. Stove palms. 
Seeds. Sandy loam. 

AREMONIA agrimonoid.es. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

ARETHUSA. Two species. Ten- 
der orchids. Division. Moist peat and 
loam. 

ARETIA. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

ARGANIA syderoxylon Stove ever- 
green tree. Layers or cuttings. Com- 
mon soil. 

ARGEMONE. Five species. Hardy 
plants. Suckers. Common soil. 

ARGYREIA. Eight species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Light 
rich soil. 

ARISTEA. Five species. Green- 
house herbaceous. Seed or division. 
Loam and peat. 

ARISTOLOCHIA. Thirty-six species. 
Hardy, green-house and stove. Seve- 
ral species are Americans. A. labiosa, 
from Brazil, is a very curious plant. 
A. serpentaria (the root of) is said to 
be the substance which the Egyptian 
Snake-jugglers chew for the purpose of 
stupifying the snakes, by the introduc- 
tion of their saliva into the reptiles' 
mouths. Cuttings. Rich sandy loam 
and peat. 

ARISTOTELIAmtcgia. Hardy 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Common 
soil. 

ARMENIACA. Four species. Hardy 
fruit trees. Budding on plum-stocks. 
Rich loam. See Apricot. 

ARMERIA. Nineteen species. 
Hardy herbaceous, except A. fascicu- 



ARN 



ART 



lata, which is a green-house evergreen. 
Division. Rich light soil. See Thrift. 

ARNOPOGON. Four species. Hardy 
annuals. Seed. Common soil. 

ARTABOTRYS odoratissima. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 



evening until they are established, as 
well as during the droughts of summer. 
The only other attention they require 
during the summer, is the frequent use 
of the hoe. They produce heads the 
same year, from July to October, and 
will continue to do so annually, from 



ARTAXEMA fimbriatwn. Hardy May until June or July. As often as a 



evergreen shrub. Seed. Loam and peat. 

ARTEMISIA, Wormwood. Forty- 
seven species. Seed. Division and 
cuttings. Mostlv hardy and herbaceous. 

ARTHROPODIUM. Five species. 
Green-house herbaceous. Division or 
seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

ARTHROSTEMMA. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

ARTICHOKE, {Cynara scolymus.) 

Soil and situation. — The finest heads 
are produced in* a soil abounding in 
moisture, but in such they will not sur- 
vive the winter. To enable them to 



head is cut, the stem must be broken 
down close to the root, to encourage 
the production of suckers before the 
arrival of winter. In November or 
December, they should receive their 
winter's dressing. The old leaves being 
cut away without injuring the centre or 
side shoots, the ground must be dug 
over, and part of the soil thrown into a 
moderate ridge over each row, it being 
put close about the plants, but the 
hearts left clear. Each plant must be 
closed round with long litter, or pea 
haulm : it is, however, a very erroneous 
practice to apply stable dung imme- 



survive the winter, those for the supply diately over the plants previous to 



of suckers, as well as those for the last- 
ing production, must have a rich loam 
allotted to them. Manure must be 
applied every spring ; and the best 
compost for them is a mixture of three 
parts well putrefied dung, and one part 
of fine coal-ashes. They should a] ways 
have an open exposure, and above all be 



earthing them up, as it in general in- 
duces decay. As soon as February 
commences, all covering of this descrip- 
tion must be removed. In March, or 
as soon as the shoots appear four or 
five inches above the surface, the 
ridges thrown up in the winter must 
be levelled, and all the earth removed 



free from the influence of trees; for if from about the stock to below the part 



beneath their shade or drip, the plants 
spindle, and produce worthless heads. 

Time and mode of planting. — It is 
propagated by suckers, which are an- 
nually afforded by the parent plants in 



from whence the young shoots spring. 
Of these remove all but two or at 
most three of the straightest and most 
vigorous, care being taken to select 
from those which proceed from the 



the spring. These must be slipped off; under part of the stock: the strong 



in March or early in April, when eight 
or ten inches in height, with as much 
of their fibrous roots pertaining as pos- ; 
sible. Such of them should be selected ; 
as are sound and not woody. The 
brown hard part by which they are 
attached to the parent stem must be 
removed, and if that cuts crisp and 
tender, it is tough and stringy, and is 
worthless. Further, to prepare them 
for planting, the large outside leaves 
are taken off so low as that the heart 
appears above them. If they have been 
some time separated from the stock, or 
if the weather is dry, they are greatly 
invigorated by being set in water for 
three or four hours, before they are 
planted. They should be set in rows 
four feet and a half by three feet apart, 



thick ones proceeding from its crown 
having hard woody stems, and are pro- 
ductive of indifferent heads. 

Although the artichoke in a suitable 
soil is a perennial, yet after the fourth 
or fifth year the heads become smaller 
and drier. The beds, in consequence, 
are usually broken up after the lapse of 
this period, and fresh ones formed on 
another site. 

The artichoke's heads are made to 
attain a much larger size than they 
would otherwise by twisting a ligature 
very tightly round the stem, about three 
inches below each; and thus preventing 
the reflux of the sap. 

No vegetable is more benefitted than 
the artichoke by the application of sea- 
weed or any other manure containing 



and about half their length beneath the common salt. 

surface. Water them abundantly every j To obtain chards. — After the best 



ART 



65 



ASI 



heads have been cut, early in July the 
leaves are to be cut over within half a 
foot of the ground ; and the stems as 
low as possible. In September or Oc- 
tober, when the new shoots or leaves 
are about two feet high, they are bound j Sulphate of lime . 
close with a wreath of hay or straw, : Sulphate and muriate of soda 
and earth or litter is drawn round the Carbonate of lirne 
stems of the plants. The blanching is ! Oxide of iron 



square yards, twenty-eight pounds ia 
an average application, and they cannot 
be put on too fresh. 

Peat ashes contain — 
Silica 



perfected in a month 



or six weei 



If i Loss 



the chardsare wished late in the winter, I 
the whole plants may be dug up before 
frost sets in, and laid in sand in their ! 
blanched state. In this way they may I 
be kept for several weeks. 



They are an excellent application to 
lawns, turnips, cabbages, potatoes, and 
peas. 

Coal ashes contain carbon, silica, 
alumina, sulphate of lime, iron and 



Gobbo. — " The stem of an artichoke ; potash, carbonate of lime, and oxide of 
is bent down to a right angle, and the j iron. They are a good manure for 
petioles are collected and covered over 1 grass, peas and potatoes. Sprinkled 
so as to blanch. The result is a lump, j half an inch deep on the surface over 



which is eaten raw with salt, and 
tolerably good. In Italy it is used in 
the autumn and winter, and replaces 
radishes." — Gard. Chron. 

ARTOCARPUS. Bread Fruit Tree. 
Two species. Stove evergreens. Cut- 
tings. Light rich loam. 

ARUM. Thirty-seven species. 
Hardy, green-house, and stove. Off- 
sets. Common soil. 

AS ARUM. Five species. Hardy, 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

ASCARICIDA. Two species. Stove 
annuals. Seed. Rich light soil. 

ASCLEPIAS. Thirty-six species. 
Chiefly hardy, and all herbaceous but 
A. Greeniana and Mexicana, which are 
stove evergreens. Seed or division. 
Peat. 

ASHES are the remains of a sub- 
stance which has undergone combus- 
tion, and are as various in their compo- 
nents as are the bodies capable of being 
burnt. Whatever be the substance 
burnt, the process should be made to 
proceed as slowly as possible, for by 
such regulation more carbon or char- 
choal is preserved in the ashes, which 
is the most valuable of their constitu- 
ents. The simplest mode of effecting 
a slow combustion is to bank it over 
with earth, leaving only a small orifice 
to admit the air sufficiently to keep up 
a smouldering fire. 

Ashes have been usually recom- 
mended as a manure most useful to 
heavy soils, but this is a decided mis- 
take. As fertilizers they are beneficial 
upon all soils, and they can never be 
applied in sufficient quantity to alter the 
staple of a too tenacious soil. To thirty 
5 



s beans and peas, they hasten the germi- 
nation of the seed, and preserve it from 
mice. They are also used for forming 
dry walks in the kitchen department. 

Soap-boilers' ashes contain — 
Silica .... 

Lime .... 

Magnesia .... 
Alumina .... 
Oxide of Iron 

Manganese 



35.0 
35.0 
2.3 
1.5 
1.7 
1.8 
0.5 
0.2 



Potash (combined with Silica) . 

Soda (Do.) 

Sulphuric Acid (combined with 

Lime) 0.2 

Phosphoric Acid (Do.) . . 3.5 
Common salt . . . .0.1 
Carbonic Acid (combined with 

Lime and Magnesia) . . 18.2 

They are good for all crops but espe- 
cially grass and potatoes. 

Wood ashes and the ashes of garden 
weeds generally contain silica, alumina, 
oxides of iron and manganese, lime, 
magnesia, potash, partly in the state of 
a silicate, soda, sulphates of potash and 
lime, phosphate of lime, chloride of 
sodium, and carbonates of lime, potash, 
and magnesia, with a considerable por- 
tion of charcoal. They are a good appli- 
cation to cabbages, potatoes, and peas. 

Turf ashes contain silica, alumina, 
oxides of iron and manganese, lime, 
magnesia, sulphates of potash and lime, 
phosphates of lime and magnesia, com- 
mon salt, and charcoal. They have 
been used beneficially to grass, onions, 
carrots, beans, potatoes, and beet root. 

ASH-TREE. {Fraxines excelsior.- 

ASIATIC-POISON BULB. (Crinum 
asiaticum.) 



ASI 



ASP 



ASIMINA. Four species. Hardy 
deciduous shrubs. Layers. Peat and 
loam. 

ASPALANTHUS. Thirty-one spe- 
cies. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

ASPARAGUS. Twenty-eight spe- 
cies, of which the most important is 
the kitchen vegetable, asparagus offici- 
nalis. Of this there are only two va- 
rieties, the purple topped and the green 



plants have arisen from the same hole, 
the weakest must be removed as soon 
as that point can be well determined. 
Towards the end of October, as soon 
as the stems are completely withered, 
they must be cut down, and well pu- 
trefied, dung spread over the bed to the 
depth of about two inches; this serves 
not only to increase the vigour of the 
plants in the following year, but to pre- 
serve them during the winter from in- 
topped ; the first is principally culti- I jury by the frost. About March in the 
vated. There are a few sub-varieties next year, every other plant must be 
which derive their names from the taken up and transplanted into a bed, 
places of their growth, and are only to twelve inches apart, if it is intended 
be distinguished for superior size or that thej' should attain another, or two 

years' further growth, before being 
finally planted out, or they may be 



flavour, which they usually lose on re- 
moval from their native place. 



Soil. — The soil best suited to this J planted immediately into the beds for 



vegetable is a fresh sandy loam, made 
rich by the abundant addition of manure. 

Situation. — The site of the beds 
should be such as to enjoy the influ- 
ence of the sun during the whole of the 
day, as free as possible from the influ- 
ence of trees and shrubs, and if choice 
is allowed, ranging east and west. The 
subsoil should be dry, or the bed kept 
so by being founded on rubbish or other 
material to serve as a drain. The space 
of ground required to be planted with 
this vegetable for the supply of a small 
family is at least eight rods. If less it 
will be incapable of affording one hun- 
dred heads at a time. Sixteen rods 
will in general afford two or three hun- 
dred every day, in the height of the 
season. 

Time of sowing. — To raise plants, 
the seed may be sown from the middle 
of February to the beginning of April ; 
the most usual time is about the middle 
of March. The best mode is to insert 
them by the dibble five or six inches 
apart, and an inch below the surface, 
two seeds to be put in each hole, or 
they may be sown in drills made the 
same distance asunder. 

Culture in seed bed. — If dry weather, 
the bed should be refreshed with mode- 
rate but frequent waterings, and if 
sown as late as April, shade is required 
by means of a little haulm during the 
meridian of hot days, until the seeds 
germinate. Care must be taken to keep 
them free from weeds, though this ope- 
ration should never commence until the 



production. It may be here remarked 
that the plants may remain one or two 
years in the seed bed ; they will even 
succeed after remaining three, but if 
they continue four they generally fail. 
It is, however, certain that they are 
best removed when one year old. 

Some gardeners judiciously sow the 
seed in the beds where they are to re- 
main for production. 

Time of final planting. — The best 
time for the final removal is the end of 
March, if the soil is dry, and the season 
warm and forward ; otherwise it is bet- 
ter to wait until the commencement of 
April. A very determinate signal of 
the appropriate time for planting, is 
when the plants are beginning to grow. 
If moved earlier, and they have to lie 
torpid for two or three months, many 
of them die, or in general shoot up very 
weak. 

Construction of the beds. — In forming 
the beds for regular production, have 
them three feet wide. The site of the 
bed being marked out, the usual prac- 
tice is to trench the ground two spades 
deep, and then to cover it with weil- 
rotted manure, from six to ten inches 
deep ; the large stones being sorted out, 
and care taken that the dung lies at 
least six inches below the surface. 

Mode of planting. — The plants being 
taken from the seed-bed carefully with 
a narrow-pronged dung-fork, with as 
little injury to the roots as possible, they 
must be laid separately and evenly to- 
gether, for the sake of convenience 



plants are well above ground, which whilst planting, the roots being apt to 
will be in the course of three or four entangle and cause much trouble and 
weeks from the time of sowing. If two! injury in parting them. They should 



ASP 



67 



ASP 



be exposed as short a time as possible 
to the air, and to this end it is advisable 
to keep them until planted in a basket 
covered with a little sand. The mode 
of planting is to form drills or narrow 
trenches five or six inches deep and a 
foot apart, cut out with the spade, the 
line side of each drill being made per- 
pendicular, and against this the plants 
are to be placed, with their crowns one 
and a half or two inches below the sur- 
face, and twelve inches asunder. The 
roots must be spread out wide in the 
form of a fan, a little earth being drawn 
over each to retain it in its position 
whilst the row is proceeded with. For 
the sake of convenience, one drill 
should be made at a time, and the 
plants inserted and covered completely 
before another is commenced. When 
the planting is completed, the bed is to 
be lightly raked over, and its outline dis- 
tinctly marked out. Care must be had 
never to tread on the beds — they are 
formed narrow to render it unnecessary 
— for everything tending to consoli- 
date them is injurious, as, from the 
length of time they have to continue, 
without a possibility of stirring them to 
any considerable depth, they have a 
natural tendency to have a closer tex- 
ture than is beneficial to vegetation. 
Water must be given in dry weather 
daily until the plants are established. 
The paths between the beds are to be 
two and a half feet wide. 

Mr. Beaton says, that " By far the 
best way of growing asparagus is in 
single rows three feet apart, and nine 
inches plant from plant; but if the 
ground is not deeper than two feet or 
thirty inches, or if room is scarce, the 
rows need not be more than thirty 
inches asunder. 

" I have grown asparagus this way 
for the last fifteen years, and give them 
no dung in winter, merely clearing off 
the stalks and weeds in October, and 
pointing over the surface about two 
inches deep with a fork, and leaving it 
as rough as possible. 

" Early in March, when the surface 
is^ quite dry, it is raked down, and 
about two inches of soil drawn over the 
crowns from each side of the rows, 
which gives the ground something of 
the appearance of a plot of peas earthed 
up for the first time. When the gather- 
ing is nearly over, the ground is stirred 
again, to loosen the tramping made in 



gathering the crop. The hollow be- 
tween the little ridges is then filled up 
with a powerful compost, consisting of 
equal portions of sandy soil, leaf mould, 
and pigeon's dung; the whole is then 
drenched with liquid manure from the 
stables, cowhouses, or laundry, and the 
foreman of the kitchen garden gets 
carte blanche to water the asparagus 
any day through the growing season, 
when he can best spare his men, or at 
all events every fortnight, and always 
with liquid manure if possible. As to 
the quantity of water, the only instruc- 
tion he gets is that he cannot drown 
them. This is cultivating the asparagus ' 
in summer." — Gard. Chron. 

Subsequent cultivation. — Throughout 
the year care must be taken to keep 
the beds clear of weeds, and in the 
spring and summer apply liquid manure 
twice a week plentifully. In the latter 
end of October or commencement of 
November, the beds are to have the 
winter dressing. The stalks must be 
cut down and cleared away, and the 
weeds hoed off into the paths, care 
being taken not to commence whilst 
the stems are at all green, for if they 
are cut down whilst in a vegetating 
state the roots are very prone to shoot 
again, and consequently are propor- 
tionally weakened. 

On the richness of the ground and 
warmth of the season the sweetness of 
asparagus depends. The dung needs 
merely to be laid regularly over the 
bed, and the weeds, as well as some 
manure, to be slightly pointed into the 
paths, some of the mould from which 
must be spread to the depth of two 
inches over the dung just laid upon the 
beds. In the end of March, or early 
in April, before the plants begin to 
sprout, the rows are to be stirred be- 
tween to a moderate depth with the 
asparagus fork, running it slantingly 
two or three inches beneath the sur- 
face, as the object is merely to stir the 
surface and slightly mix it with the 
dung. 

Great care must be taken not in the 
least to disturb the plants. Some gar- 
deners recommend the beds should only 
be hoed again, so fearful are they of the 
injury which may be done to the stools ; 
but if it be done carefully, as above di- 
rected, the fork is the best implement 
to be employed. This course of culti- 
vation is to be continued annually, but 



ASP 



68 



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with this judicious modification, that I to cut. Doubtless all its energies are 
earth be never taken from the paths i developed by the digging in of the ma- 
after the first year, but these merely be | nure in the autumn of the second year, 



covered with dung, and which is only 
to be slightly dug in ; for every gar- 
dener must have observed that the roots 
of the outer row extend into the alleys, 
and are consequently destroyed if they 
are dug over. And, rather than that 
should take place, the beds should have 
no winter covering unless earth can be 
obtained from some other source, as 
asparagus does not generally suffer 
from frost, as is commonly supposed. 

Manuring. — No garden plant is more 
benefitted than is asparagus by the ap- 
plication of common salt, if it be given 
at such times as the plants are growing. 
Two pounds to every thirty square 
yards of surface should be sown broad- 
cast over the beds early in April. After 
that, water the plants once a week with 
liquid manure, formed of half an ounce 
of guano and four ounces of salt to 
every gallon of water. The supply of 
food cannot be too rich or too abundant. 

Spanish culture. — Near Sebastian, in 
Spain, the finest asparagus in Europe 
is produced by the following mode: — 

" In March the seed is sown in two 
drills, about two inches deep, and 
eighteen inches from the alleys, thus 
leaving a space of two feet between 
the drills. The rows run invariably 
east and west, doubtless in order that 
the plants may shade the ground during 
the heats of summer. 



and when it does begin to sprout, it 
finds its roots in contact with a soil of 
inexhaustible fertility. 

" Previously, however, to the cutting, 
each bed is covered in the course of 
March very lightly with dead leaves, 
to the depth of about eight inches ; and 
the cutting does not commence till the 
plants peep through this covering, when 
it is carefully removed from the stems, 
in order that the finest only may be cut, 
which are rendered white by their leafy- 
covering, and succulent by the exces- 
sive richness of the soil. 

" In the autumn of the third year, 
after the first cutting, the leaves are re- 
moved, and the beds are again dressed 
with fresh night soil, as before; and 
these operations are repeated year after 
year. In addition to this, the beds are 
half under salt water annually at spring 
tides." 

Time of production. — In May the 
beds are in full production of young 
shoots, which, when from two to five 
inches high, are fit for cutting, and as 
long as the head continues compact and 
firm. Care must be taken in cutting 
not to injure those buds which are 
generally rising from the same root 
in various grades of successional growth 
within the ground. The knife ought 
to be narrow pointed, the blade about 
I nine inches in length, and saw edged. 



When the seedlings are about six The earth being carefully opened round 
inches high, they are thinned to some- | the shoot, to observe whether any others 



thing more than 
is conducted onc( 



foot apart. Water ; are arising, the blade is to be gently 
day among the | slipped along the stalk until it reaches 



illeys, and over the beds, so as to give i its extremity, where the cut is to be marie 
these seedlings an abundant and con- in a slanting direction. It almost always 
stant supply of fluid during the season I occurs that the same stool produces a 

greater number of small heads than 
large ones, but the latter only should be 



of their growth. This is the cultiva- 
tion during the first year. 



The second year, in the month of cut: for, the oftener the former are re- 



March, the beds are covered with three 
or four inches of fresh night soil from 
the reservoirs of the town. It remains 
on them during the summer, and is 
lightly dug in during the succeeding 
autumn ; the operation of irrigation 
being continued as during the first sea- 



moved, the more numerously will they 
be produced, and the stools will sooner 
become exhausted. * 

" No one should cut too many sprouts 
from his asparagus beds. On the con- 
trary, the gardener should take care to 
leave atleast two orthree strongsprouts, 



son. This excessive stimulus, and the to grow from every root; or what is 
abundant room the plants have to grow better, his beds should be rested one 



in, must necessarily make them ex- 
tremely vigorous, and prepare them 
for the production of gigantic sprouts. 



year, and cut another; for he may be 
certain from the strength of the sum- 
mer shoots, what sort of sprouts he 



In the third spring asparagus is fit | will have to cut the succeeding year- 



ASP 



69 



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remembering always that it is useless 
to manure asparagus beds for sprouts 
independently of summer shoots. If a 
bed of asparagus is weak, manure in 
the autumn will do but little for making 
it bring strong sprouts the next season. 
All that the manure can then do is to 
feed abundantly the summer shoots 
of the succeeding summer, and so ena- 
ble them to prepare plenty of materials 
out of which a second season's strong 
sprouts may be pushed forth. What is 
true of asparagus is equally true of 
sea kale and rhubarb." — Gard. Chron. 

To obtain seed. — Some shoots should 
be marked and left in early spring, for 
those which are allowed to run up after 
the season of cutting is over, are seldom 
forward enough to ripen their seeds 
perfectly. In choosing the shoots for 
this purpose, those only must be marked 
which are the finest, roundest, and 
have the closest heads; those having 
quick opening heads, or are small or 
flat, are never to be left. More are to 
be selected than would be necessary if 
each stem would assuredly be fruitful ; 
but as some of them only bear male or 
unproductive blossoms, that contin- 
gency must be allowed for. Each 
chosen shoot must be fastened to a stake, 
which by keeping it in its natural posi- 
tion, enables the seed to ripen more 
perfectly. 

The seed is usually ripe in September, 
when it must be collected and left in a 
tub for four or six weeks, for the pulp 
and husk of the berry to decay, when 
it may be well cleansed in water. The 
seeds sink to the bottom, and the re- 
fuse floats, and will pass away with 
the water as it is gently poured off. By 
two or three washings the seeds will 
be completely cleansed ; and when 
perfectly dried by exposure to the sun 
and air, may be stored for use. 

Forcing. — Plants to be employed. — 
Such plants must be inserted in hot-beds 
as are five or six years old, and appear 
of sufficient strength to produce vigo- 
rous shoots: when, however, any old 
natural ground plantations are intended 
to be broken up, at the proper season 
some of the best plants may be selected 
to be plunged in a hot-bed or any spare 
corner of the stove bark beds. When 
more than ten years old, they are 
scarcely worth employing. To plant 
old stools for the main forcing crop, is, 
however, decidedly erroneous; for, if 



plants are past production, and unfit 
to remain in the garden, little can be 
expected from them when forced. 

Time of planting. — The first planta- 
tion should be made about the latter 
end of September; the bed, if it works 
favourably, will begin to produce in the 
course of four or five weeks, and will 
continue to do so for about three ; each 
light producing in that time 300 or 400 
shoots, and affording a gathering every 
two or three days. 

Produce. — To have a regular suc- 
cession, a fresh bed must be formed 
every three or four weeks, the last crop 
to be planted in March or the early 
part of April ; this will continue in 
production until the arrival of the natu- 
ral ground crops. The last made bede 
will be in production a fortnight sooner 
than those made about Christmas. 

Bed. — The hot-bed must be substan- 
tial, and proportioned to the size and 
number of* the lights, and to the time of 
year. The common mode of making 
a hot-bed is usually followed. The 
bed must be topped with six inches of 
light rich earth. 

Quantity necessary. — If a small family 
is to be supplied, three or four lights 
will be sufficient at a time ; for a larger 
six or eight will not be too many. 
Several hundred plants may be inserted 
under each, as they may be crowded 
as close as possible together ; from 
500 to 900 are capable of being inserted 
under a three light frame, according to 
their size. 

Mode of planting. — In planting, a 
furrow being drawn the whole length of 
the frame, against one side of it the 
first row or course is to be placed, the 
crown upright, and a little earth drawn 
on to the lower ends of the roots, then 
more plants again in the same manner, 
and so cqntinued throughout, it being 
carefully observed to keep them all 
regularly about an inch below the sur- 
face ; all round on the edge of the bed 
some moist earth must be banked close 
to the outside roots. 

Precautions necessary. — If the bed is 
extensive, it will probably acquire a 
violent heat; the frames must there- 
fore be continued off until it has be- 
come regular, otherwise the roots are 
liable to be destroyed by being, as it is 
technically termed, scorched or steam- 
scalded. 

Treatment.— When the heat has be- 



ASP 



70 



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come regular, the frames may be set 
on ; and more earth be applied by de- 
grees over the crowns of the plants 
until it acquires a total depth of five or 
six inches. 

The glasses must be kept open an 
inch or two, as long and as often as 
possible, without too great a reduction 
o f temperature occurring, so as to ad- 
mit air freely and give vent to the va- 
pours ; for on this depends the superi- 
ority in flavour and appearance of the 
shoots. The heat must be kept up by a 
lining of hot dung, and by covering the 
glasses every night with mats, &c. 

The temperature at night should 
never be below 50°, and in the day its 
maximum at 62°. 

Gathering. — In gathering, for which 
the shoots are fit when from two to five 
inches in height, the finger and thumb 
must be thrust down into the earth and 
the stem broken off at the bottom. 

Insects. — The foliage of this vege- 
table is liable to be destroyed by the 
larvae of two beetles, the Lema asparagi, 
or Asparagus Beetle, and the Lema duo- 
decim punctata. The only remedy is 
to pick off and destroy the affected 
branches. 

ASPASIA. Two species. Stove epi- 
phytes. Bulbs. Peat and potsherds. 

ASPEN, (Populus tremula.) 

ASPERULA, Woodroof. Twenty- 
four species. Hardy herbaceous, ex- 
cept A. brevifolia, which is a half-hardy 
evergreen. Division. Moist shaded soil. 

ASPHODELUS. Asphodel. Twelve 
species. Hardy bulbs, except A. clava- 
tus and intermedia. Offsets. Common 
soil. 

ASPIDISTRA. Two species. Stove 
herbaceous. Suckers. Common soil. 
Flowers produced under ground. 

ASPIDIUM. Forty-nine species. 
Ferns. Hardy, green-house or stove. 
Seed or division. Loam and peat. 

ASPIDIOTUS. See Coccus. 

ASPLENIUM. Forty-nine species. 
Ferns. Hardy, green-house or stove. 
Seed or division. Loam and peat. 

ASSONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

ASTARTEA fascicularis. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

ASTELMA. Ten species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Seed or cut- 
tings. Sandy peat. 



ASTEPHANUS. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen twiners. Di- 
' vision. Peat and loam. 

ASTER. One hundred and fifty-two 
species. Chiefly hardy, but a few 
' green-house plants. - Suckers or divi- 
sion. Common soil. The time for 
thus propagating them is in autumn, or 
early spring ; but many of the species 
: are increased by cuttings of the flower 
stalks, planted in a shady border during 
1 May or June. The varieties. are numer- 
ous. 

ASTEROCEPHALUS. Fifty-three 
species. Mostly hardy annuals and 
j perennials. Seed or cuttings. Com- 
; mon soil. 

ASTILBE decandra. Hardy herb- 
j aceous. Division. Peat. 

ASTRAGALUS. One hundred and 

j eleven species. Nearly all hardy pe- 

j rennials and annuals; the first propa- 

| gated by division, the second by seed. 

Common soil. 

ASTRANTIA. Six species. Hardy 
[ herbaceous. Division. Common light 
| soil. 

ASTRAP^SA. Three species. Stove 
i evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich light 
soil. 

ASTROCARYUM. Five species. 
Palms. Stove. Seed. Rich loam. 

ASTROLOBIUM. Four species. 
Hardy annuais. Seed. Common soil. 
ASTROLOMA. Two species. 
Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

ASTYRIA rosea. Stove shrub. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. 

ATALANTIA monophylla. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich 
loam. 

ATAMASCO-LILY (Zephyr anthes 
Atamasco). 

ATHALIA spinarum. Turnip Saw- 
fly, known popularly as the Black-cater- 
pillar, Black-canker, Black-palmer, Ne- 
gro, &c. 

Mr. Curtis observes, that "As early 
! as May, or sooner, the Saw-flies make 
| their appearance ; the female lays her 
eggs on the under surface along the 
margin of the leaf. These hatch in 
about five days, and produce the Ne- 
groes, which are not thicker than a fine 
j thread, and white, but after changing 
their skins, they become black, and 
eventually are three-quarters of an 
inch long, when they are more of a 
, lead colour and yellowish-white be- 



ATH 



AUG 



neath their skins, being very much 
wrinkled ; they erect their tails whilst 
feeding, and are stretched out at full 
length in repose, or lie sleeping coiled 
up on the leaf; they are feeding about 
three weeks, after which they descend 
to the ground, and enter the earth, 
where they form a cocoon, silvery in- 
side, in which the larva eventually be- 
comes a pupa. In summer they remain 
only three weeks in this quiescent state, 
but the autumnal ones lie buried through 
the winter." — Gard. Chron. Hand- 
picking is the only mode of removing 
the caterpillars. 

ATHANASIA. Seventeen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. 

ATHEROSPERMA moschata. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

ATHRIXIA capensis. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
loam. 

ATRAGENE. Five species. Hardy 
deciduous climbers. Cuttings. Com- 
mon soil. 

ATRIPLEX. Three species. See 
Orach. 

ATTALEA. Seven species. Palms. 
Stove. Seed. Rich loam. 

AUBRIETIA. Three species. Hardy 
evergreen trailers. Division and cut- 
tings. Light soil. 

A U C U B A japonica. Evergreen 
shrub, hardy in the middle states on 
light dry soil. The leaves, if exposed 
to the sun during winter, are liable to 
injury. Cuttings. Common soil. 

AUDISERTIA incana. Hardy ever- 
green slirub. Seed. Common soil. 

AUDOUINIA capitata. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. 

AUGUST. This is a glorious month 
in the middle states ; towards its close 
the extreme heat of summer has sub- 
sided, the mornings and evenings are 
cool and pleasant; the luscious peach, 
and pears, and plums are in full sea- 
son, and one really feels as if he could 
compromise for August the year round. 

The various departments now re- 
quire the following work to be at- 
tended to : — the directions for the 
kitchen garden are specially intended 
for the middle portion of the Union. 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Alexanders, sow. — Angelica, sow. — 



Aromatic Herbs may still be. planted ; 
gather for drying and distilling. — Arti- 
chokes, break down, &c. — Asparagus- 
beds, weed. — Balm, plant; gather for 
drying. — Borage, sow. — Borecole, plant. 
— Brocoli, plant, b. — Cabbages, plant 
out. — Cardoons, earth up. — Cauli- 
flowers, late, plant. — Celeriac, earth up. 
— Celery, plant. — Chervil, sow. — Cole- 
worts, sow for, b. ; plant. — Corn Salad, 
sow. — Cress, sow. — Cucumbers, plant 
or sow, b. — Dillis fit for gathering. — 
Earthing-up, attend to. — Endive, plant ; 
blanch, &c, the advancing crops. — 
Fennel, sow and plant. — Finochio, 
earth up. — Garlic, take up. — Hoeing, 
attend to. — Kidney Beans, sow, b. — 
Leeks, plant, b. — Lettuces, sow, plant 
out. — Melons, attend to. — Mint, gather 
for drying. — Mushroom-beds, make ; at- 
tend to. — Nasturtium Berries, gather.- — 
Onions, gather. — Parsley, sow, b. — 
Peas, sow, b. — Radishes, sow ; gather 
pods for pickling. — Rape (edible rooted), 
sow. — Rochambole, take up. — Seeds, 
gather as ripe. — Shallots, take up. — 
Small Salading, sow. — Spinach, sow. — 
Stir between plants in rows, &c. — 
Turnips, sow at intervals, through- 
out the month, &c. — Turnip- Cabbage, 
plant. — Weeding and Watering, at- 
tend to. — Wormwood, plant, b. — To- 
matos, plant for late crop. 

ORCHARD. 

Budding, done in July; loosen the 
bandages, if on more than three weeks ; 
remove shoots from stocks ; budding 
may be done in most fruit, b. — Fig 
Trees, train in closely to let the fruit 
have the full benefit of the sun ; but do 
not prune. Nectarines, look over ; re- 
move useless shoots; train in close; 
water plentifully or the fruit will drop. 
Nets, spread over fruit to protect it 
from birds. — Peaches. — Vines, look over 
again and clear from useless shoots, &c. 
Wasps, destroy by luring them into 
bottles. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Anemones, sow. — Annuals, stick ; wa- 
ter ; clear from decayed leaves, &c. 
Auriculas, shift into fresh earth ; water; 
keep in the shade ; seedlings prick out; 
sow. — Biennial seedlings, transplant. 
Bulbous-rooted flower-seeds, to obtain 
varieties, sow. — Bulbous roots, remove 
or transplant ; remove and plant offsets; 
(Autumn flowering), plant. — Carnation, 



AUG 



72 



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layers cut from old root and plant; 
water frequently ; layering may still be 
done, b. ; card the flowers and shade 
from sun. — Dahlias, stake; thin the 
flowers. — Daisies, propagate. — Double- 
blossomed perennials with fibrous roots, 
propagate by division, e. — Dress borders 
as required. — Edgings of box, &c, clip 
in wet weather. — Evergreens may be 
moved, e., if wet weather; plant cut- 
tings. — Grass, mow and roll weekly. — 



&c, b. — Budding, finish, b. — Dress 
every plant as occasion offers. — Earth, 
give to Oranges, &c. ; stir the surface 
frequently.— Oranges, Lemons, &c, bud, 
b — Peat-mduld plants, especially heaths, 
keep assiduously supplied with water. — 
Potted Plants, continue outside the 
house until the end of the month. — 
Seedlings, transplant singly. — Shifting 
into larger pots, finish. — Succulent 
Plants, as Aloes, &c, propagate by 



Grass seeds maybe sown, e. — Gravel, slips, &c, b. — Water freely and daily 

in dry weather. 

AULAX. Two species. Green-house 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand and 
a little loam. 

AURICULA. {Primula Auricula.) 
This is a popular Florist's flower, and 
animated contests take place for the 
premiums annually offered by the Eng- 
lish provincial Horticultural Societies. 

Varieties. — Mr. Slater, Florist, of 
Cheetham Hill, Manchester, says, " For 
an amateur's first collection, procure of 
Green-edged: Rider's Waterloo; Pol- 
litt 1 s Standard of England and Highland 
Laddie; Ollier's Lady Anne Wilbraham; 
Oliver's Lovely Anne; shown also in 
grey-edged class. Grey-edged: Grimes 
Privateer; Kenyon's Ringleader ; War- 
ns Union; Sykes Complete; Thomp- 
son's Revenge. White-edged : Taylor's 
Glory ; Leigh's Bright Venus; Taylor's 
Favourite ; Kenyon's Lord Chancellor ; 
Leigh's Pillar of Beauty. Selfs: Grimes, 
Hovas, Flag; Berry's Lord Primate; 
Whittaker's True Blue. Alpines: Em- 
merson's Favourite ; Fieldhouse's Fair 
Rosamond. 

2d. " As an addition to his collec- 
tion, obtain of Green-edged: Booth's 
Freedom; Leigh's Colonel Taylor; 
Yates's Morris ; Green Hero ; Page's 
Champion ; Ashton's Prince of Wales ; 
Clough's Dolittle ; Barlow's King ; Lit- 
ton's Imperator ; Howard's Nelson ; 
Pearson's Badajos ; Pollit's Ruler of 
England ; Buckley's Jolly Tar; Faulk- 
ner's Ne Plus Ultra. Grey -edged : 
Fletcher's, Mary Anne, and Ne Plus 
Ultra ; Waterhouse's Conqueror of Eu- 
rope ; Thompson's Bang-up ; Taylor's 
Ploughboy; Pearson's Liberty; Howard's 
Sweepstake; shown also in green-edged 
class. White-edged: Ashworth's Rule 
All and Regular ; Taylor's Incompara- 
ble ; Wood's Delight ; Popplewell's 
Conqueror ; Potts' Regulator ; Ashton's 
Bonny Lass; Cheetham's Countess ot 
Wilton. Alpines: King of the Alps; 



weed and roll weekly. — Hedges, clip in 
moist weather. — Mignonette, sow. — Pe- 
largoniums, propagate by cuttings, b. — 
Perennials, in pots and elsewhere, 
will require. water almost daily; break 
down flower stalks as they finish bloom- 
ing ; seedlings, transplant. — Pipings of 
Pinks may be planted out. — Polyan- 
thuses, sow. — Potted Annuals will re- 
quire water daily in dry weather. — Ra- 
nunculuses, sow ; plant in pots to bloom 
in November. — Seeds, gather as they 
ripen. — Soioings, to obtain varieties, 
had better be done in boxes. — Ten-week 
Stock, sow, b. — Tulips, and other bulb- 
ous-rooted flower-seed, sow. — Turf, 
may be laid, e. — Watering will be re- 
quired generally in dry weather. — 
Weeding, generally attend to. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely every day. — Bark- 
beds, stir and add fresh. — Bulbous-rooted 
Plants, force plants in pots; they will be 
much stronger than if done in the next 
month. — Check plants growing too free- 
ly, by removing them to cooler situa- 
tions. — Cuttings of succulents, and 
some others, may be planted, b. — 
Dress the plants, by removing all de- 
cayed parts, weeds, &c, and stirring the 
soil as appears necessary. — Grafting of 
Ipomasas, and some other sorts, may be 
practised. — Pines, finish shifting, b. ; 
water frequently ; and shade until well 
established, then give liquid manure 
weekly ; plant crowns and suckers as 
required ; day temp. 85° ; night 60°. — 
Shifting, wherever necessary, complete 
b.; especially the orchideous plants. — 
Suckers, offsets, &c, may yet be planted. 
— Vines; remove damaged grapes from 
bunches as they appear ; give liquid 
manure to those beginning to ripen. — 
Water, give freely every second day. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Aloes, propagate by slips, suckers, 



AUR 



73 



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Queen Victoria ; Conspicuous ; Pvising 
Sun; Fair Helen; Kettleby's True Blue. 
Selfs: Redmayn's Metropolitan; Ne- 
therwood's Othello ; Berry's Lord Lee; 
Clegg's Blue Bonnet; Kay's Jupiter; 
Kenyon's Freedom; Gorton's Stadt- 
holder, (yellow,) Hufcon's Squire'Mun- 
day. Lastly, these are worthy of a 
place in any collection. Green-edged: 
Hopworth's Robin Hood ; Moore's 
Jubilee ; Lightbody's Star of Beth- 
lehem ; Stretch's Alexander. Grey- 
edged: Atcherley's Alpine Shepherd- 
ess; Metcalfe's Lancashire Hero; 
Ashworth's Newton Hero ; Simpson's 
Lord of Hallamshire ; Kent's Queen 
Victoria. White-edged: Lily of the 
Valley ; Wild's Bright Phoebus ; Leigh's 
Earl Grosvenor. Selfs : Oddie's Rest, 
Goldfinch, (yellow,) Faulkner's Han- 
nibal ; Bradshaw's Tidy. I ought to 
have stated that the amateur's first 
collection comprises such as are not 
high priced, and yet good ; but it must 
not be forgotten that the second addi- 
tion contains all the first-rate varieties 
in cultivation, with very few excep- 
tions." — Gard. Chron. 

Characteristics of excellence. — " In 
its general appearance, the foliage 
should be well grown and healthy, 
covering a space about equal to double 
the width of the head of bloom. The 
6tem should be firm, erect, and suffi- 
ciently strong to support the truss with- 
out assistance, and to carry it well above 
the foliage. The foot-stalks of the pip 
should be strong and of such a length 
as will allow the flowers to open with- 
out one overlaying another, the whole 
forming a compact globular head of 
well expanded flowers equal in size and 
similar in properties. 

" The addition of one or two guard- 
leaves, standing up at the back of the 
truss, gives a finish to the whole, and 
adds considerably to its beauty by the 
contrast they form with the vivid and 
lively appearance of the flowers. 

" The qualities which the individual 
pip should possess consist in its being 
perfectly round, flat and smooth on the 
edge ; the divisions which form the seg- 
ments of the corolla should be but 
slightly indented, thereby rendering the 
circles more perfect. 

" The tube or centre must be round, 
of a yellow colour, filled with the an- 
thers or thrum. 

" The eye or paste round the tube 



should form a perfect circle of a dense 
pure white, clean on its edges, even, 
and free from blemishes. 

" The band of colour surrounding the 
eye should be dark, rich, or bright, 
joining the margin with a feathery edge, 
equally distributed all round, but never 
encroaching so much upon the edge as 
to pass through to the rim. 

" The margin or outer edge must be 
of a permanent green or grey colour. 
The circles which compose the face of 
j the pip are considered of the finest pro- 
| portion when they are of a uniform 
width, that of each circle being half the 
diameter of the tube." — Gard. Chron. 

Propagation is effected by, taking slips 
from and dividing roots of approved va- 
rieties, after the seed has ripened in 
July and August. 

Diseases. — The auricula is liable to 
have its roots ulcerated or cankered if 
the pots are not well drained. This is 
best done by having the pots one-fourth 
filled with rubbly charcoal, and the soil 
not too much divested of pebbles. At 
the blooming time the aphis or greenfly 
sometimes attacks the plants ; these oan 
only be removed individually by means 
of a camel's-hair pencil. 

AVENUE, is a road bordered by 
trees on each side, and being, as ob- 
served by Whately, confined to one ter- 
mination, and excluding every view on 
the sides, has a tedious sameness 
throughout; to be great it must be dull, 
and the object to which it is appropri- 
ated is after all seldom shown to advan- 
tage. Buildings in general do not ap- 
pear so large, and are not so beautiful 
when looked at in front, as when they 
are seen from an angular situation, which 
commands two sides at once, and throws 
them both in perspective ; but a wind- 
ing lateral approach is free from these 
objections, it may besides be brought 
up to the house without disturbing any 
of the views from it, but an avenue cuts 
the scenery directly in two, and reduces 
all the prospect to a narrow vista. A 
mere line of perspective, be the extent 
what it may, will seldom compensate 
for the loss of that space which it divides, 
and of the parts which it conceals. 
These kind of walks were formerly much 
more the fashion than they are at pre- 
sent : where they are to be made, the 
common elm answers very well for the 
purpose in most grounds, except such 
as are very wet and shallow, and pre- 



AVE 



74 



AZ A 



ferred to most other trees, because it 
bears cutting, heading, or lopping in 
any manner. The rough Dutch elm is 
approved by some because of its quick 
growth, and it is a tree that will not 
only bear removing very well, but that 
is green in the spring almost as soon as 
any plant whatever, and continues so 
equally long. It makes an incompara- 
ble hedge, and is preferable to all other 
trees for lofty espaliers. The lime is 
very useful on account of its regular 
growth and fine shade, and the horse- 
chestnut is proper for such places as are 
not too much exposed to rough winds. 
The common chestnut does very well in 
a good soil*, or on warm gravels, as it 
rises to a considerable height, when 
planted somewhat close ; but when it 
stands singly it is rather inclined to 
spread than grow tall. The beech na- 
turally grows well with us in its wild 
state, but it is less to be chosen for ave- 
nues than others, because it does not 
bear transplanting well. The abele may 
also be employed for this use, as it is 
adapted to almost any soil, and is the 
quickest grower of any forest tree. It 
seldom fails in transplanting, and suc- 
ceeds very well in wet soils, in which 
the others are apt to suffer. The oak 
is but seldom used for avenues, because 
of its slow growth ; it would, however, 
compensate by its permanence and 
beauty. The sugar maple, tulip poplar, 
oriental and native buttonwood are all 
"well adapted to the purpose. 

AVERRHOA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

AVERUNCATOR, or pole pruning 
shears. The Averuncator, attached to 
a pole, operates by means of a lever 
moved by a cord and pulley ; its use is 
to prune from the ground trees whose 
branches are beyond reach. Branches 
of one inch and a half in diameter may 
be easily cut off with this instrument. 
Averuncators of small size, arc also very 
useful in cutting off from shade and 
fruit trees small branches to which in- 
sests have attached themselves : they 
are also used for gathering fine fruits, 
which when cut fall into a basket, to be 
attached to the instrument when used 
for this purpose. 

Fig. 20 is a very effective instrument 
of a similar kind, and has the advantage 
of a sliding cut, which lessens the labour 
of pruning, and leaves the branch which 



has been cut as smooth as though a knife 
had been used ; this instrument is supe- 
perior to Fig. 19 in this respect, but 
will not cut a branch of greater diame- 
ter than one inch. 

Fig. 19. 




AVIARY. This building, devoted 
to the rearing of birds distinguished for 
the beauty either of their notes or plum- 
age, is rarely admitted within a garden, 
and still more rarely are they sufficient- 
ly ornamental or sufficiently free from 
disagreeables to be a source of pleasure. 

AYENIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
greens. Cuttings. Rich loam. 

AZALEA. Sixty species, and many 
varieties. The North American are 
hardy and deciduous, and the Chinese 
or Indian are green-house evergreens. 
Cuttings. Sandy peat and loam. 

Mr. James Falconer, of Cheam, gives 
the following excellent directions for 



AZ A 



75 



AZ A 



cultivating the varieties of Azalea ln- 
dica. 

Soil. — " The soil best adapted for their 
growth is a peaty earth found on com- 
mons where heath abounds, of a light 
fibrous texture, and containing a good 
portion of sand. It should be pared off 
from three inchesto fourinches deep, the 
turves should be spread bottom upwards, 
and exposed to the sun during summer, 
and after having a few showers of rain 
upon it to restore it to a proper degree 
of moisture, it maybe laid up in narrow 
ridges in the autumn; it c in then be 
taken to the potting-shed as required. 
When used, it should be broken or se- 
parated with a trowel, and not sifted, 
rejecting the undecayed surface ; and 
for the strong-growing varieties, to six- 
eighths of peat and one-eighth loam, 
and one-eighth silver sand. 

" Sowing. — The Indian Azaleas ripen 
their seed in February, which should be 
sown about the. beginning of March in 
pots with ample drainage, and a larger 
portion of silver sand mixed with the 
peat. The pot should be filled to within 
half an inch of the top, and pressed 
evenly and firmly down with the bottom 
of another. 

" The seed should then be sown re- 
gularly over the surface, and after being 
covered sufficiently deep with peat, 
again pressed down, so that, after being 
watered, the seed may remain buried. 
The pots should be placed on a shelf in 
the green-house, and shaded from the 
direct rays of the sun. 

" It is better that the seeds should ve- 
getate by the increasing heat of the 
spring than by artificial means, since 
they will come up stronger, and are not 
so liable to damp off. They may be 
pricked out into other pots as soon as > 
they have made two or three leaves, 
and as they advance in growth they may j 
be potted into thumbs, or small sixties, j 
in which they may remain in winter. 

" Culture. — About the beginning of I 
March those which are intended for i 
specimens should be put into a house | 
at a temperature of from 45° to 50°, 
where they will soon be excited to 
grow. If in sixty or forty sized pots, j 
they should be shifted into sizes larger; j 
but it is better to do this when the 
plants are in a growing state. They 
should then be shaded for a few days, 
and when the flower is shut up in the 
afternoon, gently syringed. 



"Many varieties will throw up three 
or four stems ; the strongest should be 
selected for a leader. When growing, 
they should have plenty of air and light, 
without being exposed to a cold cur- 
rent, which is so frequently prejudicial 
to young plants in the spring, when 
clear sunshine and cold winds prevail. 
As they will be required to grow as late 
in the autumn as the weather will per- 
mit without applying fire-heat, and as 
it is not desirable that they should form 
flower-buds this season, those which 
want pot-room should be again shifted 
about the latter end of July. Great care 
should be taken that they are not over- 
potted, and that they have sufficient 
drainage; elevating the collar of the 
stem considerably, by rounding the 
upper side of the ball, but not so as to 
injure the tender and delicate fibres. 
The azalea is liable to canker from the 
water remaining too long about the col- 
lar ; therefore, in watering, the spout 
of the pot should never be applied to it, 
as the cold current of water frequently 
repeated will check the flow of sap, 
and ultimately cause death. 

" They should be placed at the back 
of the green-house during the winter, 
as near the glass as convenient, to ripen 
the wood. 

" In the following spring they should 
be subjected to the same treatment, 
and again shifted into larger pots. — 
About the latter end of July they will 
have the afternoon sun. Free from the 
drip of trees and protected from high 
winds, the plants will now be of suffi- 
cient size to bloom, and in September 
will have formed their flower-buds. 

" When out of doors they should be 
occasionally syringed overhead in very 
dry weather, and the ground around 
them frequently stirred and watered. 

"About the middle of December, 
two or three varieties should be put 
into a forcing-house, ranging from 50" 
to 65°; these will begin to bloom about 
the latter end of January, after which 
they should be removed to the green- 
house or conservatory, to which they 
will give much brilliancy, and in mild 
weather impart a mild perfume. About 
a week before the first have expand- 
ed their blossoms, another succession 
should be put in, selecting those which 
from the enlargement of their buds give 
evidence of their susceptibility of ex- 
citement ; observing that the more va- 



AZ A 



76 

— ♦— 



B AL 



rious the colour of the flower, the better 
effect will be produced in the green- 
house. It is a safe rule to keep up for 
a succession three or four varieties, to 
be put into heat as above stated, once 
a month, until the season is so far ad- 
vanced that the flowers are bursting in 
the cool house. 

44 They should then be taken into 
heat, by which means the flower will 
be larger, the colours more brilliant, and 
their fragrance more delightful. Every 
means should be adopted to prevent 
the attacks of the humble bee, as everv 



blossom in which it inserts its proboscis nard. Twelve species. Chiefly stove 



fall off in a few hours afterward 
"When the large specimen plants 
have done flowering, all the seed ves- 
sels should be picked off, leaving such 
as are intended for seed. They should 
be then shifted and encouraged to grow; 
afterwards placing them out of doors, 
as before stated. 

" Great care should be taken at all 
times to keep them free from insects, 
as they are liable to be attacked by a 
species of thrips, for which the best 
remedy is a strong fumigation of to- 
bacco. The varieties Variegata and La- 
teritia, are early excited in the spring ; 
but are nevertheless the latest bloomers; 
they will make stronger and finer spe- 
cimens by being inarched on the most 
robust stocks. 

" If after they have made their au- 
tumnal growth they should not have 
formed flower-buds, by placing them in 
a stove in a strong moist heat, until 
they have again burst into leaf, and then 
removing them to a cold green-house, 
the excitement produced will frequently 
cause them to set their flower-buds." — 
Gard. Chron. Our own native varieties 
have been sadly overlooked in the 
search for foreign beauty — those from 
the far south are equally hardy with 
those of the middle states, and are 
readily cultivated ; the varieties are nu- 
merous, and embrace almost every 
shade of colour, including pure white, 
from light yellow to brilliant flame; 
they thrive better partially screened 
from the sun's rays, and demand a pe- 
culiar soil easily compounded by a 
mixture of surface earth from woodland, 
and decomposed turf or grass sods, in 
about equal proportions. The two ear- 
liest collections of this splendid shrub 
were made at the Bartram Botanic 
Gardens, and the Landreth Nurseries, 



where, it is probable, the finest speci- 
mens in a cultivated state still exist. 

AZARA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
Sandy loam. 

AZOREAN FENNEL. See Fino- 
chio. 

BABIANA. Eighteen species. 
Green-house bulbs. Offsets or seeds. 
Sand, loam and peat. 

B A C A Z I A spinosa. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

BACCHARIS. Ploughman's Spike- 



and green-house evergreen shrubs. B. 
glomerijlora and halimifolia are hardy 
deciduous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

BACTRIS. Seven species. Palms. 
Stove. Seed. Sandy loam. 

BADGER'S BANE, Aconitum meloc- 
tonum. 

B.ECKIA. Nine species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
Loam and peat. 

BAKING is a term descriptive of the 
hard impervious state of clayey soils, 
long exposed to drought. It can be 
prevented only by altering the staple of 
the soil , by the admixture of sand , chal k , 
coal-ashes, and other less cohesive mat- 
ters than clay. 

BALANTIUM culcita. Stove fern. 
Division. Peat and loam. 

BALM (Melissa officinalis). 

Soil and situation. — The soil best 
suited to its growth, is any poor and 
friable, but rather inclining to clayey 
than silicious. Manure is never re- 
quired. An eastern aspect is best for it. 

Time and mode of planting. — It is 
propagated by offsets of the roots, and 
by slips of the young shoots. The first 
mode maybe practised anytime during 
the spring and autumn, but the latter 
only during May or June. If offsets 
are employed, they may be planted at 
once where they are to remain, at ten 
or twelve inches ; but if by slips, they 
must be inserted in a shady border, to 
be thence removed, in September or 
October, to where they are to remain. 
At every removal water must be given, 
if dry weather, and until they are estab- 
lished. During the summer they re- 
quire only to be kept clear of weeds. 
In October the old beds require to be 
dressed, their decayed leaves and stalks 
cleared away, and the soil loosened by 
the hoe or slight digging. 



B AL 



BAN 



Old beds may be gathered from in 
July, for drying, but their green leaves 
from March and September, and those 
planted in spring, will even afford a 
gathering in the autumn of the same 
year. For drying, the stalks are cut 
with their full clothing of leaves to the 
very bottom, and the process completed 
gradually in the shade. 

BALM OF GILEAD. Several plants 
are popularly known under this name. 
"The Balm of Gilead of commerce is the 
dried juice of a low tree or shrub {amyris 
gileadensis), which grows in several 
parts of Abyssinia and Syria. This tree 
has spreading, crooked branches; small, 
bright-green leaves, growing in threes ; 
and small, white flowers on separate 
footstalks. The petals are four in num- 
ber, and the fruit is a small, egg-shaped 
berry, containing a smooth nut. By the 
inhabitants of Syria and Egypt, this bal- 
sam, as appears from the Scriptures, 
was in great esteem from the highest 
periods of antiquity. We are informed 
by Josephus, the Jewish historian, that 
the balsam of Gilead was one of the 
trees which was given by the queen of 
Sheba to king Solomon. The Ishmael- 
itish merchants, who were the pur- 
chasers of Joseph, are said to have been 
traveling from Gilead, on the eastern 
side of Canaan, to Egypt, and to have 
had their camels laden with 'spicery, 
balm and myrrh.' It was then, and is 
still, considered one of the most valua- 
ble medicines that the inhabitants of 
those countries possess. The virtues, 
however, which have been ascribed to 
it exceed all rational bounds of credi- 
bility. The mode in which it is obtain- 
ed is described by Mr. Bruce. The 
bark of the tree is cut with an axe, at 
a time when its juices are in their 
strongest circulation. These, as they 
ooze through the wound, are received 
into small earthen bottles ; and every 
day's produce is gathered, and poured 
into a larger bottle, which is closely 
corked. When the juice first issues 
from the wound, it is of a light-yellow 
colour, and a somewhat turbid appear- 
ance ; but, as it settles, it becomes 
clear, has the colour of honey, and ap- 
pears more fixed and heavy than at first. 
Its smell, when fresh, is exquisitely fra- 
grant, strongly pungent, not much un- 
like that of volatile salts; but if the 
bottle be left uncorked, it soon loses 
this quality. Its taste is bitter, acrid, 



aromatic and astringent. The quantity 
of balsam yielded by one tree never 
exceeds 60 drops in a day. Hence its 
scarcity is such, that the genuine bal- 
sam is seldom exported as an afticle of 
commerce. Even at Constantinople, 
the centre of trade of those countries, 
it cannot, without great difficulty, be 
procured. In Turkey, it is in high es- 
teem as a medicine, an odoriferous un- 
guent and a cosmetic. But its stimu- 
lating properties upon the skin are such, 
that the face of a person unaccustomed 
to use it becomes red and swollen after 
its application, and continues so for 
some days. The Turks also take it in 
small qantities, in water, to fortify the 
stomach/' — Encyc. Am. 

BALSAM or LADIES' SLIPPERS 
(Impatiens triflora). The cultivation of 
this common yet beautiful half hardy 
annual is so thoroughly understood, aa 
not to require remark farther than " we 
believe it to be true, that old seeds 
produce finer balsams under equal cir- 
cumstances than new seeds ; and the 
reason is thought to be, that the plants 
raised from old seeds are not so vigor- 
ous as others." — Gard. Chron. 

BALSAM APPLE. Momordica bal- 
saminea. 

BALSAMINA. Balsam. Eleven 
species. Green-house annuals. Seeds. 
Light rich loamv soil. 

BALSAMODENDRON zeylanicum. 
Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

BALSAM-TREE. Clusia. 

BANANA-TREE. Musa, Sa- 
fientum. 

BANE-BERRY. AcAcbcl. 

BANNISTERIil. Thirteen species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen twining plants. 
Cuttings. Loam and sandy peat. 

BANKS (sloping), says Mr. Barnes, 
" Are of great advantage in bringing 
forth vegetation of all kinds at an early 
season in a healthy state, and in the 
greatest abundance. Another great ad- 
vantage is their forming a boundary and 
shelter to the valleys, borders, or slips 
between them, dividing the quarters 
into any desired portions, for the suc- 
cession of all vegetable crops, salads, 
&c. By cropping both sides, the season 
ofthedifferent^rticles is prolonged, and 
through their being placed in such a 
healthy situation, I find I can always 
secure abundance of salads, lettuce, 
endive, radishes, cauliflower, and cab- 



BAN 



78 



BAR 



bage-plants. The first early cabbage 
and peas I have planted in these sloping 
banks with great advantage. The win- 
ter endive being cleared and the slopes 
forked ,#a situation is provided for the 
first out-door crops of carrots, turnips, 
radishes, &c. The slopes that are next 
cleared in succession make provision 
for the early dwarf kinds of French 
beans on the south side; and late 
planted Windsor or other kinds of late 
beans are planted on the north side, 
which is found a good situation for 
them ; besides forming a shelter to the 
others by breaking the cold winds. 
Others are cropped with strawberries 
on both sides. The slopes that are I 
cleared latest in the spring, are cropped ] 
with late cauliflower, with the first | 
planting of early Cape brocoli on the | 
north side, and succession of other \ 
vegetables are kept up throughout the 
season. By constantly keeping the sur- 
face stirred, the crops are all to be 
seen in a healthy state, progressing ad- 
mirably in favourable weather through- 
out the winter months, and indeed, the 
whole season through. 

" The advantage of forming sloping 
banks do not end in that derived from 
the variation of aspect, the healthiness 
and the prolongation of the crops, and 
in securing shelter ; but there is a still 
greater advantage, by gaining a con- 
siderable extent of surface ; thus, with 
one acre of land with a flat surface, it 
is an easy matter to increase it one- 
half, by the sloping bank system." — 
Gard. Journ. 

BANKSIA. Forty-two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs, except 
B. verticillata, which is a tree. Ripe ' 
cuttings or seeds. Sandy peat. 

BAOBAB-TREE. Adansonia. 

BAPTISIA. Ten species. Hardy 
herbaceous plants. Divisions. Common 
loamy soil. 

BARBACENIA squamatosa. Stove 
herbaceous. Cuttinsxs. Sandy loam. 

BARBADOES CEDAR. Juniperus 
barbadensis. 

BARBADOES CHERRY. Malpi- 
ghia. 

BARBADOES GOOSEBERRY. Pe- 
reskia. 

BARBADOES LILY,. Amaryllis 
equestris. 

BARBAREA, Winter cress. Seven 
species. Hardy herbaceous plants. Di- 
vision. Common soil. 



BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris). 
There are five varieties of this elegant 
shrub — the red, without and with stones; 
the black sweet, which is tender, and 
requires a sheltered border; the purple, 
and the white. 

Propagation. Suckers, cuttings, and 
layers may be employed either in the 
spring or autumn. The seed is very 
rarely used. 

Soil. — A sandy, or calcareous soil, 
with a dry subsoil, suits it best. 

Culture. — It requires no other prun- 
ing than such as is necessary to keep it 
within bounds. 

Fruit. — This is fully ripe in October, 
and is gathered in entire bunches for 
preserving, pickling, and candying. 

Diseases. — It is liable to be infected 
with a parasitical fungus, once believed 
to be the same as that which is known as 
the mildew on wheat, but they are now 
known to be different species. That 
which preys upon the Barberry is Puc- 
cinia, and that which attacks Wheat is 
TJredo. Consequently the old popular 
opinion among farmers, that the mildew 
on wheat originated on and was propa- 
gated by the Barberry, has exploded. 

BARBIERIA polyphylla. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 

BARK. — The refuse bark from the 
tanner's yard is employed by the gar- 
dener as a source of heat, and when 
thoroughly broken down by putrefac- 
tion, as a manure. 

As a source of heat, it is much less 
used than formerly, flues, steam, and 
the hot water system having very gene- 
rally and most deservedly superseded 
it. Bark for heating requires frequent 
stirring and renewing, and if too much 
moisture be added, is apt to give out 
an excessive and irregular heat. In 
addition, it is a troublesome harbour 
for predatory insects. 

Bark fresh from the tan-yard being 
thrown lightly together under a shed, 
must be gently moistened if dry, and 
turned over twice a week, to expose all 
its particles to the air. Unless this be 
done, the fermentation will not be 
general or regular. This is to be con- 
tinued for a month or five weeks, in 
warm weather the shorter time being 
requisite, and then, having acquired a 
general and equal heat, it is ready for 
use in the stove. Usually it will con- 
tinue to afford heat for a period varying 
between three and six months, but 



BAR 



79 



BAR 



sometimes ceases to ferment without 
any apparent cause. Whenever the 
heat declines, the tan must be taken 
out, sifted, the dusty parts removed, 
and some fresh tan added. Sometimes 
turning the old tan and moistening it 
will be sufficient. 

It is desirable, on the first formation 
of a bed, to mix new and old tan to- 



ily effects a cure. Scoring the bark 
lengthwise with a knife is a usual reme- 
dy, and generally effects the purpose. 

BARKING IRONS, or Bark Scalers, 
are for scraping off the indurated epi- 
dermis, or dry scales, from the stems 
and branches of trees. 

BARK STOVE, or Moist Stove, is a 

hot-house which, either by having a 

gether, in which case the quantity of mass of fermenting matter, or an open 



new bark to be brought into the pit wi 
depend upon the goodness of the bark, 
and the bottom heat required . As much 
new tan as will fill two third parts of 
the bark-pit, with a mixture of old 
rotten, reduced almost to earth, will 
produce a bottom heat of about S5° ; 
when old tan with higher remains of 
strength is used to modify the new, the 
same heat may be produced if the quan- 
tity be not more than half the capacity 
of the pit. This refers to a new pit 



reservoir of hot water within side, has 
its atmosphere constantly saturated 
with moisture, congenially with the 
habits of some tropical plants. It re- 
ceived the name of Bark Stove, because 
tanner's bark was formerly a chief 
source of heat employed. (See Stove.) 

BARKERIA. Two species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Peat and pot- 
sherds, or wood. 

BARLERIA. Fourteen species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs, except B. longi- 



after a bark bed has been in action, folia, which is biennial. Cuttings. 

Loam and peat. 

BARNADESIA rosea. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam. 

BARNADIA scilloides. Half hardy 
bulbous plants. Offsets. Peat and loam. 

BAROMETER.— Mr. P. Christensen, 
of Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, Lecturer 
upon Astronomy, &c, has arranged a 



partial renewals of bark to keep up the 
heat are frequently sufficient in the 
reduced proportion of one-third, one- 
sixth, one-twelfth, or less. At inter- 
mediate stages between the partial 
renewals, the bed requires only to be 
excited to a brisker fermentation by 
forking up. About five-sevenths of the 



pit from the bottom should be occupied table, which no one having a weather- 
by the new and old tan as a fermenting glass should be without. This "Corn- 
body; and about two-sevenths from the panion to the Barometer" is the result 
top, or a little more than the depth of \ of thirty-two years' observation, and 
the pot, whatever that may be, should j the following is an epitome of the in- 
formation it gives. During the first six 
months of the year, when the mercury 
is rising, if the weather has been bad, 
and the mercury reaches to 29.62 
inches, there will be a change ; if to 
30.12, the weather will be fair: if to 



consist of old tan incapable of heating, 
so as to burn the roots of the plants; 
as least such should be the ordinary 
distribution of the tan; but where pecu- 
liar circumstances require a speedy 
augmentation of heat without displacing 
the pots, and when fruit is to be swelled | 30.29, set fair. If the mercury has been 
off in the last stage, the earthy tan at ' high, and begins falling, there will be 
top may be taken away, and new tan ! a change if it declines to 29.90 ; rain, 

if it descends to 29.50 ; and wind, with 
rain, if it reaches 29.12. 

During the last six months of the 
year, if the weather has been foul, and 



substituted. — (Abercrombie.) 

As a manure. See vegetable matters. 

BARK-BOUND. — When a tree is 
affected with this disease, cracks will 

appear in it partially, and in the case of I the mercury begins rising, there will be 
the Cherry, Apricot, Peach, and Necta- j a change if it reaches to 29.48 ; fair if 
rine, gummy exudations will follow. It to 30.13 ; and set fair if to 30.45. If the 
is a sure indication that either the soil j weather has been fair, and the mercury 
is too rich, or not sufficiently drained ; begins falling, there will be a change 
the latter is usually the source of the " 
evil, causing a repletion of the interior 

vessels which the dry cuticle cannot ] of the year, if the mercury fall to 28.10, 
expand sufficiently quickly to accommo- or even to 28.20, there will be stormy 
date. Under-draining, and scrubbing j weather. These conclusions are from 
the stem with brine or soft soap, speed- ■ observations made at thirty feet above 



if it sinks to 29.87; rain, if to 29.55 ; and 
nd with rain, if to 29.2S. At any time 



BAR 



SO 



BAR 



the sea's level, and therefore one one- 
hundredth part of an inch must be add- 
ed to the height of the mercury for 
every additional ten feet above the sea's 
level, where the barometer may happen 
to be. 

BARREN PLANTS. The male 
flowers of the cucumber, melon, and 
other monoecious plants, are popularly 
known as barren flowers ; and the 
plants of the asparagus, mercury, and 
other dioecious plants bearing only j 
male plants, are usually termed barren. 
These are naturally unfruitful ; but there 
is also a barrenness arising from dis- 
ease or other consequences of bad cul- 
tivation. If a tree, or any other plant, I 
does not yield the desired produce ofj 
fruit of which it is capable, the gardener 
may be assured that the soil, or the want 
of drainage, or the manuring, or the ' 
pruning, is injurious. Even a blind or 
barren cabbage may be made produc- i 
tive ; for its barrenness arises from the ] 
central bud being abortive, and it will 
produce lateral buds, if all but one leaf 
and the place of the abortive bud be cut 
away. 

Temperature has a great influence 
over the sex of the flowers produced by 
a given plant. A very high tempera- 
ture caused a water-melon to bear male . 
blossoms only ; and a very low temper- 
ature made cucumber plants yield fe- 
male flowers alone. Mr. Knight had 
little doubt that the same fruit stalks { 
might be made, in the plants just no- 
ticed, to support flowers of either sex 
in obedience to external causes. 

BARREN SOIL. No soil is abso- 
lutely incapable of production; and 
when it is spoken of as being barren, no 
more is meant than that in its present j 
state it will not repay the cultivator. 
The unproductiveness arises from a de- 
ficiency of some of the earths; from an 
excess or deficiency of animal and ve- 
getable matters; or from an excess of 
stagnant water. No soil can be pro- 
ductive where nineteen parts out of 
twenty are of any one earth or other 
substance. If either chalk, or sand, or 
clay, be in excess, the remedy is found 
in adding one or both of the other two. 
An excess of organic matter only occurs 
in peat soils, and these are reclaimed 
by draining, paring, and burning, and 
the addition of earthy matter; drain- 
age is also the cure for an excess of 
water. 



BARRINGTONIA speciosa. Stove 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

BARTHOLINA pectinata. Terres- 
trial orchid. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

BARTON, Benjamin S., M. D., Pro- 
fessor in the University of Pennsylva- 
nia. Born at Lancaster, Pa., 1786. 
Died Dec, 1815. In 1789 appointed 
Professor of Natural History and Botany 
in the College of Philadelphia. His 
chief publication is Elements of Zoolo- 
gy and Botany. 

BARTONIA. Four species. Hardy 
annuals and biennials. Seed. Sandy 
loam'. 

BARTRAM, John, one of the most 
distinguished of American botanists, 
was born in Chester county, Pennsylva- 
nia, in 1701. His grandfather, of the 
same name, accompanied William Penn 
to this country, in 1682. — B. was a sim- 
ple farmer. He cultivated the ground 
for subsistence, while he indulged an 
insatiable appetite for botany. He was 
self-taught in that science, and in the 
rudiments of the learned languages, 
and medicine and surgery. So great, 
in the end, was his proficiency in his 
favourite pursuit, that Linnaeus pro- 
nounced him " the greatest natural 
botanist in the world." He made ex- 
cursions, in the intervals of agricultural 
labour, to Florida and Canada, herboriz- 
ing with intense zeal and delight. At 
the age of 70, he performed a journey 
to East Florida, to explore its natural 
productions ; at a period, too, when the 
toils and dangers of such an expedition 
far exceeded those of any similar one 
which could be undertaken, at the pre- 
sent time, within the limits of the U. 
States. He first formed a botanic gar- 
den in America, for the cultivation of 
American plants, as well as exotics. 
This garden, which is situated on the 
banks of the Schuylkill, a few miles from 
Philadelphia, still bears his name. He 
contributed much to the gardens of Eu- 
rope, and corresponded with the most 
distinguished naturalists of that quarter 
of the globe. Several foreign societies 
and academies bestowed their honours 
upon him, and published communica- 
tions from him in their transactions. B. 
died in 1777, in the 76th year of his 
age. At the time of his death he held 
the office of American botanist to 
George III. of England. He was amia- 



BAR 



81 



B AS 



ble and charitable, and of the strictest 
probity and temperance. 

BARTRAM, William, fourth son of 
John B., was born, 1739, at the botanic 
garden, Kingsessing, Pennsylvania. At 
the age of 16 years, he was placed with 
a respectable merchant of Philadelphia, 
with whom he continued six years ; 
after which he went to North Carolina, 
with a view of doing business there as 
a merchant; but, being ardently at- 
tached to the study of botany, he re- 
linquished his mercantile pursuits, and 
accompanied his father in a journey 
into East Florida, to explore the na- 
tural productions of that country; after 
which he settled on the river St. John's, 
in this region, and finally returned, 
about the year 1771, to his father's resi- 
dence. In 1773, at the request of Dr. 
Fothergill, of London, he embarked for 
Charleston, to examine the natural 
productions of the Floridas, and the 
western parts of Carolina and Georgia, 
chiefly in the vegetable kingdom. In 
this employment he was engaged nearly 
five years, and made numerous contri- 
butions to the natural history of the 
country through which he travelled. 
His collections and drawings were for- 
warded to Doctor Fothergill; and, 
about the year 1790, he published an 
account of his travels and discoveries, 
in 1 vol. 8vo., with an account of the 
manners and customs of the Creeks, 
Cherokees, and Choctaws. This work 
soon acquired extensive popularity, and 
is still frequently consulted. — After his 
return from his travels, he devoted him- 
self to science, and, in 1782, was elect- 
ed Professor of Botany in the University 
of Pennsylvania, which post he de- 
clined, in consequence of the state of 
his health. In 1786, he was elected a 
member of the American Philosophical 
Society, and was a member of several 
other learned societies in Europe and 
America. We are indebted to him for 
the knowledge of many curious and 
beautiful plants peculiar to North Ame- 
rica, and for the most complete and 
correct table of American ornithology, 
before the work of Wilson, who was 
assisted by him in the commencement 
of his American Ornithology. He wrote 
an article on the natural history of a 
plant a few minutes before his death, 
which happened suddenly, by the rup 
ture of a blood vessel in the lungs, July 
22, 1823, in the Soth year of his age. 
6 



BARYOSMA. Six species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Peat and sand. 

BASELLA. Eight species. Stove 
biennial climbers chiefly. Seed. Rich 
light soil. 

BASIL. (Ocymum.) There are two 
kinds, the Sweet-scented (0. basilicum), 
and the Dwarf-bush (0. minimum). 

Soil and situation. — They thrive most 
in a rich light soil, entirely free from 
any overshadowing body; but they re- 
quire, especially for the earliest plants, 
a sheltered border. 

Time and mode of sowing. — They are 
propagated by seed, which may be sown 
in a gentle hot-bed, with the shelter of 
a frame at the close of March, or early 
in April ; to be thinned, and those re- 
moved pricked out at the close of this 
latter month in a similar situation, to be 
finally removed in the course of May or 
commencement of June, when settled 
weather, in the open ground. This 
sowing may be repeated at the close of 
April, or beginning of May, on a warm 
border, to be pricked and finally planted 
out, after a lapse of about five weeks 
respectively between each operation. 

When thinned, the seedlings must be 
left at three inches apart, and those re- 
moved pricked out at a similardistance. 
The final planting must be made in rows 
a foot apart each way. Some plants of 
all the sowing may be left where raised, 
to be gathered from whilst young. 
Water must be given at every removal, 
as well as during every stage of their 
growth, when dry weather occurs. 
Weeds must be kept under, as well as 
the plants benefited by frequent hoeing. 

The young leaf tops are the parts 
made use of in soups and salads, their 
flavour resembling that of cloves. 

The supply is never failing during 
summer, as they shoot out rapidly for 
successive supplies. 

To obtain seed. — Some of the earliest 
raised plants must be left ungathered 
from. These flower from July to Sep- 
tember, and accordingly ripen their 
seed in early or late autumn. 

BASKETS employed by the London 
gardeners, being made of osier or deal 
shavings, vary triflingly in size more 
than measures made of less flexible 
materials. They are as follows: — 

Sea kale punnets — eight inches diame- 
ter at the top, and seven inches and a 
half at the bottom, and two inches deep. 



B A S 



82 



BE A 



Radish punnets — eight inches diame- 
ter, and one inch deep, if to hold six 
hands ; or nine inches by one inch for 
twelve hands. 

Mushroom punnets — seven inches by 
one inch. 

Salading punnets — five inches by two 
inches. 

Half sieve — contains three imperial 
gallons and a half. It averages twelve 
inches and a half diameter, and six 
inches in depth. 

Sieve — contains seven imperial gal- 
lons. Diameter, fifteen inches; depth, 
eight inches. 

Bushel sieve — ten imperial gallons 
and a half. Diameter at top, seventeen 
inches and three quarters; at bottom, 
seventeen inches; depth, eleven inches 
and a quarter. 

Bushel basket — ought, when heaped, 
to contain an imperial bushel. Diame- 
ter at bottom ten inches ; at top, four- 
teen inches and a half; depth, seven- 
teen inches. Walnuts, nuts, apples, 
and potatoes are sold by this measure. 
A bushel of the last-named, cleaned, 
weighs fifty-six pounds, but four pounds 
additional are allowed if they are not 
washed. 

There is one description of Basket 
of which we think the Londoners know 
but little. We allude to the Peach Bas- 
ket.' It would excite no ordinary com- 
motion were one of our noble steam- 
boats to ascend the Thames, laden with 
a thousand or more baskets, each con- 
taining a bushel of ripe lusciouspeaches, 
which are frequently sold in Philadel- 
phia at twenty-five cents the basket. 
Yet such is the sight which may be 
seen (in fruitful seasons) on the Dela- 
ware every dav in August. 

BASS, or BAST MATS. These are 
chiefly made in Russia, from the inner 
bark of trees (hast in the Russ language). 
Their best use is as a packing envelope, 
for as a protection to wall trees they are 
inferior to netting; and to standard 
shrubs, structures made of straw (see 
Shelters) are to be preferred. They are 
very serviceable, however, to place over 
beds of early spring radishes, &e., to 
prevent the night, radiation. This is 
quite as effectual, much cleaner, and 
less troublesome than a covering of* 
straw. The strands of these mats are 
used by Nurserymen as binding, when 
budding or engrafting, and are the best 
adapted to the purpose of any material 



known. Where it is not obtainable, 
coarse loosely spun cotton or woollen 
yarn, is a good substitute. 

BASS I A. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

BASTARD ACACIA. Robinia pseu- 
do-acacia. 

BASTARD ACMELLA. Spilanthes 
pseudo-acmella. 

BASTARD CABBAGE TREE. Geof- 
froya. 

BASTARD CEDAR, Guazuma. 

BASTARD CHERRY. Cerasus pseu- 
do-cerasus. 

BASTARD CINNAMON. Cinnamo- 
mum-cassia. 

BASTARD CORK TREE. Quercus 
pseudo-suber. 

BASTARD DICTAMNUS. Beringe- 
ria pseudo-dictamnus. 

BASTARD HARE'S EAR. Phyllis. 

BASTARD JASMINE. Androsace 
chii/udjasme. 

BASTARD ALBIA. Lavatera pseu- 
do-allria. 

BASTARD QUINCE. Pyrus chama- 
mespilus. 

BASTARD WIND-FLOWER. Gen- 
tiana psctido-pneumonanthe. 

BATATAS. Twelve species. Chiefly 
stove deciduous climbers. Young cut- 
tings. Light rich soil. 

B A T EM A N N I A Collegi. Stove 
epiphyte. Bulbs. Peat and potsherds. 

BATSCHIA. Four species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seeds and division. Com- 
mon soil. 

BAUER A. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sand and peat. 

BAIIHINIA. Forty-six species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs or climbers. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

BAY TREE, Laurus 7iobilis, will 
resist the winter nearly as far north as 
Philadelphia, on light soils. Its aroma- 
tic leaves render it an agreeable inmate 
of the garden. 

BEAD TREE. Melia. 

BEAN. V/c/'a faba, of Linna'us. Feve 
dr-marais, Fr. Bohn,Gcr. Fava,Ital. 
Habas, Span. " Of the above kind, com- 
monly called in this country 'Horse 
Bean,' there is considerable variety; 
two of them have been selected by us 
for cultivation, believing them the best 
adapted for the climate, and quite suffi- 
cient of the kind. They are the Early 
Long Pod and Broad Windsor. Both 



B E A 



BEA 



succeed with the same treatment, but 
the first named is the more certain 
bearer of the two. In England, where 
they are extensively cultivated, they do 
much better than in this country, pre- 
ferring its damp, cool atmosphere, to 
our frequently dry and hot one ; to 
counteract which it is desirable to plant 
as early in the spring, as the ground 
will admit of being worked — in the lati- 
tude of Philadelphia (39o 57' N.) the 
latter part of February, or beginning of 
March, if possible ; they then come into 
flower before the weather becomes hot, 
otherwise the blossoms drop, and set no 
fruit. 

" Plant them in drills, either single or 
double, two inches apart in the drills, 
and cover one to two inches deep. If 
in double drills, with alleys two and a 
half feet wide. If in single rows, two 
feet alleys answer, unless it be intend- 
ed to cultivate them with the horse hoe, 
as is done by market gardeners. 

"Those who are particularly fond of 
this bean, can accelerate the crop by 
setting a frame at the close of winter, 
under the lee of a board fence, or other 
protected situation, exposed to the sun, 
which cover with glass, and in severe 
weather with matting or straw, so as 
effectually to exclude the frost. Herein 
plant the beans, one seed to the square 
inch, and let them remain, until the 
arrival of milder weather, when they 
should be transplanted to the position 
in the garden which it is intended they 
shall occupy. In transplanting them, 
care should be taken not to injure the 
roots, to guard against which, use a 
trowel to ease them up, and suffer as 
much earth as will to adhere. During 
the time they remain in the frame, the 
sash should be raised when the weather 
is mild, to admit the air, and gradually 
harden them, preparatory to full expo- 
sure when transplanted, else the sudden 
change of temperature might prove 
fatal. In order to make them set fruit 
more certainly, it is the practice to 
nip off the top of leading shoots when 
they are in full flower; this checks the 
growth, and directs the strength of the 
plant towards the blossoms. If a part 
of the flowers are destroyed in this ope- 
ration, there is no loss. 

" Whilst the crop is growing and pro- 
gressing towards maturity, keep the 
ground well hoed, and freed from 
weeds. When the plants have attained 



six or eight inches in height, draw to- 
wards their base a portion of loose 
earth, which will encourage them to 
put forth fresh fibres, and protect the 
roots already formed, from the sun's 
rays." — Rural Register. 

BEANS, Kidney. Haricot, Fr. 
Schminkhohne, Ger. Judias, Span. Fa- 
guiolo, ltal. — " Ofthe Snap-Short Bean, 
the Haricot ofthe French, the varieties 
and sub-varieties are numerous. The 
Early Mohawk or Brown Six Weeks 
arrives soonest at perfection, and is the 
hardiest ofthe early ones; the Early 
Yellow, Red Speckled Valentine, and 
China Red Eye, immediately succeed. 
The Red French is about the latest : 
other varieties ripen promiscuously. All 
the kinds are brought to the Philadel- 
phia market; some purchasers prefer- 
ring one, and others another. The Red 
Speckled Valentine is a variety very 
generally admired ; it is round podded, 
without strings, an abundant bearer, 
and remains tender longer than most 
others. The Brown Valentine or Re- 
fugee is an excellent variety, as is 
also the China Red Eye. The pods of 
the Red French are used as well for 
pickling as boiling, and the beans 
throughout the winter in a dry state, as 
haricots, and in soups, for which it is 
usually preferred. 

"The usual plan of cultivating this 
tribe is in drills, double or single, two 
inches apart in the drills ; two to two 
and a half feet should be allowed be- 
tween the drills. They are much 
more tender than the Long Pod 
or Windsor, and will not succeed, if 
planted before the weather has become 
somewhat settled, and the earth warm ; 
in the latitude of Philadelphia, not ear- 
lier than April, unless in very dry 
ground, and protected situations. To 
have a constant supply, it will be neces- 
sary to plant successive crops at inter- 
vals of two or three weeks, which is 
much preferable to planting but seldom, 
and then a larger quantity. Plantations 
made so late as 1st August generally 
succeed and yield abundantly. 

" When they have risen three or four 
inches, give them a careful hoeing, to 
destroy all weeds, and loosen the earth. 
At this time, or shortly after, draw to- 
wards the base of the plants some of 
the loose sod, to the depth of one or 
two inches. This process is termed 
« landing,' and is highly beneficial in 



B E A 



84 



BED 



protecting the roots from excessive 
drought, and the direct rays of the 
sun. As the crop approaches matu- 
rity, nothing more is required than 
an occasional hoeing, observing always 
to keep the ground free from \vef:d.s. 

"In selecting a spot to plant beans, 
choose where the soil is light and tole- 
rably dry. If it be poor, apply a good 
dressing of well rotted manure, either 
spread over the entire surface, or placed 
the drills when drawn out." — Rural Reg. 

BEANS, Pole.—" The Scari.etRun- 
ners, and White Dutch Beans, are 
very delicately flavored, and are used 
cither in the pod, or shelled when fur- 
ther advanced ; but in Pennsylvania, 
and perhaps farther south, they bear so 
sparingly most seasons, as to be scarcely 
worth cultivating. 

" The Lima is too well known to need 
description. Two varieties are culti- 
vated ; the one broad and thin, the other 
much thicker. We have sometimes 
thought the latter the more tender and 
delicate when boiled. The Lima Bean 
is very tender, not bearing the slightest 
frost, and is very subject to rot when 
planted early, or during a spell of rainy 
or damp, cool weather. To guard 
against this, the best plan is to sprout 
them in a frame, (as recommended for 
tiie Long Pod or Windsor,) so situated 
that the damp and frost can be exclud- 
ed. An old hot-bed answers the pur- 
pose effectually. They need not be 
planted therein before the middle of 
spring, nor transplanted till towards its 
close ; a little earlier or later as the 
weather may make expedient; if planted 
early, they will at best remain station- 
ary, and may, perhaps, perish. They 
should be planted in hills in well culti- 
vated ground, dressed either in the piece 
or hills, with thoroughly rotted manure, 
from the barn-yard. The hills should 
be raised three or four inches above the 
average level, and bo three feet apart 
each way, with a pole six or eight feet 
high, well secured in the ground, to 
each hill. Three plants in a hill are 
sufficient. As the vines shoot up, they 
should be tied to the poles, till they 
get hold, when they will support them 
selves. In tying them, observe to do it 

in the direction in which they incline to 
clasp the pole, which is contrary to the 
course of the sun, and opposed to the 
habit pf most, climbers. 
"Those who have not the convenience 



of a frame, (or hand-glass, which will 
answer the same purpose,) should have 
the hills prepared and poles inserted, 
choosing a mild, dry time, about the 
close of May, for planting the beans. 
if wet weather should immediately suc- 
ceed, and the seed rot, replant as soon 
as the ground dries. Good crops have 
been produced in the vicinity of Phila- 
delphia, when planted even so late as 
first of June. 

" After they become well established, 
and have clasped the poles, no further 
care is requisite, other than kepping 
the weeds under, and the hills occa- 
sionally stirred. 

" The Carolina or Sewee bean, is of 
a smaller size than the Lima ; much 
hardier, rather earlier, and more pro- 
ductive, but generally considered less 
ricb. In other respects they closely 
resemble each other — time of planting 
may be a little in advance of the Lima 
— cultivation precisely the same." — 
Rural Register. 

BEA N-C APER. Tygophyllum. 

BEARS-BANE. Aconitum thereo- 
phonum. 

BEAR-BIND. Calystegia. 

B EA RS- BRE EC II. A canthus. 

BEARS-GRAPE. Arctostaphyios uva 
ursi. 

BEAU PORTIA. Five species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat... 

BEAU MONTI A. Two species. 
StOve evergreen twiners. Cuttings and 
seed. Loam and peat. 

BECIUM bicolor. Green-house shrub. 
Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

BED is a comprehensive word, ap- 
plicable to the site on which any culti- 
vated plants are grown. It is most, 
correctly confined to narrow divisions, 
purposely restricted in breadth for the 
convenience of hand weeding or other 
requisite culture. 

BEDDING-IN. See Sowing. 

BEDDING-OUT, is removing plants 
from the pots in which they have been 
raised, into the beds which they are in- 
tended to adorn during summer and 
autumn. Mr. Threlkeld gives this judi- 
cious advice upon the practice. If the 
season he dry, in the bottom of the hole 
made for the plant, put some rotten 
dung, or other material that will retain 
water; water this well, plant, till the 
hole to within two inches of the sur- 
face, add more water, and then fill up 



BED 



85 
— i — 



BEE 



the hole. If water is necessary after- 
wards, hoe the beds when dry enough. 
Damp the leaves, if no appearance of 
dew. — Gard. Chron. The following are 
good plants for bedding out in masses : 
— For large beds, Pelargoniums, espe- 
cially the scarlet, Fuchsias and Pen- 
stemon gentianoides coccineus. For 
smaller beds, Petunia superba, beauty, 
and splendens; Gailardia picta ; (Eno- 
thera Drummondiij Verbena astrosan- 
guinea, Bishopii, Taglionii, and Queen ; 
and Lobelia splendens. 

BEDEGUAR. See Cynips Rosa. 

BEE, (Apis.) All the species of this 
insect are friendly to the gardener, for 
they all aid in impregnating his flowers, 
many of which without their aid would 
fall unproductive of either fruit or seed. 
The honey bee (.4. mellifica) is the most 
active in this operation ; but the humble 
bee (Bombus apis), and others of the 
robust species, are very valuable, being 
able to visit flowers in rough weather, 
when the honey bee will not venture 
from its hive. 

BEECH. Fagus. 

BEET. Betterave, Fr. Rothe Rube, 
Ger. Acelgas, Span. Barba Biettola, 
ltal. " The Red Beet is a native of the 
sea-coast of the south of Europe. It 
was cultivated in England in 1656, and 
then called beet rave, (or beet-radish,) 
from the French name, betterave. 

"The long red or blood, is generally 
used for the winter supply, and the ex- 
tra early, and early turnip-rooted, for 
the summer. The extra early turnip- 
rooted has been lately introduced from 
Italy — its growth is astonishingly ra- 
pid ; it should always be planted for 
the first crop, and the old turnip-rooted 
to succeed. 

" There are several other kinds culti- 
vated, but the foregoing are the best 
known ; and being both early and late, 
are beyond question amply sufficient. 

"White Beet. This is a hardy bien- 
nial plant, with leaves larger than the 
red beet, and very thick and succulent. 
It is a native of the sea coasts of Spain 
and Portugal. "It is cultivated in gar- 
dens entirely for the leaves, which are 
boiled as spinnage, or put in soups. 
Those of the great white, or sweet beet, 
are esteemed for the mid ribs and stalks, 
which are separated from the lamina of 
the leaf, and stewed and eaten as aspa- 
ragus, under the name of chard." The 
great white, or Swiss chard, has been 



introduced into this country within a 
few years ; those who have cultivated 
it give it a high character, and consider 
it fully equal to asparagus. 

" The Mangold Wurtzel is principally 
grown for stock. It is, however, very 
early, rapid in its growth, and tolerably 
good for table use when young and 
tender. It might, therefore, bean object 
with such as are particularly fond of 
beets, to sow a small quantity of this 
species for an early crop. As food for 
stock, especially milch cows, it is 
scarcely surpassed, and the product is 
enormous. 

" Silesian or Sugar. — The Sugar Beet 
has had great popularity as food for 
stock, and though not now as generally 
grown by our farmers as formerly, has 
many advocates who claim for it great 
merit, and attribute the failure of others 
to injudicious feeding. They argue that 
roots, during cold weather, should only 
be given in moderate quantities, and 
always with a little bran or meal ; — that 
the cows should be fed in comfortable 
quarters. Such treatment, it is con- 
tended, will produce satisfactory re- 
sults, which could hardly be expected 
from roots frequently given in a frozen 
state, the animal exposed to the cold, 
and without anything to counteract the 
scouring tendency of the roots. 

" All Beets do best when planted in 
rows, as they then admit of hoeing and 
more thorough cleaning. The rows 
twelve or fourteen inches apart, the 
plants in the rows not nearer than four 
inches. It is advisable to sow the seed 
thicker than that, and when the plants 
are two inches high, thin them to the 
proper distance. 

" The seed is usually sown in a shal- 
low drill, drawn by the hoe, and co- 
vered to the depth of an inch. For 
the early crops plant early in spring, on 
a warm sheltered border. The com- 
mencement of summer is sufficiently 
early to sow those intended for the 
winter supply. Should the weather be 
dry when about to sow at that season, 
pour scalding water on the seed, and 
let them soak 24 to 48 hours, and roll 
in the seed. 

™ The Beet requires rich ground, and 
like all tap-rooted plants, delights in 
a deep loose soil. Throughout their 
growth they demand occasional hoeing 
between the rows, and freedom from 
weeds. 



B E G 



86 



B ET 



'* In farm culture, bow in drills three 
feet apart, so as to admit the horse-hoe 
-—deep tillage produces its beneficial 
effects on this crop as on most others. 

'* To save them during the winter, 
they should be placed in the cellar, 
against the wall, in tiers, tops outward, 
With alternate layers of sand or earth. 
Or in lulls in the garden, with a cover- 
ing of earth two to three feet thick ; 
the aperture at which they are taken 
put as required, being carefully closed 
with straw ; for, should hard frost reach 
them, they will decay." — Rural Reg. 

15 E (1 ON I A . Fifty-eight species. 
Chiefly stove evergreens. Cuttings. 
Rich loam. 

B K.I ARIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

BELLADONNA LILY. Amaryllis 
Belladonna. 

BELLEISLE CHESS. Barbareapre- 
cox. See American Cress. 

&ELLEVALJA Operculata. Hardy 

bull). Suckers. Common light soil. 

BELL FLOWER. Campanula. 

BELL-GLASS^a so called from its 
usual form being that of a hell. It is 
formed of one entire piece of glaesj. and 
of common bottle glass when intended 
for sheltering cauliflowers, &c, in the 
open borders; but of white glass for 
preserving moisture to cuttings in the 
hot-house. 

BELLIDIASTRUM Michelii. Hardy 
herbaceous plant. Division. Peat and 
loam. 

BELL1S. Daisy. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials, except B. an- 
nua, which is anannual. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

BELLIUM. Four species. Hardy 
plants. Seeds or division. Sandy peat. 

BELLOWS are employed for fumi- 
gating, differing only from the common 
bellows by having a receptacle for ig- 
nited tobacco in the pipe of its nozzle, 
through which the air, being gently 
forced in the usual way, propels the 
smoke in any desired direction, where 
the insects to be destroyed appear. 

BELOPERONE oblongata. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

BENGAL QUINCE. Agle Marmelos. 

BENJAMIN TREE. Ficus Benja- 
mina. 

BENJAMIN TREE. Laurus Ben- 
zoin. 



BENTHAMIA fragifera. Hardy 
evergreen shrub. Seeds or layers. 
Common loamy soil. 

BERARDIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Division. 
Common soil. 

BERBERIS. Thirty-three species. 
Hardy evergreen or deciduous shrubs. 
Cuttings or layers. Light common soil. 
See Barberry. 

BER0KHEYA. Ten species. Chiefly 
green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

BERINGERIA. Eight species. Chief- 
ly hardy herbaceous perennials. Divi- 
sion. Common soil. 

BERRY A amornilla. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam and 
peat. 

BERTEROA. Three species. Hardy. 
Seeds or cuttings. Sandy soil. 

BKRTIIOLLETIA excelsa. Brazil 
Nut. Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
Sand, peat, and loam. 

BERZELIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat and loam. 

BESLERIA. Twelve species. Chief- 
ly stove evergreen shrubs. B. cristata, 
B. serrtdata, B. violacea are climbers. 
Cuttings. Very light rich soil. 

BESOM, or Broom, received its se- 
cond name from being often made of 
the Broom plant ; but the best, both for 
flexibility and durability, are made of 
the |ihg or heath. Birch brooms arc 
the most common, and whatever the 
material, they will endure much longer 
if soaked in water for some time before 
using. If kept constantly in water they 
would be still less brittle. Where 
walks are liable to become mossy, a 
broom made of wire is frequently em- 
ployed for sweeping them. If the wire 
be iron, it ought to be well dried and 
dipped in oil after being used, or it is 
soon destroyed by the rust. 

BESSERA. Two species. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Offsets. Peat 
and sand. 

BETA. Beet. Seven species. Hardy 
biennials. B. trigyna is an herbaceous 
perennial. Seeds. Rich mould. 

BETEL NUT. Piper Betle. 

BETONICA. Betony. Ten species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Suckers. 
Common garden soil. 

1$ KTONY. Betonica. 

B ETONY. Teucrium betbnicum, 

BETULA. Birch. Twenty-two spe- 



BIB 



BIL 



cies. Chiefly hardy deciduous trees 
and shrubs. B. carpinifolia, B. pon- 
tica, B. populifolia, are evergreens. 
Grafting or budding, and layers for the 
dwarf species. Common garden soil. 

B I B I marci, St. Mark's Fly, of 
■which Mr. Curtis gives the following 
particulars : — 

The larva; of this insect are generally 
gregarious, living in large groups of a 
hundred or more in strawberry-beds, 
vine borders, flower pots, and similar 
undisturbed spots, feeding upon the 
roots, and sometimes destroying the 
entire plant. Bouche says they com- 
pletely demolished his bed of Ranuncu- 
luses for several successive years, by 
eating up the tubers. The larva is of a 
dark brown colour, somewhat cylindri- 
cal, the belly flattened, moderately 
broad, and nearly linear; the head is 
comparatively small, deep brown, some- 
times of a chestnut colour, and very 
shining ; they change to pupa; generally 
towards the end of March ; these are 
of a pale ochreous colour, the head 
being brighter. 

The female lays her eggs in the earth, 
and in the dung of horses and cows, in 
May ; they do not hatch until August. 
— Gard. Chron. 

BIDENS. Fourteen species. Chiefly 
hardy plants. Seeds, suckers, division, 
according to their habit and duration. 
Common soil. 

BIENNIAL, is a plant which, being 
produced from seed in one year, per- 
fects its seed and dies during the year 
following. Biennials may often be made 
to endure longer if prevented ripening 
their seeds, and many exotics, biennials 
in their native climes, are perennials in 
our stoves. 

Hardy Biennials. — Some of these 
ripen their seeds as early as August, in 
which case they may be sown as soon 
as harvested. Others ripening their 
seeds later must have these reserved 
from sowing until May. The double 
varieties of wall-flowers, stocks, &c, 
are propagated by cuttings. 

Frame Biennials. — These required 
the shelter of a frame during the early 
stages of their growth ; to be removed 
thence in May to the borders, where 
they bloom in July and August. 

BIFRENARIA. Three species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. 

BIGNONIA. Sixty-one species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen climbers. B. 



capreolata is hardy, and B. Carolina, 
B. picta, and B. jasminoldes, are green- 
house climbers. B. grandijlora bears 
some resemblance to our native cruci- 
gera, but is far more desirable : its 
showy flowers are borne in large ra- 
cemes, which expand in succession, 
and thus continue in bloom for many 
weeks ; it is from China, but quite hardy 
at Philadelphia; and from its rapid 
growth admirably adapted for walls, 
arbours, pillars, &c. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. B. venusta is cultivated as 
follows by Mr. Brown, gardener to 
Lord Southampton, at Whittlebury 
Lodge. 

The situation in which it most delights 
is a dark bed, where the roots can run 
at liberty among the tan ; train upright 
until it reaches the top lights, then train 
along the house. Towards the end of 
December, cut the plant into six or ten 
feet, when it remains dormant through 
the winter. In the beginning of March, 
young shoots in abundance break from 
the apparently dead wood; a sufficient 
number of these to be trained along the 
house, and these again produce laterals; 
and at the end of each a cluster of blos- 
som buds is formed. On the production 
of these lateral shoots depends the free 
blooming of the plant, to encourage 
which a damp atmosphere is to be kept 
by pouring water over the pathways, 
and by frequently syringing the plant. 
All superfluous shoots are stopped ; and 
it is necessary to pay a good deal of at- 
tention to this, for an over abundance 
of shoots would soon be produced that 
would form a complete thicket. The 
plant commences flowering about the 
beginning of September. — Gard. Chron. 

BILBERRY. Vaccinium myrtillus. 

BILIMBI TREE. Averrhoa bilimbi. 

BILL (Fig- 21), a sharp-edged tool, 
employed in cutting hedges, sharpen- 
ing stakes, &c. It should never be used 
in pruning valuable trees; but where the 
branch is too strong to be cut with the 
knife, the saw ought always to be applied. 

Fig. 21. 




BILLARDIERA. Six species. Green- 
house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
Rich loam and peat. 



BIL 



BL A 



BILLBERGIA. Ten species. Store 
epiphytes. Suckers. Rich mould. 

BILLOTIA acerosa. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 

BINDWEED. Convolvulus. 

BINDWEED. Smilax Aspera. 

BIOPHYTUM sensitivum. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. 

BIRCH. Betula. 

BIRCH. Carpinus Betulus. 

BIRDS are benefactors as well as in- 
jurers of the gardener. They destroy 
millions of grubs, caterpillars, and 
aphides, which would have ravaged his 
crops ; but at the same time they com- 
mit sad havoc upon his fruit and seeds. 
The wisest course, consequently, is to 
scare them from the garden at such 
times, or from the portions of it in 
which they can be prejudicial, but to 
leave them to visit it unmolested when- 
ever and wherever they cannot be mis- 
chievous. Thus in early spring a boy 
or two will drive them away during 
such time as the buds of the gooseberry, 
currant and plum, are open to their 
attacks ; and again during the time that 
the cherries are ripe. To keep them 
from the fruit of late gooseberries and 
currants, it is sufficient to interlace 
thickly the bushes with red worsted. 
To keep them from attacking peas and 
other vegetables just emerging from the 
soil, a similar display of white thread 
fastened to pegs about six inches from 
the surface, is also efficiently deterring. 
Nets, where available, are also suffi- 
cient guardians. By these aids, but 
especially by the watching during cer- 
tain seasons, the gardener may protect 
himself from injury at a very trifling ex- 
pense, without depriving himself of the 
services of the most sharp-sighted, most 
unwearying, and most successful of all 
insect killers; and, it should also be 
added, one of the most agreeable ap- 
pendages to rural life. Without birds, 
next to flowers, the country would be 
desolate. What delightful associations 
and recollections present themselves as 
we call to mind the chirping of the 
wren, the homely notes of the familiar 
cat-bird, the gambols of the martin, and 
the periodical visits of the confiding 
robin and snow-bird. 

BIRD CHERRY. Cerasus padus. 

BIRD PEPPER. Capsicum bacca- 
tum. 

BIRD'S BILL. Trigonella ornitho- 
podioides. 



BIRD'S EYE. Primula farinosa. 

BIRD'S FOOT. Orthinopus. 

BIRD'S FOOT. Euphorbia orthino- 
pus. 

BIRD'S FOOT TREFOIL. Lotus. 

BIRD'S NEST. Asplenium Nidus. 

BIRD'S TONGUE. Ornitho glos- 
sum. 

BIRTH WORT. Aristolochia. 

BISCUTELLA. Twenty-three spe- 
cies. Hardy annuals and herbaceous 
perennials. Seeds. Loam and peat. 

BISERRULA pelecinus. Hatchet 
vetch. Hardy annual. Seeds. Sandy 
loam or peat. 

BITTER SWEET. Solanum Dul- 
camara. 

BIVONJEA LUTEA. Annual. 
Seeds. Dry sandy soil. 

BIXA. Three species. Stove ever- 
green trees. Seeds or cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

BIZARRE. See Carnation. 

BLACK ARCH MOTH. See Bombyx. 

BLACK CATERPILLAR. See^tto- 
lia. 

BLACK FLY. Haltica nemorum. 
This is only one of the several popular 
names by which the turnip fly is known. 
The gardener is not so liable to suffer 
as is the farmer, from its ravages, yet 
he is sufficiently open to them to ren- 
der a knowledge of its habits desirable. 
Mr. Curtis says : — 

" The eggs of the common striped 
turnip fly are laid on the under side of 
the rough leaf of the turnip from April 
to September ; they hatch in two days. 
Their maggots live between the two 
skins or cuticles of the rough leaf, and 
arrive at maturity in sixteen days. The 
chrysalis is buried just beneath the sur- 
face of the earth, where it remains 
about a fortnight. The beetles live 
through the winter in a torpid state, 
and revive in the spring, when they de- 
stroy the first two leaves, called the 
cotyledonous or seed leaves of the 
young turnip. There are five or six 
broods in a season. These insects are 
most to be feared in fine seasons. 

" Heavy rains, cold springs, and long 
droughts, destroy them. Their scent is 
very perfect : the beetles fly against 
the wind, and are attracted from a dis- 
tance. The rapid growth of the plant 
is the best security against them : to 
secure which, sow plenty of seed all of 
the same age. Burning the surface of 
the land is beneficial, by destroying the 



BL A 



BLI 



chrysalids. Sheep folding must destroy \ 
the insect in every state. Deep digging | 
ia an excellent practice, when the chry- j 
salids are in the soil. Drilling is a far] 
superior practice to sowing the seed j 
broadcast. Long raw manure harbours | 
the beetles. The benefit derived from 
the application of lime and soot is very 
doubtful. Mangold wurzel is not favour- 
able to the beetles, and Swedes are | 
probably less attractive than white tur- 
nips. Mixing white turnips with Swedes 
is not desirable, as the beetles may be 
attracted by the strong scent of the for- 
mer. Early sowing is attended with 
disadvantages. Destroy charlock, it 
affords support to the beetles before 
the turnips come up." 

The most effectual banishment of the 
turnip fly, I think, is secured by sowing 
the surface of the soil with gas lime 
(hydro-sulphuret of lime) the next morn- 
ing but one after the turnip seed has 
been sown. This is so offensive to the 
insect as to drive it away just at the 
time the young plants are appearing 
above ground. The most certain pro 
cess is, after all, to sow very thickly ; the 
flies will have their share — if too many 
remain, thin out. 

BLACK VARNISH TREE. See 
Melanoi rhcea. 

BLACK WELLIA. Six species. 
Stove or evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

BLADDER BLIGHT. See Peach. 

BLiERIA. Eleven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

BLAKEA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

BLANCHING, or etiolation, is 
effected by making plants grow in the 
dark, and the more completely the light 
is excluded the more entire is the ab- 
sence of colour from the leaves and 
stems of the plants. The colouring 
matter of these is entirely dependent 
upon their power to decompose water 
and carbonic acid gas, a power they do 
not possess when light is absent. The 
effect of blanching is to render the parts 
more delicately flavoured, more pleas- 
ing to the eye, and more crisp, proper- 
ties very desirable in sea kale, celery, 
rhubarb, endive, lettuces, &c. Wher- 
ever it can be accomplished, blanching 
pots should be employed, in preference 
to covering the plants with earth or 



other materials. The flavour is better, 
and decay is less liable to be induced. 
Lettuces and cabbages are usually 
whitened by tying the leaves over the 
heart or centre bud, but even in these 
instances the blanching pot operates 
much more effectually. In remote 
country places blanching pots may not 
be readily obtained ; an equally useful 
aid is found by placing together two 
boards of a convenient length, so as to 
form as it were two sides of a triangle, 
or double pitched roof. 

BLANDFORDIA. Two species. 
Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Suckers or seeds. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

BLAST or BLIGHT, is the popular 
name for any withering of plants of 
which neither the scientific title nor the 
causes are known to the observer. The 
mildew of corn; the honey dew on 
fruit trees; the withering occasioned 
by violent cold winds in early spring, 
and the ravages of the hawthorn cater- 
pillar, are all spoken of by the unin- 
formed under the above titles. 

BLECHNUM. Thirteen species. 
Stove or green-house herbaceous pe- 
rennial ferns. B. serrulatum is hardy. 
Seeds or division. Sandy loam and peat. 

BLECHUM. Four species. Stove 
herbaceous perennial ferns. Cuttings. 
Loamy peat. 

BLEEDING. See Extravasated Sap. 

BLEPHARIS. Five species. Stove 
and green-house plants. B.furcata is 
an evergreen shrub. B. procumbens an 
evergreen trailer. Seeds. Loam and 
peat. 

BLEPHILIA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

BLETIA. Eleven species. Stove 
orchideous plants. Division. Sandy 
peat and light loam. 

BLIGHIA sapida. Akee Tree. Stove 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

BLIND PLANTS frequently occur 
in the cabbage and others of the bras- 
sica tribe. They are plants which have 
failed to produce central buds, and as 
these are produced from the central 
vessels, if the top of their stems be cut 
away, they usually emit lateral or side 
buds from the edge of the wound. See 
Barren Plants. 

BLITE, or Strawberry Spinach. {Bli- 
tum.) 



B LI 



90 

— ♦— 



BLO 



BLITUM. Five species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

BLOOD. See Animal Matters. 

BLOOM or BLOSSOM, is the popu- 
lar name for the flowers of fruit-bearing 
plants. 

" The organs of fructification are ab- 
solutely necessary, and are always pro- 
ducible by garden plants properly culti- 
vated. They may be deficient in leaves, 
or stems, or roots, because other or- 
gans may supply their places ; but 
plants are never incapable of bearing 
flowers and seeds, for without these 
they can never fully attain the object 
of their creation, the increase of their 
species. 

" Every flower is composed of one 
or more of the following parts, viz. : 
the calyx, which is usually green and 
enveloping the flower whilst in the 
bud ; the corolla, or petals, leaves so 
beautifully coloured, and so delicate in 
most flowers; the stamens or male 
portion of the flower, secreting the pol- 
len or impregnating powder; the pistils 
or female portion, impregnatable by 
the pollen, and rendering fertile the 
seeds; and lastly, the pericarp or seed- 
vessel. 

" The stamens are the only portion 
of a flower which can be removed with- 
out preventing the formation of fertile 
seed, and their loss must be supplied 
by the induction to the pistils of pollen 
from some kindred flower. 

" The calyx is not useless so soon 
as it ceases to envelope and protect the 
flower, for the flower stalk continues 
increasing in size until the seed is per- 
fected, but ceases to do so in those 
plants whose calyces remain iong green 
if these be removed ; on the other 
hand, in the poppy and other flowers, 
from which the calyx falls early, the 
flower stalk does not subsequently en- 
large. 

" The corolla or petals, with all their 
varied tints and perfumes, have more 
important offices to perform than thus 
to delight the senses of mankind. Those 
bright colours and their perfumed honey 
serve to attract insects, which are the 
chief and often essential assistants of 
impregnation ; and those petals, as ob- 
served by Linnaeus, serve as wings, 
giving a motion assisting to effect the 
same important process. But they have 
a still more essential office, for although 
they are absent from some plants, yet 



if removed from those possessing them 
before impregnation is completed, the 
fertilization never takes place. They 
therefore perform in such cases an 
essential part in the vegetable econo- 
my ; and that they do so is testified by 
all the phenomena they exhibit. They 
turn to the sun open only when he has 
a certain degree of power, and close 
at the setting of that luminary; their 
secretions are usually more odorous, 
more saccharine, and totally differing 
from those of the other organs of plants ; 
and in the absence of light those secre- 
tions are not formed. 

"The corolla is not always short- 
lived, for although in some, as the 
cistus, the petals which open with the 
rising sun, strew the border as it de- 
parts, so some, far from being epheme- 
ral, continue until the fruit is perfected. 
The duration of the petals, however, 
is intimately connected with the im- 
pregnation of the seed, for in most 
flowers they fide soon after this is com- 
pleted ; and double flowers, in which 
it occurs not at all, are always longer 
enduring than single flowers of the 
same species. Then, again, in some 
flowers, they become green and per- 
form the function of leaves after im- 
pregnation has been effected. A fami- 
liar example occurs in the Christmas 
rose, (Helleborus niger,) the petals of 
which are white, but which become 
green so soon as the seeds have some- 
what increased in size, and the stamens 
and other organs connected with fer- 
tility have fallen off. 

" It is quite true that some fruit will 
not ripen if the part of the branch be- 
yond is denuded of leaves, but this 
only shows that those fruits cannot ad- 
vance when deprived of leaves as well 
as of calyx and corolla, the only organs 
for elaborating the sap; and there are 
some flowers, as the Daphne mezereon, 
Autumn crocus, and sloe, that have 
their flowers perfected and passed 
away before the leaves have even ap- 
peared. 

" That the petals perform an im- 
portant part in elaborating the sap sup- 
plied to the fruit is further proved by 
the flower being unable to bloom or to 
be fertile in an atmosphere deprived of 
its oxygen; and by their absorbing more 
of that gas, and evolving more car- 
bonic acid, than even a larger surface 
of leaves of the same plant. 



BLU 



01 



BOM 



" No seed ever attains the power of 
germinating, unless the pollen from the 
stamens in the same, or some nearly al- 
lied flower, has reached and impregnated 
its pistils." — Johnson's Princ. of Gard. 

BLUMENBACHIA. Two species. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Rich loam. 

BOBARTIA. Three species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. B. auran- 
tiaca is hardy. Division. Sandy peat. 

BOCCONIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Loam. 

B(EBERA. Two species. B. chry- 
santhemoides is a hardy annual. B. in- 
cana, a green-house evergreen shrub. 
Seeds. Loamy peat or common soil. 

BOG-EARTH, or peat earth, is the 
soil required for a class of plants that 
are generally designated American, 
though not all of them are natives of 
that quarter of the globe. Bog-earth 
of the best description is thus consti- 
tuted : — 

Fine siliceous sand . . . 156 

Unaltered vegetable fibre . 2 

Decomposing vegetable) ,.q 

matter 5 

Silica (Flint) 102 

Alumina (clay) 16 

Oxide of iron 4 

Soluble vegetable and) . 

saline matter 5 

Muriate of lime .... 4 

Loss 2 

BOG EARTH PLANTS. See Ameri- 
can Plants. 

BOLBOPHYLLUM. Nineteen spe- 
cies. Stove epiphytes. Division. They 
require a strong damp heat. 

BOLDOA. Two species. Stove 
plants. B. lanceolata an evergreen 
shrub. B. purpurescens an herbaceous 
perennial. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 

BOLEUM Asperum. Half hardy ever- 
green shrub. Seed. Sandy peat. 

BOLIVARIA trlfida. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

BOLTONIA. Two species. Hardy her- 
baceous perennials. Division. Sandy 
loam. 

BOMBAX. Silk cotton tree. Four 
species. Stove evergreen trees. Half 
ripened cuttings. Sandy loam. 

BOMBYX, a genus of moths, of which 
the following are injurious to the gar- 
dener. 

B. cesculi, the horse-chestnut, or wood 
leopard moth, the last being the most 
appropriate name, as descriptive of its 



spotted form. Its caterpillar injures 
the wood of the elm, apple, pear, horse- 
chestnut and walnut. 

M. Kollar, in his valuable work on 
predatory insects, says : — " The cater- 
pillar of this moth is smaller than that 
of the preceding species, its length be- 
ing only one inch and a half or two 
inches. It is hatched in August, moults 
for the first time in September, and is 
full grown in June of the following year. 
From its existence till its transforma- 
tion it is yellow, with raised shiny black 
dots, on each of which there is a fine 
short hair. 

" It undergoes its transformation in a 
strong web under the bark, becoming 
a brownish-yellow pupa, capable of 
much extension, dark brown at both 
extremities, with short wingsheaths, a 
horn-like point bent forward on the 
head, and fine hooks on the back of the 
abdominal segments. 

"The moth appears in August to- 
wards evening, and is a native of almost 
all Europe. It is very remarkable from 
its colour; the ground is white on vari- 
ous parts, on which steel blue dots are 
scattered. It measures, with extended 
wings, two inches and a half. 

" The female introduces her round 
orange-coloured eggs, by means of her 
strong ovipositor, into the trees before 
named." 

B. bucephala, Buff-tip moth, produces 
a caterpillar which feeds on the leaves 
of the lime, beech, birch, alder, oak, 
willow, and more rarely on those of the 
rose, apple and pear. M. Kollar says: 
— " This caterpillar does not appear till 
the latter end of June or the beginning 
of July, and feeds to the end of Septem- 
ber ; when fully grown it measures 
nearly two inches long, and is about as 
thick as a goosequill. It is thinly haired, 
dark brown, with interrupted slender 
yellow longitudinal stripes, which are 
intersected by a yellow cross, and be- 
tween each segment. 

" The moth appears in May and June, 
when it sits with its wings bent down- 
wards, covering the whole body so that 
it resembles a scroll. When its wings 
are expanded, it measures from two and 
a half to three inches wide, the abdo- 
men is pale yellow, spotted with black 
on the sides. The upper wings are 
notched, ash-grey, and silver-grey at 
the base and inner edge, a pale yellow, 
or silver grey kidney-shaped spot is 



BOM 



92 



BOM 



placed in the middle between two yel- 
low cross lines. The under wings are 
of a yellowish-white ; and have near 
the inner angle a greyish-brown and 
often faint double stripe. As the cater- 
pillars when they appear are gregarious, 
they can easily be destroyed by picking 
them off when young. 5 ' 

B. cossus, Goat-moth. Its caterpillar 
is most destructive to the wood of fruit 
trees, though the elm, oak, willow, 
poplar, and walnut also, are liable to 
its attacks. M. Kollar says: — "It is 



bark, and afterwards, when they are 
stronger, penetrating into the wood. 

" When we have actually ascertained 
the existence of one of these creatures 
in a trunk, by the extruded excrement, 
relief comes too late for the tree, even 
if we are able to kill the caterpillar, the 
mischief being already done. Notwith- 
standing this, the caterpillar should ne- 
ver be left undisturbed, and an attempt 
should be made to reach it, by enlarg- 
ing the opening with a garden knife; or 
endeavour. ng to kill it by thrusting a 



one of the largest caterpillars known j piece of puw.ied wire up the hole of the 
in Europe, measuring more than four; tree.-' 

inches in length. It is smooth and i B. dispar, Gipsy Moth. Its little 
shining, beset only here and there with j caterpillar is found in early spring on 
single short hairs. It is dark red on j the leaves of fruit trees, as they burst 
the back, and the spiracles situated at! fromthebud. M. Kollar, to whose pages 
both sides are of the same colour. The I am so much indebted for accurate in- 
sides and lower part of the body are | formation relative to this species, says 
flesh-coloured; the head is black, the j that — 

first segment also marked with black "In unfavourable weather they col- 
above. | lect upon the trunk near the top, or in 
" After remaining more than two years I the forks of the branches, and enclose 
in the larvs state, and casting its skin I themselves in a web ; but when they 
eight times, the caterpillar becomes of j feed, they disperse themselves all over 
a light ochre yellow hue, shortly be- j the tree. They are immediately dis- 
fore pupation, which usually takes place | tinguished from other caterpillars by 



their large yellow-spotted head, and 

the 



in spring ; when it makes a strong co 

coon of chips of wood and small pieces! by the six pairs of red dots on 

of bark, which it has gnawed off. The ! hinder part of the back. 

abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the 

segments are deeply indented and ca 



The males are dark brown, and 
their forewings have three or four undu- 



pable of much extension. The back is I lating blackish stripes. The females 



furnished with strong pointed spines, 
sometimes of a reddish-brown colour. 
The cocoon is situated immediately 
within the opening in the tree, so that 
the pupa when arrived at maturity can 
press itself half out of the hole when 
the shell bursts, and the moth comes 
forth usually in the month of June or 
July, after having reposed in the pupa 
state for an indefinite time. When at 
rest the wings are folded together over 
the back in the form of a roof; it sits 
quietly in the daytime on the stems of 
trees, and is difficult to be distinguished 
on account of its grey colour. It mea- 
sures with extended wings, from one 
tip to the other, nearly three inches, 
and many specimens are more than this; 
the female is usually larger than the 
male. 

" The female is provided with a 
strong ovipositor, with which she in- 
troduces her eggs in the bark of the 
tree, the young caterpillars living at 
first in and between the outer and inner 



are whitish-grey, and their forewing3 
are traversed by brownish stripes. 

" The moth lays her eggs in various 
places in August and September, but 
chiefly on the trunks of the fruit trees, 
on which the caterpillars lived. It also 
lays its eggs in places that are not very 
near fruit trees, viz., on garden buildings, 
palings and walls, so that the young 
caterpillars have to go a considerable 
distance in search of food, which is 
seldom the case with insects. The 
eggs lie in a shapeless mass one inch 
long, and a quarter of an inch high, to 
the number of two to five hundred 
together, and are surrounded with yel- 
lowish hair, which preserves them from 
the winter's cold." 

B. monacha, Black arch moth. Its 
caterpillar prefers the leaves of the fir 
tribe, but also attacks fruit trees, the 
oak, aspen, elm, lime, and willow. M. 
Kollar states that — " The moth is of 
the medium size. It sits during the day, 
with its wings lying close to its body 



B OM 



93 



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in a slanting direction ; and when its 
wings are expanded, they measure 
above two inches from one point to 
the other. There are four or five black 
notched lines on the upper wings, on a 
white ground, and there is a black 
spot between the middle ones. The 
front of the body is white, with black 
spots, and the abdomen varied with 
black rings, and red incisions, which, 
however, are sometimes wanting. 

" The caterpillar, when fully grown, 
measures from one and a half to one 
and three-quarter inches, the transverse 
diameter one line and a half. It is 
usually of a brown grey mixed with 
black, and occasionally entirely black; 
sometimes, but still more rarely, it is 
of a whitish colour. The head is large, 
covered with short hairs, and it has a 
brownish line along the forehead, which 
ends in a triangular spot of the same 
colour over the mouth. Wherever it 
goes it spins a thread after it out of the 
spinnerds under the mouth. If its rest- 
ing-place be shaken, it hastily lets itself 
down and curls itself up. It usually 
goes into the pupa state from the begin- 
ning of June to July, when the cater- 
pillar is fully grown ; the pupa is sur r 
rounded by a slight web, which is 
sometimes formed among the foliage, 
and sometimes over hollows of the 
bark ; after which the caterpillar skin 
is cast off in three or four days. The 
pupa is three-quarters of an inch long ; 
at first green, then a brownish red, and 
afterwards becomes somewhat darker, 
or rather blackish, with a metallic ap- 
pearance. 

" The moth sometimes appears in 
the last days of July or beginning of 
August; but the late ones do not appear 
till September. After pairing, the fe- 
male lays her eggs by means of her 
ovipositor, in the cracks of the bark of 
the old trees, in the form of a bunch of 
grapes, to the amount of twenty or 
thirty in each cluster. As the oviposi- 
tor cannot be used on the beach, oak, 
and birch, she lays her eggs on the bark, 
and flaps her wings over them, to cover 
them with the dust from her wings and 
body. One female usually lays one 
hundred and twenty eggs in the course 
of twenty-four hours, at three or four 
intervals. They are not spherical, but 
flat on two sides, and very sharp and 
rough to the touch." 

B. chrysorrhoea. Yellow-tailed moth. 



Its caterpillar usually confines its at- 
tacks to the leaves of the white and 
black thorn, but sometimes spreads to 
our fruit trees. M. Kollar observes 
that — " In the day time it sits quietly 
on a leaf, or on a wall, and suffers itself 
to be caught in the hand. It has re- 
ceived its name from the posterior part 
of its body being covered with a round 
mass of golden yellow hair. Its fore- 
wings are of a dazzling whiteness, as 
is also the greater part of its body ; 
only the principal vein of the forewing 
of the male is brown on the under side, 
and it has also sometimes a few black 
dots on its wings. 

" At the end of June this moth usu- 
ally appears, seeks a companion, and 
continues its species. The female 
usually lays her eggs on the under side 
of the leaf, in a small heap or mass, , 
and covers them with hair from her 
tail. Hence, nothing is seen of the 
eggs, as they lie in rows under the 
covering of hair. The number of eggs 
in the heap amounts to from two to three 
hundred ; they are round, and of a gold 
colour; when the female has laid her 
eggs she dies, after having applied all 
the hair from her tail to form the co- 
vering. The caterpillars are usually 
hatched at the end of July. They have 
a dirty-yellow appearance, a black 
head, and a black ring round the neck ; 
they are thickly covered with hair, and 
have four rows of blackish dots along 
the back. They change their skins in 
August. In the middle of September 
they cease feeding, and in October they 
only come out of their nest in very 
warm days, when they lie on the outr 
side, but return to the nest in the even- 
ing. They become benumbed in No- 
vember, and even in extreme cold they 
only become benumbed, and resume 
their activity when warm weather sets 
in. Before the buds on the trees have 
begun to burst in spring, some of the 
caterpillars come out of their nests and 
eat the folded leaves. In the course of 
a few days they are found in multitudes 
at the forks of the branches in the side 
of the tree exposed to the sun." — Kol- 
lar. 

B. azruleocephala. Figure-of-eight 
moth. Its caterpillar selects the leaves 
of the black and white thorn, almond, 
apricot, and peach, though it will attack 
those of other trees. Kollar tells us 
that — " x\t the time of pupation these 



BOM 



94 



BOM 



caterpillars repair to the stems of the 
trees, or to walls and hedges, where 
they make for themselves cases of moss, 
lime, dust, and small chips of wood, 



and oak most plentifully ; elm very 
plentifully; most fruit trees the same ; 
blackthorn plentifully; rose-trees the 
same ; on the willow and poplar scarce. 



oval on the upper side and flat below, i None have been noticed on the elder, 



in which they do not become pupae ti 
the third week. The pupa small, cylin- 
drical, reddish-brown, dull, in some 
degree powdered with blue. 

" The perfect insect or moth mea- 
sures, with extended wings, from tip to 



walnut, ash, fir, or herbaceous plants. 
With respect to fruit trees, the injuries 
they sustain are most serious, as in 
destroying the blossoms as yet in the 
bud, they also destroy the fruit in em- 
bryo ; the owners of orchards, there- 



tip, one inch and from six to nine lines. | fore, have great reason to be alarmed. 



The forewings bluish grey, rather shin 
ing, divided by three incisions at the 
sides, and situated between twp blackish 
undulated cross lines, have been some- 
times compared to a pair of spectacles 
(or a figure of eight)." 

B. lubria'peda. Spotted buff moth. 
The caterpillars of this feed on the 
leaves of elder, horse-radish, lilacs, 
beans, and indeed seem to be omnivo- 
rous. The larvae appear in June and 
July, and are thus described by Mr. 
Curtis : — 

"The back is dark green, and the 
under side pale green, with a wavy 
white line down each side, from the 
head to the tail. The spiracles also 
are white; the whole animal is covered 
with little rust-coloured cushions, which 
produce brushes of longish reddish- 
brown hairs, so that it resembles a 
little bear's skin. When full grown, 
they retire to the stems of plants and 
the chinks in walls, to change to black 
shining chrysalids, in an oval loose 
cocoon, composed of silk, and the hairs 
from their skin. 

" The moth rests with its wings de- 
flexed ; is of a pale ochre, or buff 
colour; the antennae are black, and 
bipectinated in the male; the eyes, 
palpi, and legs are also black, except- 
ing the thighs, which are of an orange 
colour, and the tibia and tarsi are va- 
riegated with buff; the upper wings 
have two long black spots upon the 
costal margin, with one or more dots 
near the base, in a transverse line. As 
the moths stick about plants and walls, 
often in pairs, in May and June, they 
are easily detected, and it becomes 
necessary to kill them to prevent the 
havoc they make with the foliage." — 
Card. Chron. 

B. phteorrhcea. Brown-tailed moth. 
M. Kollar states that — " According to 
Curtis, the caterpillar of the brown- 
tailed moth is found on the hawthorn 



This moth is so closely related to 
the yellow-tailed moth, and its habits 
so similar, that the means suggested 
for the destruction of the one may be 
advantageously adopted for the other. 

" In the month of June, when al- 
most full grown, this caterpillar mea- 
sures nearly two inches, and is of the 
thickness of a very thick quill ; it is 
very juicy, of a yellowish-green colour, 
with black tubercles, each of which 
bears a single hair, and has three pale 
yellow stripes, running longitudinally ; 
the middle one extending rather broadly 
along the back. It has a small bluish 
head, with two black round spots on it. 

" At the time of pupation, these cat- 
erpillars repair to the stems of the 
trees, or to walls and hedges, where 
they make for themselves cases of 
moss, lime-dust, and small chips of 
wood, oval on the upper side, and flat 
below, in which they do not become 
pupa; till the third week. The pupa is 
small, cylindrical, reddish-brown, dull 
in some degree, powdered with blue." 
— Kollar. 

B. antiqua, Vapourer, or brown tus- 
sock moth. This moth appears from 
August to October. Mr. Curtis informs 
us that — " The males then fly about in 
pursuit of their consorts, who are desti- 
tute of wings, and after depositing a large 
number of eggs, fall down exhausted and 
die. These eggs are somewhat ovate, 
depressed, and hollow on the crown, 
round which is a brown ring. They 
are of a pinky-white colour, and are 
fastened as they are laid, by a gluti- 
nous substance, to the bark of the tree, 
or whatever the parent happens to rest 
upon, frequently to the web containing 
the shell of the pupa ; they are hatched 
the following April, when the larvae 
attack a great variety of trees, feeding 
upon the leaves of roses, brambles, the 
apple, plum, sloe, hawthorn, oak, lime, 
alder, and sallow. The caterpillars 



BON 



95 



BOR 



often do considerable mischief to the 
rose-trees, by eating large holes in the 
leaves; and, keeping on the under 
sides, they are seldom visible until they 
are full-grown, when they are often an 
inch in length, and ramble about to 
select some suitable crevice in the bark 
of a tree or other secure place to spin 
their fine white silken web, strengthen- 
ed and protected with the different 
hairs from their own bodies ; in this 
web they change to pitch colour, and 
rather hairy chrysalides, from whence 
the moths are produced at various pe- 
riods."— Gard. Chron. 

BONAPARTEA. Two species. 
Stove epiphytes. Seed. Rich sandy 
loam. 

BONATEA speciosa. Stove epiphyte. 
Division. Sandy peat and loam. 

BONES are beneficial as a manure, 
because their chief constituent (phos- 
phate of lime) is also a constituent of 
all plants; and the gelatine which is 
also in bones is of itself a source of food 
to them. The bones of the ox, sheep, 
horse, and pig, being those usually em- 
ployed, their analyses are here given: — 

Ox |Sheep Horse Pig 



Phosph. of lime 
Carb. of lime 
Animal matter 
The bones must 



55 

4 
33 
be 



70 

5 

25 

applied 



GS 

1 
31 

to 



crops in very small pieces or powder; 
and ten pounds at the time of inserting 
the seed is enough for thirty square 
yards, if sown broadcast; and a much 
smaller quantity is sufficient if sprinkled 
along the drills in which the seed is 
sown. There is no doubt that bone 
dust may be employed with advantage 
in all gardens and to all garden-crops, 
but it lias been experimented on most 
extensively with the turnip and potato, 
and with unfailing benefit. Mixed with 
sulphur, and drilled in with the turnip 
seed, it has been found to preserve the 
young plants from the fly. Mr. Knight 
found it beneficial when applied largely 
to stone-fruit, at the time of planting : 
and it is quite as good for the vine. To 
lawns, the dust has been applied with 
great advantage when the grass was 
becoming thin. As a manure for the 
shrubbery, parterre, and green-house, 
it is also most valuable ; and crushed as 
well as ground, is employed generally 
to mix with the soil of potted plants. 
Mr. Maund finds it promotes the luxu- 



riance and beauty of his flowers. One 
pound of bone-dust mixed with twelve 
ounces of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), 
and twelve ounces of water, if left to 
act upon each other for a day, form 
super-phosphate of lime, a wine-glass 
full of which has been found beneficial 
to pelargoniums. Applied as a top- 
dressing, mixed with half its weight of 
charcoal dust, it is a good manure for 
onions, and may be applied at the rate 
of nine pounds to the square rod. 
There is little doubt of this super-phos- 
phate being good for all our kitchen- 
garden crops, being more prompt in its 
effects upon a crop than simple bone- 
dust, because it is soluble in water, and 
therefore &>re readily presented to the 
roots in a state for them to imbibe. 

BONNETIA palustris. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

B N T I A daphnoides. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

BORAGE (Borago officinalis).- Its 
young leaves are sometimes used in 
salads, or boiled as spinach. Being 
aromatic, its spikes of flowers are put 
into negus and cool tankards. 

Soil and situation. — For the spring 
and summer sowing, any light soil and 
open situation may be allotted, provid- 
ed the first is not particularly rich ; but 
for those which have to withstand the 
winter, a light dry soil, and the shelter 
of a south fence, is most suitable. A 
very fertile soil renders it super-luxu- 
riant, and injures the intensity of its 
flavour. 

Times and mode of sowing. — It is 
propagated by seed, which is sown in 
March or April, and at the close of July, 
for production in summer and autumn, 
and again in August or September, for 
the supply of winter, and succeeding 
spring. These sowings to be performed 
in shallow drills, six inches asunder. 
When of about six weeks' growth, the 
plants are to be thinned to six inches 
apart, and the plants thus removed of 
the spring and autumn sowing, may be 
transplanted at a similar distance ; but 
those of the summer seldom will endure 
the removal, and at all times those left 
unmoved prosper most. At the time of 
transplanting, if at all dry weather, they 
must be occasionally watered mode- 
rately until established : water must 
also be frequently applied to the seed 
bed of the summer sowing, otherwise 
the vegetation will be slow and weak. 



BOR 



96 



BOR 



To obtain seed. — -To save seed, some 
of those plants which have survived the 
winter must be left ungathered from. 
They will begin to flower about June ; 
and when their seed is perfectly ripe, 
the stalks must be gathered, and dried 
completely before it is rubbed out. 

BORAGO. Six species. Hardy. Di- 
vision or seed. Common soil. 

BORASSUS Jlabelliformis. Stove 
palm. Seed. Loam and peat. 

BORBONIA. Nine species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

BORDER, is a name applied to that 
narrow division of the garden which 
usually accompanies each side of a 
walk in the pleasure-groups, and to 
the narrow bed which is close to the 
garden wall on one side, and abuts on a 
walk on the other. The walls being 
mostly occupied by fruit trees, the lat- 
ter may be considered as the fruit-bor- 
ders, and the first-named as the flower- 
borders. 

1. Fruit-borders. — Next to the wall 
should be a path three feet wide, for 
the convenience of pruning and gather- 
ing- Next to this path should be the 
border, eight or nine feet wide; and 
then the broad walk, which should al- 
ways encompass the main compart- 
ments ofthe kitchen garden. The whole 
of the breadth from the wall to the edge 
of this main walk should be excavated 
to the depth of four feet ; the bottom of 
the excavation rammed hard ; brickbats 
and large stones then put in to the depth 
of one foot and a half; and the remain- 
ing two feet and a half filled up with 
suitable soil. From the underdrainage 
of brickbats, &c, draining pipes should 
be laid, with an outfall into some neigh- 
boring ditch. No fruit tree will be 
healthy if it roots deep, or if its roots 
are surrounded by superfluous water — 
that is, more water than the soil will 
retain by its own chemical and capil- 
lary attractions. Shallow rooting crops 
do no harm to the trees grown on fruit 
borders sufficient to require their total 
banishment. 

2. Flower borders. — These, like the 
preceding, and indeed like every other 
part ofthe garden not devoted to aqua- 
tic and marsh plants, should be well 
drained. In plotting them it must also 
be remembered, that if narrow, no art 
will impart to them an aspect of bold- 
ness and grandeur. Indeed narrowness 



of surface is inseparably connected with 
an impression that the grounds are of 
limited extent, and no disposal of the 
plants will remove the littleness thus 
suggested. If the pleasure grounds are 
small, narrow borders are permissible, 
but even then the broader they are the 
less is the appearance of meanness. 
Neatness must be the presiding deity 
over flower borders, and no application 
ofthe hoe and rake, no removal of. de- 
cayed leaves, no tying up of straggling 
members, can be too unremitting. 

For the arrangement of the plants, 
see Flowers; and for particular culti- 
vation, each will be found under the 
name ofthe plant. 

BORECOLE, Brassica oleracea fim- 
briata. 

Varieties. — Of the following, 1, 2, 3, 
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 10, are the 
best. 

1. Brussels Borecole, or Sprouts. 

2. Green Borecole, Brassica oleracea 
selenisia. 

3. Purple Borecole, B. oleracea laci- 
niata. 

4. Variegated Borecole. 

5. German or Curled Kale, or Cur- 
lies. 

6. Scotch or Siberian Kale, B. o. 
sabdlica. 

7. Chou de Milan. 

8. Egyptian or Rabi Kale. 

9. Ragged Jack. 

10. Jerusalem Kale. 

11. Buda-Russian, or Manchester 
Kale. 

12. Anjou Kale. 

13. One-thousand-headed cabbage. 

14. Palm Borecole. 

15. Portugal or large ribbed. 

16. Woburn perennial. 

Woburn kale may be propagated by 
cuttings, six inches long, planted where 
to remain in March or April. 

Buda kale is greatly improved by 
blanching under a pot, like sea kale. 

Sowing. — The first crop sow about 
the end of March, or early in April, the 
seedlings of which are fit for pricking 
out towards the end of April, and for 
final planting at the close of May, for 
production late in autumn and com- 
mencement of winter. The sowing 
must be repeated about the middle of 
May ; for final planting, during July, 
and lastly in August, for use during 
winter and early spring. 

Pricking out. — Their fitness for 



BOR 



97 



BOT 



pricking out is when their leaves are 
about two inches in breadth ; they must 
be set six inches apart each way, and 
watered frequently until established. 
In four or five weeks they will be of 
sufficient growth for final removal. 

Planting. — When planted, they must 
be set in rows two feet and a half apart 
each way, the last plantation may be 
six inches closer. They must be wa- 
tered and weeded, and as they are of 
large spreading growth, the earth can 
only be drawn about their stems during 
their early growth. If during stormy 
weather any of those which acquire a 
tall growth are blown down, they must 
be supported by stakes, when they will 
soon firmly re-establish themselves. 

To raise seed. — For the production of 
seed, such plants of each variety as are 
of the finest growth must be selected, 
and either left where grown or removed 
during open weather in November, or 
before the close of February, the earlier 
the better, into rows three feet apart 
each way, and buried down to their 
heads. The seed ripens about the be- 
ginning of August. 

BORONIA. Twelve species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

BORRERIA. Three species. Stove 
or green-house. Cuttings. Common 
soil. 

BOSCIA senegalensis. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Rich clayey 
loam. 

BOSEA yervamora. Green-house 
evergreen shAb. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

BOSTRICHUS, a class of beetles, 
many of which are very injurious to the 
crops of the garden. 

B. dispar, Apple bark beetle. The 
female of this insect bores into the 
wood of the apple tree, and there depo- 
sits her eggs, generally in the month of 
May ; and its perforations are so nume- 
rous and extensive, as frequently, on the 
continent, to destroy the tree. In Eng- 
land it rarely occurs. The perforations 
are confined to the alburnum of the 
wood. 

B. typographies, Typographer bark 
beetle. This attacks the pine tribe, 
especially the silver fir. 

B. pinastri, Pinaster, or red bark 

beetle, confines its attacks to the pines, 

leaving the firs untouched, as the B. 

larius lives exclusively on the larch, 

7 



and the B. orthographies on the spruce 
fir. 

BOSWELLIA, Alibanum tree. Two 
species. Stove evergreen trees. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

BOTANY BAY TREE, Smilax gly- 
cyphylla. 

BOTRYCHIUM, Moonwort. Six spe- 
cies. Hardy ferns. Division, or seed. 
Loam and peat. 

BOTTOM HEAT. Naturally the 
temperature of the soil always bears a 
due relative proportion to that of the 
air. When the temperature of the air 
decreases, that of the soil also de- 
creases, but very slowly ; and when the 
atmospheric heat increases, that of the 
soil also gradually rises. Bottom heat, 
or heat applied below the roots of 
plants, is the artificial mode of imitating 
this proceeding of nature in our hot- 
houses, and other structures of that 
kind. If the temperature of the soil be 
too cold in proportion to the temperature 
of the atmosphere, the roots are not 
stimulated sufficiently to imbibe food as 
fast as it is required by the branches 
and foliage, and as a consequence the 
leaves or fruit will fall or wither. On 
the other hand, if the temperature of the 
soil be too great in proportion to that 
of the atmosphere, the roots absorb food 
faster than it can be elaborated by the 
branches and leaves, and as a conse- 
quence, over luxuriant shoots, and an 
extra development of leaves, are caused 
instead of blossoms, and a healthy pro- 
gress in all the parts. 

Every plant obviously will have a 
particular bottom heat most congenial 
to it. Plants growing in open plains, 
as at the Cape of Good Hope, will re- 
quire a higher bottom heat than those 
growing in the shade of the South Ame- 
rican forests, though the temperature of 
the air out of the shade may be the same 
in each country. That gardener will 
succeed in exotic plant-culture best, 
who among his other knowledge has 
ascertained the relative temperature of 
the air and soil in which any given plant 
grows naturally. " At present, such in- 
formation from actual observation is 
not obtainable, but it is not so difficult 
to ascertain the maximum and minimum 
temperature of the air of a country; 
and this being obtained, the gardener 
may adopt this as a safe rule. Let the 
bottom heat for plants of that country 
be always 5° higher than the average 



BOU 



98 



B RE 



temperature, or if the average maximum 
temperature of the air only be known, 
let the bottom heat be less by 10° than 
the maximum temperature of the air. 

Dr. Lindley very justly observes upon 
this subject, that " we have doubtless 
much to learn as to the proper manner 
of applying bottom heat to plants, and 
as to the amount they will bear under 
particular circumstances. It is in par- 
ticular probable, that in hot-houses 
plants will not bear the same quantity 
of bottom heat as they receive in na- 
ture, because we cannot give them the 
same amount of light and atmospheric 
warmth ; and it is necessary that we 
should ascertain experimentally whether 
it is not a certain proportion between 
the heat of the air and 'earth that we 
must secure, rather than any absolute 
amount of bottom heat. 

"It may also be, indeed it no doubt is, 
requisite to apply a very high degree of 
heat to some kinds of plants at particu- 
lar seasons, although a very much lower 
amount is suitable afterwards ; a remark 
that is chiefly applicable to the natives 
of what are called extreme climates, 
that is to say, where a very high sum- 
mer temperature is followed by a very 
low winter temperature ; such countries 
are Persia, and many parts of the United 
States, where the summers are exces- 
sively hot, and the winter's cold intense. 
The seeming impossibility of imitating 
such conditions artificially, will proba- 
bly account for many of the difficulties 
we experience in bringing certain fruits, 
the Newtown pippin, the cherry, the 
grape, the peach, and the almond, to 
the perfection they acquire in other 
countries." — Theory of Horticulture. 

BOURGEON, or Burgeon. See Bud. 

BOURRERIA. Two Species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

BOUSSINGAULTIA baselloides.— 
Half-hardy bulbous perennial. Seeds. 
Common soil. 

BOUVARDIA. Five species. Green- 
house or stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings or division. Loam and peat. 

BOWER. See Ardor. 

BOX (Buxus semper vir ens), is noticed 
by the gardener chiefly as a plant suita- 
ble for edgings. For this purpose it is 
neat, and certainly the best article used. 
In some gardens it is suffered to attain 
too great bulk, and then becomes rather 
a defect than ornament, exhausting the 
soil, and presenting a safe lurking place 



for insects; it should not be allowed to 
rise higher than six or eight inches, and 
as much in breadth — if necessary to re- 
strain its growth, transplant. The best 
seasons for planting box are at mid- 
summer, and early in the spring. Small 
rooted slips are employed, and are 
planted against the perpendicular side 
of a small trench along the edge of the 
border or bed they are desired to bound. 
The best month for clipping box is 
June, and it should be done in showery 
weather. 

BRABEJUM stellatum. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

BRACHYCOME iberidifolia. "Seeds 
of this," says Dr. Lindley," should be 
sown in March in pots or shallow pans, 
filled with light rich soil, and well 
drained, and the pots should be plunged 
in a gentle hot-bed. As soon as the 
young plants are established, they must 
be kept in a green-house ? shift into 
larger pots as they require it. Those 
that are to be grown out of doors should 
be planted out in a prepared bed early, 
say by the end of May, in order that 
they may perfect their seeds in Sep- 
tember or early in October." — Gard. 
Chron. 

BRACHYLiENA nereifolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. 

BRACHYSEMA. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen climbers. Lay- 
ers, cuttings, or seeds. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

BRACHYSTELMA. Two species. 
Stove tuberous-rooted perennials. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. 

BRASSAVOLA. Twelve species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

BRASSIA. Eleven species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

BRASSICA. The cabbage tribe. See 
Brocoli, Cauliflower , fyc. 

BRAYA. Two species. B. alpina, 
a hardy herbaceous perennial; B.pilosa, 
a hardy evergreen shrub. Seeds. Loamy 
peat. 

BREAKING. A Tulip's flower is 
broken when it has attained its perma- 
nent colors. A bulbous root is said to 
break when its foliage begins to be 
thrust forth. 

BREMONTIERA ammoxylon. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

B RE SI A. Three species. Stove 



BRI 



99 



BRI 



evergreen trees. Cuttings. Turfy loam 
and peat. 

BRICKS. As the gardener often 
may require to know how many bricks 
will be required for an intended struc- 
ture, it will be a guide for him to know 
that all bricks sold in England are re- 
quired by statute (17 Geo. 3, c. 42) to 
be eight and a half inches long, four 
inches wide, and two and a half inches 
thick. Pantiles, by the same authority, 
must be thirteen and a half inches long, 
nine and a half inches wide, and half 
an inch thick. 

BRIDGES are inconsistent with the 
nature of a lake, but characteristic of a 
river ; they are on that account used in 
landscape gardening to disguise a ter- 
mination ; but the deception has been 
so Often practised, that it no longer de- 
ceives, and a bolder aim at the same 
effect will now be more successful. If 
the end can be turned just out of sight, 
a bridge at some distance raises a belief, 
while the water beyond it removes 
every doubt, of the continuation of the 
river; the supposition immediately oc- 
curs, that if a disguise had been in- 
tended, the bridge would have been 
placed further back, and the disregard 
thus shown to one deception gains credit 
for the other. 

As a bridge is not a mere appendage 
to a river, but a kind of property which 
denotes its character, the connexion 
between them must be attended to ; 
from the want of it, the single wooden 
arch once much in fashion, seemed 
generally misplaced ; elevated without 
occasion so much above it, it was to- 
tally detached from the river ; and often 
seen straddling in the air, without a 
glimpse of the water to account for it, 
and the ostentation of it as an orna- 
mental object diverted all that train of 
ideas which its use as a communication 
might suggest. The vastness of Walton 
Bridge cannot without affectation be 
mimicked in a garden where the mag- 
nificent idea of inducting the Thames 
under one arch is wanting ; and where 
the structure itself, reduced to a narrow 
scale, retains no pretension to great- 
ness. Unless the situation make such a 
height necessary, or the point of view 
be greatly above it, or wood or rising 
ground instead of sky behind it fill up 
the vacancy of the arch, it seems an 
effort without a cause, forced and pre- 
posterous. 



The vulgar footbridge of planks, only 
guarded on one hand by a common rail, 
and supported by a few ordinary piles, 
is often more proper. It is perfect as a 
communication, because it pretends to 
nothing further, it is the utmost sim- 
plicity of cultivated nature; and if the 
banks from which it starts be of a mode- 
rate height, its elevation preserves it 
from meanness. 

No other species so effectually cha- 
racterizes a river ; it seems too plain for 
an ornament, too obscure for a disguise ; 
it must be for use, it can be a passage 
only ; it is therefore spoiled if adorned, 
it is disfigured if only painted of any 
other than a dusky colour. But being 
thus incapable of all decoration and im- 
portance, it is often too humble for a 
great, and too simple for an elegant 
scene. A stone bridge is generally 
more suitable to either, but in that also 
an extraordinary elevation compensates 
for the distance at which it leaves the 
water below. 

A gentle rise and easy sweep more 
closely preserve the relation ; a certain 
degree of union should also be formed 
between the banks and the bridge, that 
it may seem to rise out of the banks, 
not barely to be imposed upon them ; it 
ought not generally to swell much 
above their level, the parapet wall 
should be brought down near to the 
ground, or end against some swell, and 
the size and the uniformity of the abut- 
ments should be broken by hillocks or 
thickets about them ; every expedient 
should be used to mark the connexion 
of the building, both with the ground 
from which it starts, and the water 
which it crosses. 

In wild and romantic scenes may be 
introduced a ruined stone bridge, of 
which some arches may be still stand- 
ing, and the loss of those which are 
fallen may be supplied by a few planks, 
with a rail thrown over the vacancy. It 
is a picturesque object, it suits the situ- 
ation and the antiquity of the passage; 
the care taken to keep it still open, 
though the original building is decayed, 
the apparent necessity which thence re- 
sults for a communication, give it an 
imposing air of reality. — Whateley. 

BRINING. See Steeping. 

BROADCAST, is a mode of sowing 
now rapidly falling into disuse in the 
garden as well as in the field. It has 
no one advantage over sowing in drills, 



BRO 



100 



BRO 



except that the work of sowing is done 
more expeditiously. Subsequently, the 
saving is all on the side of the drill sys- 
tem. See Drilling. I know of no 
sowing where the broadcast mode is 
preferable, except in the case of grass 
seeds upon lawns. Loudon thus de- 
scribes the operation of broadcast sow- 
ing: — "The seed is taken up in por- 
tions in the hand, and dispersed by a 
horizontal movement of the arm to the 
extent of a semicircle, opening the hand 
at the same time, and scattering the 
seeds in the air, so as they may fall as 
equally as possible over the breadth 
taken in by the sower at once, and 
which is generally six feet, that being 
the diameter of the circle in which his 
hand moves through half the circum- 
ference. In sowing broadcast on the 
surface of his beds, and in narrow strips 
or borders, the seeds are dispersed 
between the thumb and fingers by hori- 
zontal movements of the hand in seg- 
ments of smaller circles." 

BROCCOLI. ThesameinEng.,Fr., 
and Ital. Italienische Kohl, Ger. Bro- 
culi, Span. " This exquisite vegetable 
resembles the cauliflower in growth, ap- 
pearance, and flavour, and is supposed 
to have originated from it. Some of the 
varieties produce white heads, others 
purple, sulphur coloured, &c. It is cul- 
tivated with less trouble than the cauli- 
flower, and heads with more certainty. 
The autumn is the season in which it is 
generally perfected, but with proper 
management may frequently be had 
throughout the winter and spring. 

" The varieties are extensive, and 
differ in the time of ripening, as well as 
hardiness. Those we have cultivated 
with most success are the purple cape, 
sulphur coloured, and early cauliflower 
broccoli. There are also several other 
autumnal kinds, such as the green cape, 
early purple, early white, cream-co- 
loured, or Portsmouth, &c. ; but the 
purple cape is much the most certain 
to head, indeed the only one to be re- 
lied on in this climate. Our plan of 
cultivation has been, to sow the seed 
from the middle to latter end of spring; 
transplanting them when they attain the 
size at which cabbage plants are gene- 
rally put out. 

" Should: the weather prove very dry 
at the periods in which it is proper to 
sow, some difficulty may be found in 
getting the seed to vegetate; in that 



case choose a spot shaded from the 
mid-day sun, and cover the bed with 
straw litter, lightly spread over the sur- 
face, which suffer to remain until the 
seeds sprout, when it should be imme- 
diately removed. Bass mats or cloths 
are sometimes used for this purpose ; 
they should be removed every evening, 
and replaced in the morning, else the 
seed loses the benefit of the dew. 

" A few observations only are neces- 
sary as to the progressive culture of 
the broccoli. Having, in the first place, 
selected a deeply dug, rich piece of 
ground, and planted them therein as 
you would cabbage plants, allowing 
them rather more room, do not neglect 
to hoe and stir the ground, keeping it 
perfectly clean and free from weeds; 
when they are six or eight inches high, 
land them up, that is, with the hoe 
draw around the base of the plants 
some of the loose soil, forming it like a 
basin, the stock of the plant being the 
centre. If dry weather ensue, give an 
occasional watering, which will greatly 
facilitate their growth. 

" The earlier sowings will commence 
heading early in the autumn ; the latter 
sown plants, many of them will show no 
appearance of heading before winter. 
On the approach of black frost they are 
to be removed to some sheltered situa- 
tion, and " laid in," after the manner of 
winter cabbage ; that is, burying the 
stalk entirely up to the lower leaves, 
the crown projecting at an angle of 
45 degrees. They are more tender 
than the cabbage, and require to be 
protected against severe frost, which 
may readily be done by setting over 
them frames, such as are placed on hot- 
beds, and cover with shutters, or by 
setting boards on edge around them, the 
back the highest, on which lay a cover- 
ing of boards similar to a roof. Thus 
they are sheltered from frost, and undue 
quantities of rain. As the winter ad- 
vances, and the frost becomes more se- 
vere, give an additional covering, of 
straw scattered loosely immediately 
over the plants inside the board cover- 
ing. In this situation they will remain 
secure, some of them heading from time 
to time during the winter, and most of 
them producing fine heads in spring. 
Care should be observed to remove the 
straw covering on the arrival of spring, 
and to raise the shutters or boards in 
fine weather, that air may be freely ad- 



BRO 



101 



BRU 



mitted, removing them entirely the lat- 
ter part of March. 

" It is the practice of some who have 
light dry cellars, to place them therein, 
•when removing them in the autumn, 
burying the roots and stalks as above 
directed. In that situation they re- 
quire no further care or protection. 
Broccoli is sometimes sown about the 
middle of September, the plants pre- 
served in frames during winter, and put 
out in the spring. They are by no 
means certain to succeed well at that 
season; a few nevertheless might be 
thus managed, as they will generally 
head in the autumn, when failing to do 
so during the summer months. 

" All the Brassica or Cabbage tribe is 
subject to be preyed upon by various 
insects, the most destructive of which 
in this country is the ' Black Fly' 
(Haltica nemorum) • and in such im- 
mense quantities do they sometimes 
appear, and so voracious their appetite, 
that extreme difficulty is found in pro- 
tecting the young plants from their 
depredations. As soon as they appear, 
take wood ashes, mixed with one-third 
air-slaked lime, and sprinkle over the 
entire plants, first wetting the leaves 
that the dust may adhere ; this should 
be repeated as often as it flies off, or is 
washed off by rain. An application of 
lime water is also beneficial ; it is disa- 
greeable to the fly as well as the slug ; 
the latter insect preys much upon them 
in damp weather. But the most certain 
preventive is a solution of whale-oil 
soap — a solution of common soft-soap 
or brown-soap, would probably answer 
the purpose ; the alkali therein is par- 
ticularly offensive to that troublesome 
intruder." — Rural Register. 

BRODLtEA. Two species. B. con- 
gesta, green-house ; B. grandiflora, half 
hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
Sandv peat. 

BROMELIA. Fifteen species. Chiefly 
stove herbaceous perennials. B. disco- 
lor is an evergreen shrub ; B. exudans, 
an epiphyte. Suckers. Rich loamy soil. 

BROMHEADIA palustris. Stove epi- 
phyte. Offsets. Peat and potsherds. 

BRONGNIARTIA, podalyrioides. 
Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

BROOM. See Besom. 

BROSIMUM. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loamy 
soil. 



BROTERA, corymbosa. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennial. Division. Loam and 
peat. 

BROUGHTONIA. Two species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

BROUSSONETIA. Two species. 
Hardy deciduous trees. Cuttings. Light 
open soil. 

BROWALLIA. Four species. Green- 
house annuals. Seeds. Rather sandy 
soil. 

BROWNEA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

BROWNLO WIA elata. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loamy 
soil. 

BRUCHUS, a genus of beetles. 

B. granarius and B. pisi are greatly 
destructive to our pea crops. They are 
small brownish beetles, usually found 
at the same time the plants are in flower, 
and they deposit their eggs in the ten- 
der seeds of leguminous plants, and 
sometimes in different kinds of corn. 
In these the larva, a small white fleshy 
grub, finds both a suitable habitation 
and an abundance of food. It under- 
goes all its transformations in the seed, 
and the perfect insect remains in it till 
the spring, though in fine autumns the 
perfect insects appear at that season 
also. The larvae possess the singular 
instinct of never attacking the vital part 
of the seed till the last. 

We have often observed the seed 
pods of chorozema, and other delicate 
and scarce leguminous plants in green- 
houses, pierced by the Bruchus pisi. 
The more effectual remedy is to pull 
up and burn the haulm and pods alto- 
gether, and not attempt to get a crop 
at all. Peas infested with B. granarius, 
are always known by a small hole being 
on one side, and these should be care- 
fully picked out, as they not only spoil 
the appearance of a sample, but spread 
the injury. 

BRUGMANSIA. Four species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. B. Way- 
manii is a stove evergreen tree. Cut- 
tings. Rich soil. 

BRUISE. See Canker. 

BRUJNTA. Eighteen species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

RRUNNICHIA cirrhosa. Green-house 
evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loamy 
soil. 

BRUNONIA australis. Hardy herb- 



BRU 



102 



BUD 



aceous perennial. Division. Loamy 
soil. A frame or cool green-house is 
suited lor its growth. 

BRUNS r KLSIA. Four species. 
Stove' evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Good 
rich s <'il • 

muiNSViciA. Thirteen species. 
Green-bouse bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Rich mould. 

The bulbs, while dormant, which is 
during winter« are kept in a cool green- 
house, hh as dry anil airy a place as 
possible, until they begin to show leaves; 
then to he potted in three parts good 
turfy loam, one part leaf-mould and 
a little silver sand, and placed so that 
they have the full benefit of the light. 

When the loaves have grown to about 
twelve inches in length, plunge in a 

strong bottom heat, and allow to remain 
till the flower-stem pushes clear of the 
loaves, which will be in about four or 
five Weeks. They must then be gra- 
dually hardened oil' and returned to the 
green-house, there to expand their blos- 
soms, which consist of a number of from 
twenty to thirty ilowers. 

\iUM- flowering, every care must be 
taken of the foliages fry exposing it to 
the full influence of the sun, and giving 
plenty of water. 

When the plants show an inclination 
to rest, water must be altogether with- 
held. 

BRYA. Two species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings or seed. Very 
rich soil. 

BRYOPHYLLUM calicihvm. stove 
evergreen shrub. Leaves. Rich loamy 
soil. 

BUC1DA bur eras. Stove evergreen 
tree. Ripe cuttings. Loam and peal. 

HI MIS. The buds are organized parts 
of a plant, of an ovate or conical form. 
and containing the rudiments of future 

branches, leaves, and flowers, which 

remain latent, until circumstances favour 
their development. The same buds ac- 
cordingly, as circumstances vary, pro- 
duce either Ilowers or leaves. Buds 
spring from the alburnum, to which 

they are always connected by central 

> essels. 

BUDDING is the art of making a bud 

unite to the stem or I ranch (then called 

the stock) of another tree or shred), in- 
dependently from its parent. The ob- 
ject thus attained is a rapid multiplica- 
tion of that parent ; and in the case of 
seedlings, an earlier production of fruit 



than if the buds were left upon the pa- 
rent. Delicate kinds are strengthened 
by being worked, as it is technically 

termed, upon more robust, stocks, as 
when a tender vine is budded on the 
Syrian, and the double yellow rose upon 
the common China. Variegated roses 
often lose their distinctive marks if 
grown upon their own roots. Roses 
budded upon the common brier afford 
liner (lowers than upon their own stems. 
Buds from seedling peaches and pears 
are earlier productive — and produce 
finer fruit. — budded upon a robust 
stock ; but, buds of the pear inserted 
earlier than the close of August, pro- 
duce branches and not blossoms. Where 
the bud comes in contact with the wood 
of the stock, a confused line is visible, 
between which line and the bark of the 
bud new wood is produced, having 
solely all the characteristics of the pa- 
rent of the bud. Buds of almost every 
species succeed with most certainty if 
inserted in shoots of the same year's 
growth : but the small walnut buds suc- 
ceed best which are taken from the base 
of the annual shoots, where these join 
the year old wood of that from winch 
the bud is taken. Buds are usually two 
years later than grafts in producing 
fruit, but then every bud will produce a 
new plant, but each graft has at least 
three upon ii. Buds succeed more rea- 
dily than grafts, and if a graft inserted 
in the spring has laded, a bud may suc- 
ceed in the summer of the same year. 
Buds are ready for removal when their 
shield, or bark attached to them, sepa- 
rates readily from the wood. This is 
usually in July or August, and is inti- 
mated by the buds being well developed 
in tin 1 axilla- of the present year's leaves. 
Scallop-budding may be done almost at 
any season. Buds should be taken from 
the middle of the shoot; those from its 
point arc said to make wood too freely, 
and those from the base to be more nn- 
excitable, and consequently less prompt 

to \ egetate. 

Stocks for budding may be much 
smaller than for grafting, even on the 
same year's shoot. Several buds may 
!>e inserted on older branches, and thus 
a good head be obtained at once. On 
stocks of long standing, scallop-bud- 
ding is to be adopted, .lust after rain, 
and when there is no violent wind, is a 
i time to be preferred for budding. What- 
ever mode ofbudding is adopted, quick- 



BUD 



103 



BUD 



ness in the operation is indispensable, 
for if the wound in the stock or that of 
the bud becomes dry, the budding will 
fail. The bark of the stock should be 
cut and raised first, and if possible on 
its north side. A piece of moist bass 
may be twisted over the wound whilst 



the bud is preparing, and the moment 
this is done, it should be inserted, and 
the ligature put on forthwith. 

There are twenty-three modes of 
budding described by M. Thouin, but 
only one — shield-budding, (Fig. 22) — is 
generally practised in Great Britain and 



Fig. 22. 




the United States. The annexed cut will 
convey a tolerably clear idea of the pro- 
cess ; a is the stock or tree to be budded. 
Shield-budding and Scallop-budding : — 
" With the budding-knife make a hori- 
zontal cut across the rind, quite through 
to the firm wood at b ; from the middle 
of this transverse cut make a slit down- 
ward perpendicularly, an inch or more 
long, going also quite through to the 
wood. This done, proceed with all 
expedition to take off a bud, holding 
the cutting or scion in one hand with 
the thickest end outward, and with the 
knife in the other hand enter it about 
half an inch or more below a bud, cut- 
ting near halfway into the wood of the 
shoot, continuing it with one clean 
slanting cut about half an inch or more 
above the bud, so deep as to take off 
part of the wood along with it, the 
whole about an inch and a half long, 
represented by c ; then directly with 
the thumb and finger, or point of the 
knife, slip off the woody part remain- 
ing to the bud ; which done, observe 
whether the eye or gem of the bud 
remains perfect ; if not, and a little 
hole appears, in that part it is imperfect 
or, as gardeners express it, the bud has 
lost its root and another must be pre- 
pared. If, however, it is found imprac- 



ticable to remove this woody part with- 
out leaving a hole, let it remain, it is 
not absolutely objectionable. When the 
bud has been thus prepared, slip it down 
between the wood and bark to the bot- 
tom of the slit ; the next operation is to 
cut off the top part of the shield, even 
with the horizontal first-made cut, in 
order to let it completely into its place, 
and to join exactly the upper edge of 
the shield with the transverse cut, that 
the descending sap may immediately 
enter the bark of the shield, and pro- 
trude granulated matter between it and 
the wood, so as to effect a living union. 
The parts are now to be immediately 
bound round with a ligament of fresh 
bass, previously soaked in water to 
render it pliable and tough, beginning 
a little below the bottom of the perpen- 
dicular slit, proceeding upwards closely 
round every part except just over the 
eye of the bud, and continuing it a little 
above the horizontal cut, not too tight, 
but just sufficient to keep the whole 
close, and exclude the air, sun, and wet, 
as represented at d. If the stock and 
bud are both in fit condition, budding is 
usually performed with uniform suc- 
cess : it is a simple mechanical opera- 
tion, and those accustomed to the work 
execute it with great rapidity ; an ac- 



BUD 



104 

— ♦ — 



BUD 



tive nursery-hand will readily insert 
1000 buds in a day. In most of the New 
Jersey nurseries boys are employed for 
budding peaches, and by much practice 
become perfect adepts at it. The mode 
just described is called shield or T 
budding, from the shield-like form of 
the portion of bark containing the bud 
to be inserted, and the resemblance 
which the horizontal and perpendicular 
cuts made for its admission into the 
stock, bear to the two principal bars of 
the letter T. 

" In selecting buds, those that are 
very young should be avoided; for in 
that case they are closely connected 
with the greenish substance composing 
the pith at the tender age of the shoot 
producing them ; and on this substance 
they then doubtless too much depend 
for nourishment to be safely deprived 
of it. 

" It is a sign that they are duly con- 
stituted when they begin to emit woody 
substance ; and this will form a crite- 
rion of their fitness to shift for them- 
selves. 

" Buds taken from fruit-bearing trees 
on walls are apt to fall, owing to the 
prevalence of blossom-buds which will 
not produce shoots. 

" Scallop-budding consists in paring 
a thin tongue-shaped section of bark 
from the side of the stock ; and in tak- 
ing a similar section or shield from the 
shoot of buds, in neither case removing 
the wood. The section or shield con- 
taining the bud, is then laid on the cor- 
responding scallop in the stock ; its 
upper edge exactly fitted as in shield- 
budding, and at least one of its edges as 
in whip-grafting — after this it is tied in 
the usual way. The advantages of this 
mode are, that it can be performed 
when the wood and bark do not sepa- 
rate freely ; on trees having very stiff, 
thick, suberose bark, and at any season 
of the year. Its disadvantages are, that 
it requires longer time to perform the 
operation, and is less certain of suc- 
cess." 

" Mr. Knight was accustomed on 
some occasions to employ two distinct 
ligatures to hold the bud of his peach 
trees in its place. One was first placed 
above the bud inserted, and upon the 
transverse section through the bark ; 
the other, which had no further office 
than that of securing the bud, was em- 
ployed in the usual way. As soon as 



the bud had attached itself, the ligature 
last applied was taken off, but the other 
was suffered to remain. The passage 
of the sap upwards was in consequence 
much obstructed, and buds inserted in 
June began to vegetate strongly in July. 
When these had afforded shoots about 
four inches long, the remaining ligature 
was taken off to permit the excess of 
sap to pass on, and the young shoots 
were nailed to the wall. Being there 
properly exposed to light, their wood 
ripened well and afforded blossoms in 
the succeeding spring." 

In the first week of July the thorns 
should be removed from those places 
on the stocks intended for budding 
roses. If they be not taken away, 
the operation is rendered needlessly 
troublesome ; and it is best done then, 
as time is thus allowed for the bark's 
healing. The best time for budding the 
rose is towards the end of that month ; 
a dormant eye being employed just after 
a fall of rain, and when no strong dry 
wind is moving. An attention to these 
circumstances ensures that the sap is 
flowing freely, and avoids a rapid eva- 
poration so often preventing success. 
Moist bass is usually employed for clos- 
ing the wound of the stock, but it is far 
preferable to use worsted, and over this 
a coating of the grafting wax, made ac- 
cording to the following recipe: — 
Burgundy pitch . . . . 1 oz. 
Comm-on pitch .... 4 " 

Yellow wax 4 " 

Tallow 2 " 

Nitre (carbonate of) .. (t 

potash) powdered . 5 
These must be melted slowly in an 
earthen pipkin, and applied whilst 
warm. Common diachylon sold in 
rolls by chemists answers as well as 
the above. A laurel leaf fastened at 
each end by a ligature round the stock, 
so as to arch over the bud, will com- 
plete the arrangement, and thus the 
sun's rays, the air, and wet, will be 
most effectually excluded, the admit- 
tance of any one of which are fatal to 
the union of the bud with the stock. 

The great point is to apply the liga- 
ture firmly without cutting the bark, 
and to relax and re-tie it, when, after 
some time, the bark shall be found 
swelling a little over it. It is not de- 
sirable to remove the ligature finally, 
until, from the greenness and plump- 
ness of the bud, and the slight swelling 



BUD 



105 



BUL 



which takes place in it, evidence is 
had that the operation has succeeded. 

Within a fortnight after the bud has 
been inserted, its fresh swelling aspect 
will intimate if it has united to the 
stock. At the end of the third week, 
if bass or worsted have been used as 
ligatures, these must be loosened, and 
in about ten days more removed. Very 
early in the spring following, the heads 
of the stocks must be removed by an 
oblique cut terminating about one- 
eighth of an inch above the shield of 
the bud, or six inches of the stock may 
be left for the first year, to which to 
fasten the shoot as a support. 

BUDDLEA. Twelve species. Stove 
or green-house evergreen shrubs. B. 
globosa is hardy. Layers or cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

BUFF-TIP MOTH. See Bombyx. 

BUGINVILL^EA spectabilis. Stove 
evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loamy 
soil. 

BUGLE. See Ajuga. 

BUISSON, is a fruit tree on a very 
low stem, and with a head closely 
pruned. 

BULBINE. Twenty-one species. 
Chiefly green-house herbaceous peren- 
nials. B. frutescens, B. rostrata, B. 
suavis are evergreen shrubs ; B. b'isul- 
cata, is a hardy bulb. Cuttings, offsets, 
suckers. Sandy loam or rich mould. 

BULBS, are really underground 
buds ; their fibrous or real roots die 
annually, but the bulbs remain stored 
with elaborated sap, and retaining, 
though latent, the vital powers of the 
plant, ready for reproduction at the 
appropriate season. Beside root bulbs, 
as are the onion, crocus, &c, there are 
stem or culinary bulbs, equally efficient 
for propagation. 

The culinary bulb consists of a num- 
ber of small scales closely compacted 
together in an ovate or conical form, 
enclosing the rudiments of a future 
plant, and originating sometimes in the 
axil of the leaves, as in Dentaria bulbi- 
fera and several liliaceous plants, and 
sometimes at the base of the umbel of 
flowers, as in Allium carinatum and 
others, in both which cases it is nou- 
rished by the parent plant till it has 
reached maturity, at which period the 
bond of connexion is dissolved, and the 
bulb falls to the ground, endowed with 
the power of striking root in the soil by 



sending out fibres from the base, and 
so converting itself into a new indi- 
vidual. Every bulbous-rooted plant 
has some peculiar point in its manage- 
ment, but there are a few rules of 
general applicability. They should 
never be moved except whilst in a 
state of rest ; this occurs to the sum- 
mer-flowering bulbs in autumn, and to 
the autumn-flowering in early summer. 
They require to be taken up annually, 
or at farthest every second or third 
year, to remove the accumulated off- 
sets. No bulb should be kept out of 
the ground for more than a month, and 
even during that time it is desirable to 
keep it from drying by burying it in 
sand. 

" Some bulbs," says Mr. Loudon, 
tc multiply so fast by throwing out off- 
sets, that they soon cease to send up 
flower stems. Of these may be men- 
tioned the Ornithogalum umbellatum 
luteum, and some other species ; some 
species of Scilla Muscari, Iris, Allium, 
Oxalis, and others. These should 
either be annually taken up, their off- 
sets removed, and the parent bulb re- 
planted, or the offsets, as soon as they 
send up leaves, should be destroyed. 
Indeed, whenever strong blowing bulbs 
is the principal object, the offsets 
should never be allowed to attain any 
size, but as soon as they indicate their 
existence by showing leaves above 
ground, they should be removed with 
a blunt stick, or in any way least in- 
jurious to the parent. By this practice 
a great accession of strength is given to 
the main plant, both for the display of 
blossom during the current season, and 
for invigorating the leaves to prepare 
and deposit nutriment in the bulb for 
the next year. In pursuance of the 
same objects, every flower should be 
pinched off as soon as it begins to de- 
cay, but the flower-stalk may remain 
till it begins to change colour with the 
leaves." — Enc. Gard. 

"The rule to observe with newly 
imported bulbs, is to place them where 
they absorb moisture very slowly. The 
driest earth is full of water, which can 
only be driven off by the application of 
intense heat. A bulb, therefore, should 
be planted in what is called dry soil, 
and placed in a shady part of a green- 
house until it has become plump and 
begun to shoot. If it has begun to 
shoot when received, still the same 



BUL 



106 



BUR 



treatment should be observed, and the I 
driest soil used to plant it in. 

" It is only when decisive signs of j 
natural growth can be detected that a | 
very little water should be given, while 
the temperature is at the same time 
slightly increased ; and no considerable 
quantity of water should be adminis- 
tered until the leaves are an inch or 
two above ground, and evidently dis- 
posed to grow rapidly. If these pre- 
cautions are taken, no failures are ever 
likely to occur ; if neglected, no suc- 
cess can be anticipated. 

" To this class belong the numerous 
beautiful tribes of Gladiolus, Ixia, Spar- 
axis, Watsonia, &c, all of which are so 
closely allied, that the same treatment 
is applicable to the whole of them. To 
these may be added the Hyacinth. The 
two principal points to be attended to 
in the successful cultivation of the j 
Gladiolus and Ixia are, to protect the 
beds in which the bulbs are planted 
from frost and from heavy rains, both 
of which are equally destructive. For j 
both tribes, the beds should be com- | 
posed of prepared soil, at least one foot j 
deep, with perfect drainage at the j 
bottom. 

" That for Gladioli should consist of 
two parts turfy loam, one of leaf mould, 
and the remainder of well-rotted cow 
dung and sand. For Ixias, the greater 
portion of the soil should be formed of 
sandy peat without any manure. 

" In both cases the beds may be made 
level with the surrounding surface, and 
towards the latter end of this month the 
bulbs may be planted upon them in 
rows, six inches apart each way ; when 
covered over with soil, the beds will 
thus be raised a few inches above the 
bulbs; a small pyramid of sand should 
be formed over each, to assist in pro- 
tecting them from damp. Gladioli 
should be covered three inches with 
soil ; Ixias not more than two inches. 

"After planting, a layer of dry de- 
cayed leaf mould, or tan from a spent 
bark bed, should be spread three inches 
thick over the beds. 

"Either of these will resist the rain 
for some time ; but if there should be a 
continuance of wet, the beds should 
also be protected with mats secured 
upon hoops. The tan or leaves will 
likewise assist materially in excluding 
frost. When, however, this sets in 
severely, dry leaves should be laid over 



the surface to the depth of nine inches 
or a foot. 

"As spring advances, these materials 
may be gradually removed, and all the 
care that will be afterwards required, 
will consist in tying up the flower-stems 
as they increase in growth. Unless the 
weather is very dry the beds will not 
need water ; if such should be the case 
it should be liberally supplied, since the 
want of moisture in the growing season 
is just as destructive to Ixias, as a super- 
abundance of it during their period of 
rest. If such beds are kept dry in 
winter, they will last for many years 
without replanting. 

"There are many more interesting 
bulbs upon which it is needless here to 
dwell, as they will for the most part 
thrive in the borders amongst other 
plants. 

" These are the Erythronium dens 
canis and americanum ; Tigridia pa- 
vonia ; Pardanthus chinensis ; Zephy- 
ranthes Atamasco and Candida ; Fritil- 
laria imperialis and meleagris ; Leuco- 
jum sestivum and pulchellum ; Scilla 
amcena, campanulata and praecox ; As- 
phodelus ramosus, tauricus and lacteus ; 
Van Thol, Sans eye and Parrot tulips; 
Ornithogalum pyramidale," &c. 

BULBOCODIUM. Two species. 
Hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

BULLACE TREE. Prunusinsititia. 

BULL GRAPE. Vitis rotundifolia. 

BULLIARDA vaillanti. Hardy 
aquatic annual. Seeds. Loam and peat. 

BUMELIA. Fourteen species. Stove 
evergreen trees, or hardy deciduous 
shrubs or trees. Cuttings. Loamy soil, 
or loam and peat. 

B U N C H S I'A . Eleven species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam, sand and peat. 

BUPLEURUM. Forty species. 
Chiefly hardy annuals, biennials, peren- 
nials, and a few evergreen shrubs. Off- 
sets or seeds. Common soil. 

BUPTHALMUM. Nine species. 
Hardy annuals and perennials, or green- 
house evergreen shrubs. For the green- 
house species, cuttings, loamy soil. For 
the herbaceous species, suckers, com- 
mon soil. The annuals merely require 
sowing in the open ground. 

BURCHARDIA umbellata. Green- 
house herbaceous perennial. Offsets 
or division. Sandy peat, or peat and 
loam. 



BUR 



107 



CAB 



BURSERA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings or seeds. 
Loam and peat. 

BURTONIA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Very 
sandy loam and peat. 

BUSHEL. See Basket. 

BUTEA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

BUTOMUS. Flowering Rush. Two 
species. Hardy aquatic perennials. 
Division. Rich loam. 

BUTTER AND EGGS. See Narcis- 
sus. 

BURCHELLIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. B. capensis is easily 
propagated either by cuttings of the 
roots or seed, in very sandy loam and 
leaf mould. It requires close pruning 
to restrain over luxuriance. 
^ BURLINGTONIA. Two species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood, 
with a little moss. 

BURNET. Poterium. 

BURN ONION. See Potato Onion. 

BURSARIA spinosa. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

BUTTERFLY. The caterpillars- of 
some of these insects are very injurious 
to the gardener, though those of the moth 
are still more numerous and destructive. 
The butterflies which are the chief causes 
of mischief in our gardens are Pontia 
brassica, P. rapcc, P. napi, and Pieris 
crategi. The smells of coal tar and of 
gas lime are particularly offensive both 
to butterflies and moths, and those may 
be readily strewed about the plants 
liable to become the depositories of 
their eggs. If shreds of flannel are 
placed in the branches of gooseberries, 
or among cabbages, &c, the parent in- 
sects are said to place their eggs there 
in preference to the leaves. 

BUTTERFLY-PLANT. Oncidium 
Papilio. 

BUTTON FLOWER. Gomphia. 

BUTTON TREE. Conocarpus. 

BUXUS. Four species and many 
varieties. Chiefly hardy evergreen 
shrubs. Suckers or layers. Common 
soil. See Box. 

B Y B L I S liniflora. Green-house 
aquatic perennial. Seeds. Loamy soil, 
and immersed in water. 

BYRSONIMA. Thirteen species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. B. 
volubilis is an evergreen twining plant. 



Ripe cuttings. Rich soil, or loam and 
peat. 

BYSTROPOGON. Four species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CABBAGE. (Brassica oleracea capi- 
tata.) " The cabbage tribe is, of all the 
classes of cultivated vegetables, the 
most ancient, as well as the most ex- 
tensive. The Brassica oleracea being 
extremely liable to sport or run into va- 
rieties and monstrosities has, in the 
course of time, become the parent of a 
numerous race of culinary productions, 
so various in their habit and appear- 
ance, that to many it may not appear a 
little extravagant to refer them to the 
same origin. 

"We have made our selection from the 
many which abound ; it embraces the 
earliest, the latest and those which ripen 
intermediately, and have been chosen 
on account of their superior worth and 
suitableness for the peculiarities of our 
climate ; having found from experience, 
that some varieties highly esteemed in 
Europe, are not so desirable in this 
country. Short descriptions of the kinds 
we are cultivating, may prove interest- 
ing to those who lack knowledge of the 
subject, and seek information. 

" The Early Yorkis the earliest variety, 
(with the exception of the early dwarf, 
which is very small, and not worth 
growing to any extent.) It is a delicious 
tender cabbage, and well known to all 
possessing any knowledge of gardening. 
Those from American seeds produce 
heads firmer and larger than is pro- 
duced by the imported. The entire 
crop does not ripen so nearly together 
as the imported, in which respect it is 
also superior; for whilst some among 
them will be as early as the earliest of 
the imported, others will succeed them, 
thus answering better for family use ; 
and for the market it is also an advan- 
tage, those coming in last being of an. 
increased size and hardness. It is, 
moreover, hardier than the imported, 
and having become acclimated, with- 
stands the heat better, which gives it a 
great advantage over the foreign, es- 
pecially at the south. 

" Method of cultivation at Philadelphia. 
—Sow the seed from about the 10th to 
the 20th of September. If sown earlier, 
the plants are apt to " shoot," and if 
later, may not get sufficiently strong to 
stand the winter. That the seed may 



CAB 



108 

— ♦ — 



CAB 



vegetate freely, observe the directions 
for sowing Broccoli. About the latter 
part of October, remove them to a spot 
of ground previously prepared in which 
they are to be preserved during the en- 
suing winter. Such situations should 
be protected from northerly winds, and 
lay exposed to the south. The best way 
is to set, a frame, provided with a shut- 
ter, in which plant them with a dibble, 
allowing each plant an inch square. In 
this situation suffer them to remain 
without cover, until the middle or close 
of November, according as the season 
may be mild or otherwise. Have the 
shutter at hand to use on any sudden 
cold; it may be slid on at night., and re- 
moved in day time, either entirely or 
partially, as the weather may require 
throughout the winter; air them freely 
in clear weather when not too cold, 
and examine them from time to time, to 
guard against the depredations of mice 
which sometimes harbour in the frames. 
As early in the latter part of March or 
beginning Of April, as the weather will 
permit, and the ground admit, of being 
worked, set them out in a compartment 
of the garden protected from northerly 
blasts. The ground should be deeply 
dug and manured very highly with well 
rotted stable dung; the richer the earth 
is, the more luxuriant will be the growth, 
and earlier the crop. 

" Should the lly attack them, give fre- 
quent sprinklings of wood-ashes and 
air-slaked lime, previously watering 
the plants that it may adhere; or if 
practicable sprinkle with a solution of 
snap. If any run to seed remove them, 
and supply their place with fresh plants. 
It is scarcely necessary to add, that fre- 

quent deep hoeing should be given, to 

destroy weeds ami loosen the earth, 
that it may receive the dews ; when 
they have attained a sufficient size earth 
them up, that, they may the more effect- 
ually withstand drought. 

"The market gardeners around Phila- 
delphia, plant out considerable quanti- 
ties of Early York in the autumn, to 
stand over winter; their plan is to 
prepare a piece of ground with a 
southern aspect; throw up ridges of a 
foot high, two and a half feet apart, run- 
ning from N. W. to S. E., about, half 
way up the side of the ridge, and on 
the southerly side they place the plants, 
putting them in the ground so deeply 
that nothing but the heart and upper 



leaves are exposed. This is done about 
the middle of October. When cold 
weather approaches, they give a slight 
covering of straw, brush, or corn-stalks, 
spread from ridge to ridge. Should the 
winter prove mild the plants will suc- 
ceed very well, and come into head be- 
fore those planted in the spring. The 
covering is removed the latter end of 
March or beginning of April, and the 
ridges gradually cut down to a level 
by the Culture of the crop — deep tillage 
is essential to success with this vege- 
table 

" Having neglected to sow in Septem- 
ber, or from any accident having failed 
to get the plants at that time, prepare a 
hot-lied in February, and therein sow 
the seed, by itself, or mixed with celery, 
radishes, or lettuce. 

"Land relics Large York. — This is a 
variety that originated at Philadelphia. 
It is not what gardeners term a pure 
kind ; that is, the heads differ some- 
what in form; but it is one of the finest 
varieties we are acquainted with. When 
planted at the same time with the Early 
York, it immediately succeeds it. For 
the market it is a profitable kind, the 
heads being large, firm, and heavy. It 
differs from what is known in England 
as the " Large Early York," that, being 
termed here the Early York. Mode of 
cultivation same as that of the Early 
York. 

'■'■Early Sugarloaf — has a conical 
formed head, hence its name. It never 
becomes firm and hard, and is princi- 
pally used for boiling; is esteemed a 
delicate variety ; ripens with the Large 
York; is but little cultivated around 
Philadelphia. Treatment same as for 
the York. 

"Early Batter sea — is in high repute in 
England as a second early variety. 

"Philadelphia — a variety which origin- 
ated near the city of its name. It suc- 
ceeds the Large York ; produces a firm 
compact head, of large size, and is a 
profitable kind for market: the whole 
crop not ripening at once, but heading 
successively; it withstands the heat well, 
and with Landreth's Large York forms 
the main early summer crops of exten- 
sive gardeners who supply the Philadel- 
phia market. 

"Large Drumhead — Flat Dutch — 
Large Her gen — Drumhead Savoy — 
Curled Savoy — These are all calculated 
lor the winter supply. The first three 






CAB 



109 



C AC 



produce firm, large heads, and differ I CACALIA. Chiefly slove evergreen 
but little. The Drumhead has a large shrubs and trees, or hardy herbaceous 
roundish head ; the Dutch is flattened i perennials ; some are annuals. C. 
on the top; the Bergeu somewhat re-/bicolor is deciduous; C. radicans, an 
sembles it, with short stalk, heading | evergreen creeper; C. scandens, an 

Division. 



near the ground. The Savoys have 
curly leaves, and are much preferable 
to the others for boiling ; are very 
tender and delicately flavoured when 
touched by the frost. The Drumhead 
Savoy \\a.s been introduced of late years. 
The head is nearly as large as the Drum- 
head, linn and compact — hence its 
name. It keeps well throughout the 
winter, and until very late in the spring 



evergreen climber. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

CACTUS. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. 

Soil. — " The soil for young plants, 
one-half peat, with equal quantities of 
strong yellow loam, pigeons' or sheep's 
dung, and river sand that has been at 
least exposed twelve months to the 
weather, and frequently turned. Never 



and is decidedly worthy of general cul-j mix the soil before it is wanted for use. 
ture, having all the delicacy of the I Well sift, and the lumps place over the 
curled variety. Time of sowing winter | potsherds for drainage. When the 



cabbage is April and May, to be trans 
planted in June and early part of July, 
choosing cloudy weather, when it looks 
likely for rain. An occasional watering 
in dry weather will assist them in taking 
fresh root. 

" To preserve them during winter. — 
In November remove them to a sheltered 
situation, burying the entire stalk, so 
that nothing but the heads remain above 
ground. In December give a slight 
covering of straw, with brush laid on to 
prevent its blowing oft'. In this manner 
they will keep well throughoutthe winter 
— the Savoys until late in the spring. 

"Late Battersea — cultivated in Eng- 
land for an autumnal crop — but little 
grown here, having been superseded by 
other kinds. 

"Red Dutch — is used principally for 
pickling, either with other vegetables, 
or shredded by itself as " slaugh." For 
early summer supply sow in September, 
as directed for Early York, and in April 
and May for the autumn and winter 
stock, treating as directed for Drum- 
head and Savoy. 

" Green Glazed — grown extensively at 
the south, where it is thought to resist 
the worm ; does not succeed well in this 
latitude. Culture similar to the other 
summer varieties." — Rural Register. 

The cabbage is liable to the Mildew 
and Ambury, which see. 

CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. Sec 

I'-ontia. 

CABBAGE FLY. See Anthomyia. 
CABBAGE GARDEN PEBBLE 
MOTH. See Pyralis. 
CABBAGE MOTH. See Mamestra. 



plants have attained a proper size for 
blooming, add more of the loam in re- 
potting them, particularly to C. spe- 
ciosissimus, and in all cases give plenty 
of drainage." — Gard. Chron. 

Sowing. — " Fill the seed-pots with 
cinders, to within two inches of the 
top, and make them up with very sandy 
peat, and a little clean sand on the top ; 
the pots are then watered and the seeds 
sown ; after which as much dry sand is 
sprinkled over them as will just rill up 
the spaces between them. The whole 
is then pressed down gently, and the 
pots are put by in any warm place, 
where they are kept moist. The seeds 
will vegetate in ten or twelve days, and 
must then be very gently watered, for 
fear of displacing them, till they make 
their little roots and get firm hold of 
the soil ; after whrch they may be 
freely and regularly watered. The 
seeds to be sown quite thin in the first 
instance, and not to transplant the seed- 
lings till they begin to get crowded in 
the pots, in a year or two. These di- 
rections are equally applicable to the 
seeds of other succulents." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Dr. Lindley adds, that " the best way 
to bloom C. spcciosus and speciosissi- 
mus, is to grow them in an enriched 
soil, and keep them in a warm, light 
house, while they are making their 
shoots, exposing them entirely during 
August and September. By the latter 
practice they will become brownish 
and unhealthy-looking for a time, 
though they will soon recover this." — 
Gard. Chron. 

" The seeds of cacti may be gather- 
ed and sown as soon as they are ripe. 



C AC 



110 

—4 — 



C AC 



Being produced in a large pulpy berry, in the stove on its own roots in the 
this never bursts of itself; but its ap- usual way." — Gard. Chron. 
pearance will tell you when it is mature. Varieties and Species. — The follow- 
All the treatment they require is, to \ ing are cultivated around Philadelphia, 
remove the pulpy matter from them, and are among the more desirable. A 



and this may be best done by wash 
ing." — Gard. Chron. 

Grafting. — The end of August is the 
best time for this operation, and Mr. 
Greenj already quoted, gives these di- 
rections : — 

" I grow for stocks, Pereskia acu- 
leata, Cereus hexagonus, and Cereus 
speciosissimus. I prefer the latter on 
account of its hardy, lasting, and robust 
habit. I grow the stocks freely till 
they attain the height that I want them. 
Some I grow with five or six stems, 
from one to five feet high ; others I 
grow with one stem, from one to four 
feet. The short stems I engraft at the 
top with the Emphyllum speciosum, and 
Ackermannii ; the tall single stems 
with E. truncation, and some from the 
surface of the soil to the top, all of 
which is of course according to indi- 
vidual fancy ; E. truncatum should al- 
ways be engrafted high, without which, 
from its drooping habit, the greater 
part of the beauty of the bloom is lost. 
The shoots to be about one and a half 
or two inches long. I pare off the 
outer skin or bark for about half an 
inch at the base of the graft, and cut 
what is intended to be inserted into the 
stock in the shape of a wedge ; I then 
make an incision in the angles or top 
of the stock with a pointed stick, made 
the same shape as the scion. 

" When the grafts are first put in, to 
prevent their slipping out, I pass 
through each a small wooden peg, or 
the spine of a thorn ; I then cover each 
with a small piece of moss, and place 
them in a shady, damp house, and 
syringe them over the tops occasionally 
in the evening; they will all adhere to 
the stocks in ten days or a fortnight, 



superb collection, perhaps the most so 
in the Union, is in the possession of 
Caleb Cope, President of the Pennsyl- 
vania Horticultural Society : 
Cereus grandiflorus. 

monstrosus. 

cylindricus. 

Mallisonia. 

Smithii. 

fiagelliformis. 

horrida. 

gladiata. 

gemmatus. 

speciosissimus. 

heptagonus. 

Epiphyllum speciosa. 

splendens. 

— Jenkinsonia. 

truncatus. 

«~ Russellianus. 

atropurpurea su- 

perba. 



vandesia. 



Mammillaria prolifera. 

Wildeana. 

rhodantha. 

stellata. 

— radiata. 

rubra. 



Echinocactus Evreisii. 



decora. 



ottonis. 
dis-color. 
simplex, 
pulchella. 



Opuntia, microdysa. 

, leuacantha. 

Cuttings and Culture. — " The best 
time for propagating by cuttings is when 
the plants are growing freely; make 
them of whatever size can be spared 
from the plants ; and those that are of 
young and unripe shoots, lay on a dry 
and make good plants by winter. By j shelf in the green-house for a fortnight 
engrafting the showing kinds of cacti to dry up the sap, which prevents them 
on the stocks that I recommend above, I from rotting, and causes them to emit 
noble specimens can be grown in a few j roots much sooner. Plant them singly 
years, from one to ten feet high if re- in small pots, and place them in a 
quired, and the size and colour of the i moderate hot-bed frame ; when they 
blooms are much superior to what they have filled the pots with roots, re-pot 
ever produce when grown on their own I and place in an intermediate, or pelar- 
roots. E. truncatum, by the above j gonium-house, to remain for the sum- 
treatment, becomes quite a hardy green- , mer, and receive a good supply of 
house plant, and will bloom three water. 
months later than it does when grown j " In the autumn allow them to get 






CAC 111 

-■ ♦ 
quite dry, and winter in a dry, airy 
part of the green-house. In spring, 
again remove to the pelargonium- 
house, and use a very little water, 
which increase as the season advances. 

" By the end of the second summer 
they will have grown to the size of 
good blooming plants; and in the 
autumn they should be placed out in a 
warm airy part of the garden, to ripen 
the shoots thoroughly. 

" About the usual time of housing 
other green-house plants they should 
be again dried, and put, as before, in 
the green-house ; place the first for 
forcing in the intermediate stove about 
the 1st of February, and continue a 
succession, till they bloom in the green- 
house, which is about June. 

" Such plants will bear the greatest 
extremes of dryness and moisture, and 
without proper attention is paid at the 
season of rest to keep them quite cool 
and dry, they never will bloom proper- 
ly. The forcing must be commenced 
at a low temperature, and water at first 
given sparingly. 

" When they have begun to grow 
freely, and the bloom-buds are well 
started, they must be watered, not by a 
continued dripping, but by copious ap- 
plications, and at intervals of a fort- 
night, during the growing season, with 
liquid manure. 

" When the bloom-buds are suffi- 
ciently advanced, thin out all those 
which are large and small, leaving 
them as near one size as possible, and 
at proper distance to allow the blooms 
to expand. When they have flowered, 
keep the plants rather dry for a short 
time, and place them in a cool shady 
part of the green-house, or under a 
north wall. In a few weeks they will 
again assume their usual firm and 
healthy appearance, and begin to grow ; 
and then clear off all the decayed 
blooms and seed-pods, and place the 
plants for the autumn in the garden in 
a south aspect, where there is a free 
circulation of air, giving them a good 
supply of water ; after this they are 
moved to the green-house and treated 
as before. Train them to iron stakes, 
made to fit the outside of the pots or 
tubs, and fasten them with wire. At- 
tention should be paid to early training, 
and to stopping all shoots as soon as 
they attain the required height ; all use- 
less side and bottom shoots rub off, and 



CAL 

occasionally some of the old shoots cut 
out, and replace with young ones." — 
Gard. Chron. 

CADI A purpurea. Stove ever-green 
shrub. Cuttings. Light loamy soil. 

C^LESTINA. Three species.— 
Green-house and half-hardy perennials. 
C. micrantha is a half-hardy evergreen 
shrub. Seeds. Common open soil. 

CiENOPTERIS. Five species. Stove 
and green-house ferns. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

CiESALPLNA. Twenty-one species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. C. 
scandens is a climber ; C. gilliesii is 
deciduous. Seeds. Sand, peat and 
open loam. 

CvESIA vittata. Green-house tuber- 
ous-rooted perennial. Seeds. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

CALABASH. Crescentia. 

CALABA TREE. Calophyllum 
calaba. 

CALADENIA. Ten species. Half- 
hardy, or stove orchids. Division. 
Peat, loam, and sand. 

CALADIUM. Twenty-eight species. 
Chiefly stove herbaceous perennials or 
evergreen shrubs. Tubers. Rich soil. 
Some grow best in water ; C. simsii is 
a climber. 

CALAMINTHA. Nine species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials ; 
two are evergreen shrubs. Suckers. 
Light loam. 

CALAMPELIS scabra. Half-hardy 
evergreen climber. Cuttings. Light 
loam. 

CALAMUS. Six species. Palms. 
Seeds. Rich sandy loam. A moist at- 
mosphere suits them. 

CALANDRINIA. Seven species. 
Stove, green-house, or hardy herbaceous 
plants. Seeds or cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

CALANTHE. Nine species. Stove 
or green-house orchids. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

CALASHEA. Eleven species. Stove 
herbaceousperennials. Division. Sandy 
peat. 

CALATHIAN VIOLET. Gentiana 
pneumonanthe. 

CALCAREOUS SOIL is a soil in 
which chalk (carbonate of lime) pre- 
dominates. When in great excess it 
renders the colour a near approach to 
white, in proportion to that excess. No 
soil is productive which does not con- 
tain some chalk, or in which it exceeds 



C AL 



112 



C AL 



nineteen parts out of twenty. From one 
to five per cent, is the usual proportion 
in fertile soils. Calcareous soils are 
rarely productive ; they are so feebly 
retentive of moisture that the crops 
upon them are burnt up in summer; 
and they reflect the sun's rays so fully, 
that vegetation is late upon them in 
spring. The best addition to such soils, 
to improve their staple, is clay. 

CALCEOLARIA. Thirty-one spe- 
cies, and many varieties. Chiefly green- 
house herbaceous perennials, or ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings or seeds. Any 
rich, open, sandy soil. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — " The 
plant should be shrubby ; the foliage 
thick, and dark green ; the habit bushy ; 
the wood strong. 

" The flower-stems should be short 
and strong; the foot-stalks of the 
blooms elastic, and branching well 
away from each other, to form a rich 
mass of flowers without crowding. 

" The individual blooms depend en- 
tirely on the form of the purse, and it 
should be a perfect round hollow ball. 

" The orifice and calyx cannot be too 
small, nor the flower too large. The 
colour should be very dense, and whe- 
ther it be a spot in the middle, or stripes 
or blotches, should be bold and well 
defined, and the ground should be all 
one colour or shade, whether white, 
straw-colour, sulphur, yellow, or any 
other. The colour of a self should be 
brilliant, and all over the same actual 
shade. Dark flowers, with pale edges, 
or clouded or indefinite colours, are I 
bad, and unfit to show. The bloom 
should form one handsome bunch of 
pendant flowers, which should hang ! 
gracefully, and be close to each other ; 
the branches of the flower-stems hold- 
ing them out to form a handsome spread- 
ing surface." — Hort. Mag. 

Raising from Seed. — " The pods 
should be taken off* when turning yel- 
low, and laid to dry on a large sheet of 
paper, under a hand-glass, that the 
wind may not disturb it. In the early j 
spring this may be sown thinly in pans | 
well drained with crocks, and covered ! 
with a hand-glass, in the green-house 
or under the glass of a garden-frame; j 
when they have attained a sufficient 
size to handle, they may be pricked out 
into other seed-pans, an inch apart, and 
allowed to grow until they are large j 
enough to be in each other's way. They | 



may then be potted in sixty-sized pots, 
and placed in a pit or frame, there to 
grow, under tolerably attentive manage- 
ment as to being kept neither dry nor 
wet. If the green-fly make its appear- 
ance, they must be fumigated with to- 
bacco smoke, not too strongly, as it has 
been known to kill all the young shoots. 
If the roots reach the sides of the pot, 
and begin to mat a little, they may be 
changed to size forty-eight ; and if they 
should after that grow still stronger, 
they may be once more shifted to size 
thirty-two, in which they will bloom to 
great advantage." — Hort. Mag. 

Cuttings and Division. — " About the 
middle of July, when the plants have 
done flowering, preparation should be 
made for propagating the different kinds 
— the herbaceous, by dividing the roots; 
the shrubby, by cuttings. The plants 
should be encouraged in their growth, 
a short time previously to this opera- 
tion, by judicious watering, the remain- 
ing flowers picked off, and the stems 
allowed to die down, that no nourish- 
ment may escape. The cuttings from 
the shrubby sorts should be struck 
singly in small sixties, in a frame with a 
gentle bottom heat, kept shaded, and 
rather sparingly watered ; when rooted, 
air may be more freely admitted, and 
the plants gradually hardened. As soon 
as the roots appear through the soil, 
they will require shifting into forty- 
eights, and to be placed in a house 
where they may receive plenty of top 
air, side air and drafts being prejudicial 
to the free growth of the Calceolaria ; 
when the sun bears considerable power, 
the plants should remain on the shady 
side of the green-house ; the tempera-: 
ture of the house should be from 45° to 
5(P. "—Gard. Chron. 

Layering. — A writer in the same 
work, who thoroughly understands his 
subject, says : — " At the time they have 
done flowering, which is under ordinary 
circumstances about the latter end of 
June, divest them of their flower-stalks 
and dead leaves, and top-dress them 
for about an inch deep, with silver-sand 
and yellow loam in equal portions, 
taking care that all the ripe joints of 
the young shoots are covered for about 
half that depth ; place them in a cool 
and shaded situation, until the begin- 
ning or middle of September, giving 
occasional waterings during that period. 
By this time most of the shoots so co- 



C AL 



113 



C AL 



vered have rooted so as to permit of 
their being removed with safety from 
the parent plant." — Gard. Chron. 

Potting. — The same authority says 
on this point of their culture : — " Plant 
them in forty-eight sized pots, or smaller 
if necessary, and place them in a frame, 
on a gentle bottom heat of tan, taking 
care at this period to guard against the 
direct influence of the sun, until they 
are fairly established in their pots. 

" The compost for the first potting is, 
three parts of yellow loam, four of 
well decomposed leaf-mould, one of 
cow-dung which has lain at least twelve 
months, and two of silver-sand. This 
soil to vary as the plants strengthen and 
approach their flowering season, until 
the proportions are five of loam, two of 
leaf-mould, two of cow-dung, and one 
of silver-sand. From the time the 
plants are well established in their 
pots, give them ho particular attention 
beyond that of slightly fumigating them 
once a week, until about the beginning 
of January, when shift them into larger 
pots, and place them on the front stage 
of a geranium house, the temperature 
of which is kept at about 45o., with an 
exceedingly humid atmosphere. In 
shifting always sink the ball a little to 
admit of a top-dressing of fresh mould 
being put over the ripe joints of the 
young wood, which very soon emits 
roots; an operation which tends mate- 
rially to increase the size and strength 
of the plants. Be very particular in 
drainage, never allowing a particle of 
the old drainage to be removed, and by 
the time they are placed in their flow- 
ering pots, have a complete open drain, 
from within a few inches of the surface, 
down to the bottom o p the pot, with 
the exception of the layers of fresh turf, 
which always introduce between the 
mould and potsherds." — Gard. Chron. 

CALDASIA heterophylla. Stove an- 
nual. Seeds. Sandy peat and loam. 

C A L E A. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

CALEACTE urticafolia. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Common 
soil. 

CALEANA. Two species. Green- 
house orchids. Division. Peat, loam, 
and sand. 

CALENDULA. Marigold. Twen- 
ty-one species. Hardy annuals or green- 



house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, seeds. 
Loam and peat. 

CALEPINA corvini. Hardy annual. 
Seeds. Common soil. 

CALLA. Four species. Chiefly green- 
house herbaceous perennials. C.palus- 
tris is an aquatic ; C. pertusa an ever- 
green creeper. Seeds or division. Rich 
soil. 

CALLICARPA. Twelve species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CALLICHROA platyglossa. Hardy 
annual. Seed. Common soil. 

CALLICOMA serratifolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Fibrous peat and sand. 

CALLIGONUM pallasia. Hardy 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy open 
loam. 

CALLIOPEA aurea. Hardy herba- 
ceous perennial. Division. Loamy soil. 

CALLIOPSIS. Four species. Hardy 
annuals and perennials. Seeds. Com- 
mon loam. 

CALLIPRORA lutea. Hardy bulbous 
perennial. Offsets. Peat. 

CALLISIA repens. Stove tuberous- 
rooted perennial. Division. Sandy 
fibrous peat. 

CALLISTACHYS. Five species. 
Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat and loam. 

CALLISTEMMA. Two species and 
many varieties. Hardy annuals. Seeds. 
Common soil. 

CALLISTEMON. Nineteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

CALLITRIS. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen trees. Seed. Sandy 
loam. 

CALLUS is the matter exuded from 
the edges of the wound of a plant in the 
process of healing. It is exuded from 
the horizontally communicating cells of 
the plant; and in cuttings it is from and 
through this exuded matter that the roots 
and the perpendicular vessels connected 
with them proceed. 

CALOCHILUS. Two species. Green- 
house bulbous rooted orchids. Sandy 
peat and light loam. 

CALOCHORTUS. Six species. Half- 
hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
Sandy peat and loam. 

Sowing. — Dr. Lindley says : — " The 
seeds should be sown as soon as ripe, 
or as soon as possible afterwards, in 
pans filled with very sandy peat ; the 



C AL 



114 



CAM 



seeds covered rather more than a quar- 
ter of an inch in depth ; and the pans 
placed in any cold pit secured from 
wet. They require only water enough 
to keep the soil damp during the win- 
ter. They will bear being placed in a 
warmer situation, but not where there 
is a moist heat. The young plants 
should be kept growing as long as pos- 
sible, by keeping them rather moist dur- 
ing the summer. They must not be re- 
moved from the seed-pan until after the 
second too quickly, or kept dry too 
long, particularly the first season ; at 
that time they are very small, and are 
apt to be dried up and exhausted, if care 
is not taken to prevent it." — Gard. 
Chron. 

CALODENDRON capense. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loamy 
soil. 

CALOPHACA wolgarica. Hardy de- 
ciduous shrub. Division. Loam and 
peat. 

CALOPHANES oblongifolia. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Loam 
and peat. 

C KLOVOGON pulchellus. Greenhouse 
orchid. Division. Peat and loam. 

CALOSTEMMA. Three species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Sandy loam and peat. 

CALOTHAMNUS. Four species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

CALOTIS cuneifolia. Green-house 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

CALOTROPIS. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or 
seeds. Rich soil. 

CALTHA. Six species and many 
varieties. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Seeds or division. Common rather moist 
soil. 

CALTROPS, Tribulus. 

C A L Y C A NT H U S. Five species. 
Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers. Open 
loam. 

CALYPSO borealis. Half hardy or- 
chid. Offsets. Sandy loam and peat. 

CALYP TRANTHES. Two species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Layers. Sandy 
peat. 

CALYPTRION aubletii. Stove ever- 
green climber. Seeds. Peat and loam. 

CALYSTEGTA. Seven species. 
Hardy deciduous twining or trailing 
plants. Division. Common loamy soil. 

CALYTHRIX. Five species. Green- 



house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

CAM AS SI A esculenta. Hardy bulb- 
ous perennial. Seeds. Peat. 

CAMELLIA. Japonica. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. 

Messrs. D. Landreth & Fulton, of 
Philadelphia, who are extensively en- 
gaged in the culture of this charming 
plant at the old Landreth Nurseries, 
where was made the earliest col- 
lection of the Camellia in America, 
present the following as a desirable 
selection. Those marked t are per- 
fectly double, with the petals neatly ar- 
ranged, and are among the choicest in 
cultivation. Those marked with a star 
are of American origin. 

The catalogues of some European 
Nurserymen contain upwards of five 
hundred varieties; it may be readily 
presumed that many of them are com- 
paratively worthless : a goodly number 
of such have been imported by the 
American florists, and though some of 
them were once esteemed, are now, by 
the introduction of more desirable va- 
rieties, no longer worthy a place in a 
choice collection. We append a list of 
a few such faded beauties. 

CHOICE CAMELLIAS. 

tAlba-pleno, double white. 

t Fimbriata, fringed do. 

*Americana, blush with rose spots. 
Albertii, white. 
Althaeiflora, crimson. 
t*Amabile, rose and red. 
t*Binneyii, light rose. 
Bealii, large red. 
Carswelliana, dark red. 
Chandleri, white and crimson. 
| t*Caroiine, pink. 

Colvelleii, white with rose stripes. 
j tConcinna, dark red. 
; tCandidissima, purest white. 
Conspicua, large red. 
tCoquette. 
Campbellii, white and red. 
Donklarii, white rose and crimson. 
tDuchess de Orleans, crimson with 
white stripes. 
j tExemia, salmon. 
I *Estherii, white and rose. 

Elegans, rose. 
I tElata, crimson. 

Eclipse, white with rose stripes. 
j *Floyii, rose red. 

tFordii, dark rose. 
! Fairlea, crimson. 



CAM 1 

Fulgida, crimson. 
t*Feastii, white and rose. 

Gilesii, crimson and white. 
t*Gunnelli, white. 
*Grahamii, white. 
*Hosackii, crimson. 
t*Hempsteadii, dark rose. 
tHenry Favre, rose, 
tlmbricata, crimson and white. 

Alba, 4 white and rose. 

*Imbricata (Dunlap's). 
tJncarnata, Lady Humes'. 

Invincible, rose, red spots. 

Kingii, white, rose spots. 

Kermosina, crimson. 
t*Landrethii, rose and white. 
t*Martha (BuisPs), white. 

Mutabilis, changeable crimson. 
tMyrtifolia, light red. 

Mutabilis triversi, rose. 
t*Mrs. Fetter's, rose and white. 

Ochraleuca, white. 
*Philadelphia, rose red. 
t*Prattii, light rose. 

Pomponia, white. 

Queen (Fielder's), light rose 

Reticulata, rose. 
tRosea, rosy purple. 

Rex Batavia, white, rose striped. 

Rubro-pleno, old red. 
tSasanqua rosea, light rose. 

Sweetii, rose, spotted with red. 
tSacoi vera. 

Speciosa, crimson and white. 

Cunningham^ s, rose and 

white. 
*tSarah Frost, dark red. 

Spicata, red. 
t*Sherwoodi, crimson and white. 

Tricolor, white rose and crimson. 

Triumphans, rose spotted with white. 

Thea, black tea. 

Vandesia superba, crimson. 

Variegata, rose and white. 

Viridus, green tea. 

t Victoria (Priestley'' s), red, white 
stripes. 

Welbankiana, greenish white. 
tWilliam the 4th, rose spotted with 

white. 
t*Washington, white. 

Wardii, crimson. 

REJECTED CAMELLIAS. 

Alba simplex. 

Aitonia. 

Anemoniflora. 

■ Rosea. 

Alba. 

Atrorubens. 
Bruceana. 



CAM 



Corallina. 

Conchaflora. 

Celestina. 

Carnea. 

Decora. 

Dorsetia. 

Eiphinstonia. 

Francofurtensis. 

Florida. 

Goussonia. 

Hendersonia. 

Juliana. 

Lawrenceana. 

Oleafera. 

Parksii. 

Pendula. 

Paeoniaflora. 

Rosa Sinensis. 

Rosa mundi. 

Sabina. 

Woodsii. 

Soil.— The camellia delights in a rich 
soil, but will not bear manure directly 
applied. The following is the compost 
used at the Landreth Nurseries — sandy 
wood earth (the decomposed vegetable 
matter found at the roots of trees in 
forests) and well rotted sod, or loam, in 
equal parts, thoroughly mixed, and pass- 
ed through a No. 1 sieve, retaining all 
the fibrous particles in the soil. 

Propagation. — "The usual methods 
of propagation are by inarching or graft- 
ing and budding on the single red Ca- 
mellia, cuttings of which are found to 
strike root more readily than of the 
double varieties. 

" The cuttings are taken in July and 
August, or as soon as the young shoots 
are sufficiently ripe at the base. They 
are carefully prepared by being cut 
smoothly over with a sharp knife at a 
joint, and divested of one or two leaves 
at the bottom, and then planted firmly 
about two inches deep in pots half filled 
with the Camellia compost before de- 
scribed, and the upper half with fine 
white sand. They are then well watered, 
and the pots plunged in a tanbed, which 
gives out a gentle warmth^ and kept 
closely shaded for three or four months, 
by which time short fibres, or a callus 
from which they afterwards diverge, are 
produced. 

" When sufficiently rooted to bear 
removal, they are potted singly in small 
pots, the sand being then carefully re- 
moved ; the pots should be well drain- 
ed and filled with the Camellia compost, 
with the addition of a little white sand. 



CAM 



116 



CAM 



" They are afterwards to be sprinkled tection in severe weather, like the Myr- 
with water, and placed in a close frame j tie; and if the plants are kept just above 
or pit until they begin to root afresh,] the freezing-point, they will succeed 
and by degrees exposed to the air. The j much better than when grown in a high 
succeeding season they may be potted I temperature. 



the same soil as the other Camellias, 



At the time they are making their 



and similarly treated, and many of the j growth, an increase of heat will be ad- 
plants will then have attained sufficient j 
size and strength for inarching or bud- j 



ding, and all of them by the following ! grafti 



vantageous." — Gard. Chron. 
Grafting. — Dr. Lindley says, 



For 



^ell-ripened young shoots 



should be taken when they are just be- 
" The best time for inarching is early j ginning to grow, and before the buds 
in the spring, just before the plants be-] are far advanced 



gin to grow, and for budding as soon 
as the new wood is sufficiently ripened ; 
but it may be done at almost any season 
of the year." — Gard. Chron. 

Culture. — The same authorities state 
that, " The proper season for the gene- 
ral shifting is when the young growth 
has hardened, and the blossom buds for 
next year can be detected at the ex- 
tremity of the shoots. 

"After shifting all those that require 
it, they may be placed in the open 
air, or retained in the green-house; as 
much air as possible should be admit- 
ted, and occasionally sprinkling the 
foliage will improve the appearance, as 
well as be beneficial to the health of the 
plants. 

" At all times attention must be paid 
to watering them properly, the roots 
being apt to become matted in the pots, 
so as to render the ball of earth im- 
pervious to moisture ; hence it is neces- 
sary to see that the ball of earth is 
moistened by the water poured upon it, 
instead of the web of fibres only. This 
renders an examination of the roots, or 
reducing and replanting them at least 
once a year, a measure almost indis- 
pensable. 

" At the respective periods of growth 
and flowering, the plants will require 
plentiful watering ; during the latter, if 
not regularly supplied, the bloom-buds 
will infallibly fall off, instead of ex- 
panding into flower ; at other times a 



They should be worked under hand- 
glasses in a stove or forcing-house, 
where a temperature of from 60° to 70° 
is kept up. Whip grafting without the 
tongue is perhaps the best method; and 
it is advisable to retain a few leaves on 
the stock above the graft, in order to 
draw on the sap. The single red makes 
the best stock, as it strikes freely from 
cuttings." — Gard. Chron. 

Forcing. — Mr. Robert Errington, 
gardener at Charlton Park, has pub- 
lished a most excellent essay upon this 
subject, from which the following are 
extracts : — 

"Draining and Potting. — In potting, 
place three or four potsherds first, the 
one overlapping the other, to insure a 
certain and speedy passage for the 
water, then a sprinkling of pounded 
crocks, the size of horse-beans; and 
finally another sprinkling, finer still ; on 
this put a thin layer of sphagnum, which 
has been dried, but not decomposed. 

"Re-pot soon after they have made 
their young growth — as soon, in fact, as 
the young leaves are perfectly develop- 
ed, and the end of the young wood, at 
the point of junction with the wood of 
the former year, begins to turn a little 
brown. In potting, the soil should be 
rather lumpy than otherwise, and tole- 
rably dry, and should be rather put 
round the ball in regular layers, and 
dressed tolerably firm, but not hard, as 
the layers are thrown in, pressing every 



regular moderate supply is essential. layer a little, so that no crevice be left 
The effect of constant watering may be I The ball of the plant should be rather 
presumed to diminish or destroy the ! moist at shifting, and when it is in a pot- 
fertility of the small quantity of earth ! bound state it should be immersed in 
allotted to each plant, therefore when i tepid water for an hour, about three 
the annual re-potting occurs, carefully ! days previous, allowing a day or two for 
take away as much of the former ball ! the superfluous water to drain away be- 
of earth as can be done without injuring J fore potting; place the ball immediately 



or cutting the roots, 
may be considered as 



The Camellia 
hardy green- 



on the sphagnum. 
"Period qf Growth. 



-The thermome- 



house plant, requiring only a slight pro- | ter should be kept from 60° to 65° by 



CAM 



CAM 



day, and 50° to 55° by night. The 
treatment should now be of a close and 
moist character, giving air in modera- 
tion, and with caution, every morning 
from eight o'clock until noon, and then, 
unless very hot weather, shutting close 
up. 

"There should be a little fire-heat 
every morning from seven o'clock until 
eleven, when it should be taken away 
until four o'clock, and then applied for 
the evening. 

"The pipes, flues, and floors should 
be watered abundantly directly the air 
is taken away; then a good syringing at 
three o'clock ; and the flues, &c, &c, 
wetted as before between five o'clock 
and six. Watering at the root must be 
carefully attended to when necessary, 
using weak liquid manure. 

"Period of Forming the Blossom-bud. 
— Shading will now be indispensable, 
the best material for which is coarse 
canvas ; those who are not too busy 
should remove it every afternoon at four 
o'clock, and replace it at nine on the 
following morning. 

" The temperature should range from 
65° to 70° by day, and from 55° to 60° 
by night, and be accompanied with a 
free circulation of air, avoiding all cut- 
ting winds. 

" The plants must be very sparingly 
watered, in fact a good smart syringing 
every afternoon immediately the air is 
to be taken away, say four o'clock, will 
be nearly sufficient. The fire put out 
on a warm sunny day, about three 
o'clock; but it should be put entirely 
out about five o'clock, as it is only re- 
quisite to warm the pipes or flues suf- 
ficient to produce a genial vapour for 
the night; and half an hour after the 
fire is pulled out the whole of the flues, 
pipes and floors, should be saturated 
with water, to be evaporated by the 
next day's ventilation. 

"Period of Feeding the Bud. — The 
fires may now be dispensed with entirely, 
merely observing, in the case of sunny 
afternoons, to make free use of sun 
heat, by shutting up the house early in 
the afternoon, say from three to four 
o'clock, according to the weather. Air 
should be given freely at all opportuni- 
ties, and the plants should be syringed 
heavily at seven o'clock in the morning, 
and again at four o'clock in the after- 
noon, saturating the floors and flues, or 
pipes, with water in the evening. 



" The plants may be well watered at 
the root whenever they require it. 

"Period of Blooming. — Free water- 
ing, and the use of liquid manure as 
before recommended, must be persisted 
in, avoiding, however, excess. The 
plants require to be kept decidedly moist 
at the root while in the flowering state, 
rather more so, indeed, than at any 
other period ; and if the potting and soil 
be right, and the drainage complete, 
little harm will ensue from a liberal use 
of water; still, any great extreme, either 
of drought or wet, will be fatal to the 
bud. Syringing must be entirely dis- 
pensed with, and in lieu thereof a de- 
posit of dew should take place every 
afternoon at three or four o'clock. 

"Rest Period. — The temperature at 
this period should be from 50° to 55° by 
day, and from 45° to 50° by night. No- 
thing is necessary in addition to a lower 
temperature, but syringing, steaming 
and regular watering, with a moderate 
circulation of air." — Gard. Chron. 

An interesting work republished at 
Boston with notes and additions, entitled 
" Monograph of the Camellia," is 
worthy a place on the shelf of every 
admirer of this splendid plant. 

CAMERARIA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CAMOMILE or CHAMOMILE. (An- 
themis nobilis.) 

Varieties. — There are two varieties, 
the common single and the double 
flowering. 

Soil and Situation. — They require a 
poor dry soil, otherwise they grow very 
luxuriant, and become not only less 
capable of withstanding severe winters, 
but also less powerful in their medicinal 
qualities. They will grow in any situa- 
tion almost, but the more open the 
better. 

Time and Mode of Propagation. — It is 
generally propagated by parting the 
roots and by offsets, which may be 
planted from the close of February until 
the end of May; the earlier, however, 
it is performed the better. This is the 
most favourable season, but it may be 
practised in the autumn. It is also 
raised from seed, the proper time of 
sowing which is in any of the early 
spring months, but as parting the roots 
gives much less trouble it is generally 
pursued, but after a lapse of several 
years raise fresh plants, the old ones 



CAM 



118 



CAN 



often declining in production after such i 
lapse of time. 

Cultivation. — They should not be | 
planted nearer to each other than l 
eighteen inches, as that also gives an 
opportunity to employ the hoe. Water 
must be given moderately at the time of! 
planting, if dry weather. If raised from 
seed they require no further cultivation j 
than to be kept free from weeds in the 
seed-bed ; and when three or four j 
inches high, to be thinned to about six 
inches apart, and may remain thus until 
the following spring, then to be thinned . 
and remain, or to be removed to the j 
above-mentioned distance apart. A 
very small bed will supply the largest 
family. 

Gathering. — In July, the flowers are j 
generally in perfection for gathering ; ; 
the period for performing it, however, I 
must be governed by the flowers them- 
selves, as the best time is when they 
are just opened. Particular care must 
be taken to dry them thoroughly before | 
they are stored, otherwise they will not 
keep. If seed be required, the only at- 
tention necessary is to leave some of the 
first opening flowers ungathered ; the 
seed will ripen early in September, 
when it may he dried and rubbed out. 

CAMPANULA. One hundred and 
thirty-nine species, and many varieties. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials; 
some green-house or hardy annuals, bi- 
ennials, and evergreen shrubs. 

Dr. Lindley, writing of their propa- 
gation, says : — " Either sow the seeds, 
or pot cuttings from the old roots, in 
leaf mould and sandy peat; as soon 
as they are strong enough, pot them 
off in sixty-sized pots regularly, shift- 
ing them into larger sizes as the 
plants require them ; when they have 
gained a little strength, give them a 
rich loamy soil, well incorporated with 
a small proportion of bone dust, and at 
intervals supply them liberally with 
manure water." — Gard. Chron. 

CAMPELIA zanonia. Stove herba- 
ceous perennial. Seeds. Rich soil. 

CAMPHOR TREE. Cinnamomum 
camphor a. 

CAMPION. Cucubatus. 

CAMPYLANTHUS salsoloides. 
Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

CANADA ONION. See Onion. 

CANARINA. Two species. Green- 



house herbaceous perennials. Cuttings 
or division. Light loam and peat. 

CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE. Myr- 
tica, 

CANDOLLEA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat and sand. 
CANDY TUFT, lbcris. 
CANELLA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Ripe leafy Cuttings. 
Loam, peat and sand. 

CANKER. This disease is accompa- 
nied by different symptoms, according 
to the species of the tree which it in- 
fects. In some of those whose true sap 
contains a considerable quantity of free 
acid, as in the genus Pyrus, it is rarely 
accompanied by any discharge. To this 
dry form of the disease it would be well 
to confine the term canker, and to give 
it the scientific name of gangrama sicca. 
In other trees, whose sap is character- 
ized by abounding in astringent or mu- 
cilaginous constituents, it is usually at- 
tended by a sanious discharge. In such 
instances it might strictly be designated 
ulcer, or gangraena saniosa. This dis- 
ease has a considerable resemblance to 
the tendency to ossification, which ap- 
pears in most aged animals, arising from 
their marked appetency to secrete the 
calcareous saline compoundsthatehiefly 
constitute their skeletons. The conse- 
quence is, an enlargement of the joints, 
and ossification of the circulatory ves- 
sels and other parts, phenomena very 
analogous to those attending the canker- 
ing of trees. As in animals, this tend- 
ency is generally throughout their sys- 
tem, but as is observed by Mr. Knight, 
" like the mortification in the limbs of 
elderly people, it may be determined 
as to its point of attack by the irritabi- 
lity of that part of the system." 

This disease commences with an en- 
largement of the vessels of the bark of 
a branch or of the stem. This swelling 
invariably attends the disease when it 
attacks the apple tree. In the pear the 
enlargement is less, yet it is always 
present. In the elm and the oak some- 
times no swelling occurs; and in the 
peach I do not recollect to have seen 
any. I have never observed the disease 
in the cherry-tree, nor in any of the 
pine tribe. The swelling is soon coin- 
! municated to the wood, which if laid 
open to view on its first appearance by 
j the removal of the bark, exhibits no 
I marks of disease beyond the mere un- 



CAN 



119 



CAN 



natural enlargement. In the course of 
a few years, less in number in propor- 
tion to the advanced age of the tree, 
and the unfavourable circumstances un- 
der which it is vegetating, the swelling 
is greatly increased in size, and the 
alburnum has become extensively dead ; 
the superincumbent bark cracks, rises 
in discoloured scales, and decays even 
more rapidly than the wood beneath. 
If the caries is upon a moderately-sized 
branch, the decay soon completely en- 
circles it, extending through the whole 
alburnum and bark. The circulation of 
the sap being thus entirely prevented, 
all the parts above the disease of ne- 
cessity perish. In the apple and the 
pear, the disease is accompanied by 
scarcely any discharge ; but in the elm 
this is very abundant. The only che- 
mists who have examined these morbid 
products, are Sir H. Davy and Vauque- 
lin ; the former's observations being 
confined to the fact, that he often found 
carbonate of lime on the edges of the 
canker in apple trees. 

Vauquelin has examined the sanies 
discharged from the canker of an elm 
with much more precision. He found 
this liquor nearly as transparent as 
water, sometimes slightly coloured, at 
other times a blackish-brown, but al- 
ways tasting acrid and saline. From 
this liquor a soft matter insoluble in 
water is deposited upon the sides of the 
ulcer. The bark over which the trans- 
parent sanies flows, attains the appear- 
ance of chalk, becoming white, friable, 
crystalline, alkaline, and effervescent 
with acids. A magnifier exhibits the 
crystals in the forms of rhomboids and 
four-sided prisms. When the liquid is 
dark-coloured, the bark appears black- 
ish, and seems as if coated with varnish. 
It sometimes is discharged in such 
quantities as to hang from the bark like 
stalactites. The matter of which these 
are composed is alkaline soluble in 
water, and with acids effervesces. The 
analysis of this dark slimy matter shows 
it to be compounded of carbonate of 
potass and ulmin, a product peculiar to 
the elm. The white matter deposited 
round the canker was composed of 
Vegetable matter .... 605 
Carbonate of potass . . . 342 
Carbonate of lime .... 50 
Carbonate of magnesia . . 3 
Vauquelin calculated from the quantity 
of this white matter that was found 



about the canker of an elm, that 500 
pounds weight of its wood must have 
been destroyed. There is no doubt 
that such a discharge is deeply injuri- 
ous to the tree ; but the above learned 
chemist appears to have largely erred, 
for he calculated from a knowledge of 
the amount of the saline constituents 
in the healthy sap, whereas in the dis- 
eased state these are much and unna- 
turally increased. I once was of opi- 
nion that the disease does not arise 
from a general diseased state of the 
tree, but that it is brought on by some 
bruise or injury, exasperated by an un- 
healthy sap consequent to an unfavour- 
able soil, situation, and culture; but 
more extensive and more accurate ex- 
aminations convince me, that the dis- 
ease is in the tree's system ; that its 
juices are vitiated, and that disease will 
continue to break out independent of 
any external injury so long as these 
juices continue peccant and unaltered. 
This conclusion will be justified, I 
think, by the preceding facts, as well 
as by those distributed through the fol- 
lowing pages. 

The disease is not strictly confined to 
any particular period of the tree's age. 
I have repeatedly noticed it in some of 
our lately introduced varieties that have 
not been grafted more than five or six 
years ; and a writer in the Gardener's 
Magazine, vol. v., p. 3, states, that the 
trees in his orchard, though " only of 
four years' growth, are sadly troubled 
with the canker." Although young 
trees are liable to this disease, yet their 
old age is the period of existence most 
obnoxious to its attacks. It must be 
remembered that that is not conse- 
quently a young tree which is lately 
grafted. If the tree from which the 
scion was taken be an old variety, it is 
only the multiplication of an aged in- 
dividual. The scion may for a few 
years exhibit signs of increased vigour, 
owing to the extra stimulus of the more 
abundant supply of healthy sap supplied 
by the stock ; but the vessels of the 
scion will, after the lapse of that period, 
gradually become as decrepid as the 
parent tree. The unanimous experi- 
ence of naturalists agrees in testifying 
that every organized creature has its 
limit of existence. In plants it varies 
from the scanty period of a few months 
to the long expanse of as many centu- 
ries ; but of all the days are numbered ; 



CAN 



120 



CAN 



and although the gardener's, like the j they sustain, however young and vigor- 
physician's skill, may retard the onward j ous they were when first planted, 
pace of death, he will not be perma- How inductive of this disease is a wet 
nently delayed. In the last periods of I retentive subsoil, if the roots penetrate 



life they show every symptom that ac- 
companies organization in its old age, 
not only a cessation of growth, but a 
decay of former development^ languid 
circulation and diseased organs. 

The canker, as already observed, 
attends especially the old age of some 



it, appears from the statement of Mr. 
Watts, gardener to R. G. Russell, Esq., 
of Chequers Court, in Buckinghamshire. 
— A border beneath a south wall had a 
soil three feet and a half in depth, ap- 
parently of the most fertile staple, twice 
re-made under the direction of the late 



fruit trees, and of these the apple is j Mr. Lee, of the Vineyard, Hammer- 
most remarkably a sufferer. " I do not ' smith. In this the trees, peaches and 
mean," says Mr. Knight, " to assert I nectarines, flourish for the next three 



that there ever was a time when an 
apple-tree did not canker on unfavoura- 
ble soils, or that highly cultivated va- 
rieties were not more subject to the 
disease than others, where the soil did 
not suit them. But I assert from my 
own experience and observation within 
the last twenty years, that this disease 
becomes progressively more fatal to 
each variety, as the age of that variety 
beyond a certain period increases ; that 
if an old worn-out orchard be planted 
with fruit trees, the varieties of the 
apple, which I have found in the cata- 
logues of the middle of the seventeenth 
century, are unproductive of fruit, and 
in a state of debility and decay." 

Among the individuals particularly 
liable to be infected, are those which 
have been marked by an excessively 
vigorous growth in their early years. I 
had one in my garden at Great Totham, 
which for the first twelve years of its 
existence was remarkable for the un- 
naturally large size and abundance of 
its annual shoots. It then became 
grievously affected by canker, which at 
length destroyed it. 

Trees injudiciously pruned or grow- 
ing upon an ungenial soil, are more 
frequently attacked than those advanc- 
ing under contrary circumstances. The 
oldest trees are always the first attack- 
ed of those similarly cultivated. The 
golden pippin, the oldest existing varie- 
ty of the apple, is more frequently and 
more seriously attacked than any other. 
The soil has a very considerable influ- 
ence in inducing the disease. If the 
subsoil be a ferruginous gravel, or if it 
is not well drained, and the soil be alu- 
minous, and effective means are not 
adopted to free it of superabundant 
moisture, the canker, under any one of 
these circumstances, is almost certain 
to make its appearance amongst the trees 



or four years after they are planted, but 
are then rapidly destroyed by the 
canker and gum. The subsoil is a stiff 
sour clay, nearly approaching to a brick 
earth ; and the disease occurs as soon 
as it is reached by the roots of the tree. 
But this is certainly not a conclusion 
warranted by the premises, because the 
acridity of the sap, whatever may be its 
source, would be likely to injure and 
corrode, in the first instance, those parts 
where the vessels are most weak and 
tender; now these, past dispute, are in 
the branches. Moreover, we generally 
see the youngest branches the earliest 
sufferers. 

Pruning has a powerful influence in 
preventing the occurrence of the canker. 
I remember a standard russet apple- 
tree of not more than twenty years' 
growth, with a redundancy of ill-ar- 
ranged branches, that was excessively 
attacked by this disease. I had two of 
its three main branches, and the laterals 
of that remaining, carefully thinned ; 
all the infected parts being at the same 
time removed. The result was a total 
cure. The branches were annually re- 
gulated, and for six years the disease 
never re-appeared. At the end of that 
time the tree had to be removed, as the 
ground it stood upon was required for 
another purpose. John Williams, Esq., 
of Pitmaston, from losg experience 
concludes, that the golden pippin and 
other apples may be preserved from 
this disease, by pruning away every 
year that part of each shoot which is 
not perfectly ripened. By pursuing this 
method for six years, he brought a 
dwarf golden pippin tree to be as vigor- 
ous and as free from canker as any new 
variety. 

All these facts unite in assuring us 
that the canker arises from the tree's 
weakness, from a deficiency in its vital 



CAN 



121 



CAN 



energy, and consequent inability to 
imbibe and elaborate the nourishment 
necessary to sustain its frame in vigour, 
and much less to supply the healthy i 
development of new parts. It matters 
not whether its energy be broken down 
by an unnatural rapidity of growth, by 
a disproportioned excess of branches 
over the mass of roots, by old age, or 
by the disorganization of the roots in an 
ungenial soil ; they render the tree in- 
capable of extracting sufficient nourish- 
ment from the soil, consequently inca- 
pable of developing a sufficient foliage ; 
and therefore unable to digest and ela- 
borate even the scanty sap that is sup- 
plied to them. The reason of the sap 
becoming unnaturally saline,- appears to 
be, that in proportion as the vigour of 
any vegetable declines, it loses the 
power of selecting by its roots the 
nourishment congenial to its nature. 
An ungenial soil would have a debili- 
tating influence upon the roots, in a 
proportionate though less violent de- 
gree than a corrosive poison ; and as 
these consequently would absorb solu- 
ble bodies more freely, and without 
that discrimination so absolutely neces- 
sary for a healthy vegetation, so the 
other most essential organs of nutrition, 
the leaves of the weakened plants, 
would promote and accelerate the dis- 
ease. These, reduced in number and 
size, do not properly elaborate the sap ; 
and I have always found that under 
such circumstances these stunted or- 
gans exhale the aqueous particles of 
the sap very abundantly, whilst their 
power of absorption is greatly reduced. 
The sap thus deficient in quantity and 
increased in acridity seems to corrode 
and affect the vascular system of the 
tree in the manner already described. 
These facts afford us most important 
guides in attaining the desired objects, 
the prevention and cure of the disease. 
If super-luxuriance threaten its intro- 
duction, the best remedy is for the cul- 
tivator to remove one of the main roots 
of the tree, and to be particularly care- 
ful not to add any fertile addition to the 
soil within their range. On the con- 
trary, it will be well, if the continued 
exuberant growth shows' the necessity, 
for the staple of the soil to be reduced 
in fertility, by the admixture of one less 
fertile, or even of drift sand. If there 
be an excess of branches, the saw and 
the pruning knife must be gradually 



applied. It must be only a tree of very 
weak vital powers, such as is the golden 
pippin, that will bear the general cut- 
ting of the annual shoots as pursued by 
Mr. Williams ; a new vigorous variety 
would exhaust itself the following year 
in the production of fresh wood. No- 
thing beyond a general rule for the 
pruning can be laid down, and it 
amounts to no more than the direction 
to keep a considerable vacancy between 
every branch, both above and beneath 
it, and especially to provide that not 
even two twigs shall chafe against 
each other. The greater the intensity 
of light, and the freer the circulation of 
air amongst the foliage of the tree, the 
better the chance for its healthy vege- 
tation. If the disease being in a fruit 
tree be a consequence of old age, it is 
probably a premature senility induced 
by injudicious management, for very 
few of our varieties are of an age that 
insure to them decrepitude. I have 
never yet known a tree, unless it was 
in the last stage of decay, that could 
net be recovered by giving it more air 
and light, by careful heading in pruning, 
improvement of the soil, and cleansing 
the bark. 

If the soil by its ungenial character 
induces the disease, the obvious and 
only remedy is its amelioration ; and if 
the subsoil is the cause of the mischief, 
the roots must be prevented striking 
into it. In all cases it is the best prac- 
tice to remove the tap root. Many 
orchardists pave beneath each tree with 
tiles and broken bricks. If the trees 
are planted shallow, as they ought to 
be, and the surface kept duly fertile, 
there is not much danger of the roots 
striking into the worse pasturage of the 
subsoil. On this point the experience 
of Mr. W. Nichol, the gardener at 
Newick-place in Sussex, agrees with 
my own. He says, that the canker 
may be avoided in most instances, by 
paying proper attention to the soil in 
which the tree is planted. Canker, he 
thinks, will seldom occur if the surface 
soil is good, for in that case the roots 
will never descend into the prejudicial 
subsoil, but spread out their radicles 
near the surface, where they find food 
most abundant. If this is not kept up, 
the roots descend into the obnoxious 
substratum, and the disease assuredly 
follows. 

It remains for me to detail the course 



CAN 



122 

— ♦ — 



CAN 



of treatment that I have always found 
successful in effecting a cure in any 
variety, not decrepid from age, if the 
canker has not spread to the roots. 



the disease. Mr. Forsyth, formerly 
gardener at Kensington Palace, made a 
considerable sensation at the close of 
the last and at the commencement of 



Having completely headed down, if the present century, by the wonderful 
the canker is generally prevalent, or j effects produced upon trees, as he as- 



duly thinned the branches, entirely re- 
moved every small one that is in the 
least degree diseased, and cut away 



serted, by the following composition, 
used as a plaster over the wounds from 
which the decayed or cankered parts 



the decayed parts of the larger, so as ] had been cut out : — One bushel of fresh 



not to leave a single speck of the de 
cayed wood, I cover over the surface of 
each wound with a mixture while in a 



cow-dung ; half a bushel of lime rub- 
bish, that from ceilings of rooms is 
preferable, or powdered chalk ; half a 



melted state, of equal parts tar and I bushel of wood-ashes ; one-sixteenth of 
rosin, applying it with a brush imme-ja bushel of sand ; the three last to be 
diately after the amputation has been | sifted fine. The whole to be mixed 
performed, taking care to select a dry land beaten together until they form a 
day. I prefer this to any composition fine plaster. 

with a basis of cow-dung and clay, be- I Mr. Forsyth received a parlimentary 
cause the latter is always more or Jess grant of money for his discovery ; but 
absorbent of moisture, and is liable to I this, as Mr. Knight observes, " affords 
injury by rain and frost, causing alter- a much better proof that he was paid 
nations of moisture and dryness to the for an important discovery, than that he 
wounds, that promote decay rather than I made one. 



their healing, by the formation of new 
wood and bark. The resinous plaster 
seldom or never requires renewal. Mr. 
Forsyth, the arch-advocate of earthy 
and alkaline plasters, finding that they 
promoted decay, if applied to the 
wounds of autumn-pruned trees, re- 
commends this important act of culti- 
vation to be postponed to the spring. 
Such a procrastination is always liable 
to defer the pruning until bleeding is 
the consequence. If a resinous plaster 
be employed, it excludes the wet, and 
obviates the objection to autumnal 
pruning. Mr. Forsyth's treatment of 
the trunks and branches of trees, 
namely, scraping from them all the 
scaly dry exuvia of the bark, is to be 
adopted in every instance. He recom- 
mends them to be brushed over with a 
thin liquid compound offresh cow-dung, 
soap-suds, and urine, but I very much 
prefer a brine of common salt; each 
acts as a gentle stimulus, which is their 
chief cause of benefit, and the latter is 
more efficacious, destroying insects, and 
does not, like the other, obstruct the 
perspiratory vessels of the tree. The 
brine is advantageously rubbed in with 
a scrubbing or large painter's brush. 
Some persons recommend a liquid 
wash, containing, as prominent ingre- 
dients, quick-lime and wood-ashes, 
which, as the disease arises from an 
over-alkalescent state of the sap, can- 



It has been very ingeniously sug- 
gested, that if a destruction of the bark 
by external violence, and consequently 
likely to terminate in canker, has oc- 
curred, it would be a good plan to in- 
sert, as in budding, a piece of living 
bark, exactly corresponding to the ex- 
cision, from a less valuable tree. 

In conclusion, I would enforce upon 
the orchardist's attention the import- 
ance of obtaining his grafts or buds 
from trees not affected by the disease, 
because apparently it is hereditary ; 
and, although after-culture may eradi- 
cate the malady, it is always far better 
to avoid the infection, than to have to 
employ a specific. Having noticed the 
gangrene as it appears in various forms 
upon our trees, we may now turn to a 
few of the many instances where it oc- 
curs to our fruits and flowers, I'or it is 
not too much to say that scarcely a 
cultivated plant is within our enclo- 
sures that is not liable to its inroads. 
It assumes different aspects, and varies 
as to the organs it assails ; yet still in 
some mode, and in some of their parts, 
all occasionally suffer, for it is the most 
common form of vegetable disease. 

The canker in the auricula is of this 
nature, being a rapidly-spreading ulcer, 
which, destroying the whole texture ot 
the plant where it occurs, prevents the 
rise of the sap. Some gardeners be- 
lieve it to be infectious, and therefore 



not but prove injurious, and aggravate destroy the specimen in which it occurs 



CAN 



123 



CAP 



unless it be very valuable ; but this I 
believe to be an erroneous opinion, the 
reason of its appearing to be infectious 
or epidemic being, that it occurs to 
many when they are subjected to the 
same injurious treatment which gives 
birth to the disease. 

It appears to be caused by the appli- j 
cation of too much water, especially if] 
combined with superabundant nourish- 
ment. Therefore, although cutting out 
the decaying part, when it first appears, 
and applying to the wound some finely- 
powdered charcoal, will effect a cure if 
the disease has not penetrated too deep- 
ly, yet it will be liable to return im- 
mediately if a less forcing mode of cul- 
ture be not adopted. No auricula will 
suffer from this disease if it be shifted 
annually, and the tap root at the time of 
moving be shortened; a thorough system 
of draining being adopted, either by 
using one of the pots suggested in an- 
other part of this work, or by having the 
pot used one-fourth filled with pebbles, 
and excessive damp during the winter 
being prevented by proper shelter. 

Parsley grown in a poor soil is also 
liable to canker in the winter. Mr. 
Barnes says, he never found any appli- 
cation which eradicated this disease so 
effectually as a mixture in equal parts of 
soot and slaked lime, sown over the 
plants. The cure is complete in a few 
days, the vigour of the plants restored 
indicating, that this species of ulcer- 
ation, like that which is found in the 
dwellings of the poor, arises from de- 
ficient nourishment. 

The tubers of the potato also are 
liable to the speck, black spot, or dry 
gangrene, a disease which I once 
thought was occasioned by the calcare- 
ous earth, lime, or chalk contained by 
the soil, but more lengthened observa- 
tion has convinced me of my error; and 
having observed it in all soils, and in 
seasons characterized by opposite ex- 
tremes of wetness and dryness, I am 
induced to consider that the disease 
arises from some defect in the sets em- 
ployed, or to potatoes being grown too 
often on the same site. It is quite 
certain, from my own experience, that 
in ground tired of potatoes, the disease 
invariably, and most extensively, ap- 
pears. This suggests that it is occa- 
sioned by a deficiency of some con- 
stituent in the soil, a suggestion con- 
firmed by the fact, that in the fields of 



the market, gardeners near London, 
which are supplied without stint with 
the most fertilizing manure, this dis- 
ease of the potato is comparatively 
unknown. 

The stems of succulent plants, such 
as the cacti mesembryanthemums, and 
the balsam, as well as the fruit of the 
cucumber and melon, and the stalk of 
the grape, are all liable to moist gan- 
grene, all requiring for the development 
of the disease excessive moisture in 
the air, though the immediate cause 
of its outbreak is usually a sudden re- 
duction of temperature. — Principles of 
Gardening. 

CANNA. Thirly-eight species and 
some varieties. Stove herbaceous per- 
ennials. Seed or division. Rich light 
soil. 

C. iridiflora is the most splendid; a 
writer in the Gardener's Chronicle says, 
that " so far from requiring stove heat, 
few plants cultivated in a green-house 
are more hardy. It only requires pro- 
tection from frost, and the border of the 
conservatory is its proper place, where 
it continues growing, with the thermo- 
meter varying between 35° and 45°." 

CANTERBURY BELL. Campanula 
medium. 

CANTHIUM dubium. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich soil. 

CAPE JASMINE. Gardenia florida. 

CAPE PHILLYREA. Cassine capen- 
sis. 

CAPER TREE. Capparis. 

CAPPARIS. Capers. Twenty-nine 
species. Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

CAPRIFOLIUM. Goat Leaf. Seven- 
teen species and some varieties. Chiefly 
hardy deciduous, or evergreen twining 
or climbing plants. Cuttings. Common 
soil. 

CAPSICUM. Twenty-four species 
and some varieties. Stove evergreen 
shrubs, or hardy and stove annuals. 
Seeds. Rich open soil. 

The following are the kitchen garden 
species and varieties. 

Capsicum Annuum. — Capsicum or 
Guinea Pepper. Of this there are five 
varieties: — 

1. Long-podded. 

2. Heart-shaped. 

3. Short-podded. 

4. Angular-podded. 

5. Round Short-podded. 

C. Cerasiforme. — Capsicum or Cherry 



CAR 



124 



CAR 






Pepper. Of this there are three varie- 
ties: 

1. Cherry-shaped. 

2. Bell-shaped, or Ox-heart. 

3. Yellow-podded. 

C. grossum. — Capsicum, or Bell Pep- 
per. Of this there are three varieties: — 

1. Old Bell-shaped or Bull-nose. 

2. Sweet or Spanish. 

3. Tomato-shaped. 

Soil and Situation. — The soil best 
suited for them is a rich moist loam, 
rather inclining to lightness than te- 
nacity. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — They are 
propagated by seed, which maybe sown 
towards the end of March or beginning 
of April in a hot-bed of moderate size, 
with the shelter of a frame; or some- 
what later on an open border, protected 
from cold winds: when the plants are 
sufficiently advanced they may be trans- ] 
planted to their permanent position in j 
the garden. 

To obtain Seed. — For the production 
of seed a plant bearing some of the for- 
wardest and finest fruit of each variety 
must be preserved, that it may be ripe 
before the frosts commence, the first of 
which usually kills the plants. When 
completely ripe, the pods are cut and 
hung up in the sun, or in a warm room, 
until completely dry, in which state 
they are kept until the seed is wanted 
for sowing. 

CARAGANA. Fourteen species. 
Chiefly hardy deciduous shrubs. Grafts, 
layers or seeds. Sandy open loam. 

CARALLIA lucida. Stove evergreen 
tree. Cuttings. Sandy peat and loam, j 

CARALLUMA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
and brick rubbish. 

CARAPA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
sandy peat. 

CARAWAY. Carum Carui. 

CARDAMINE. Lady's Smock. Ele- 
ven species. Hardy herbaceous plants. 
Division. Peat and loam. 

CARDINAL FLOWER. Lobelia car- 
dinalis. 

CARDOON. (Cynara cardunculus.) 

The stalks of the inner leaves, when 
rendered tender by blanching, are used 
in stews, soups, and salads. 

Soil and Situation. — A light rich soil 
is most suitable to this vegetable, dug 
deep and well pulverised. The situa- 
tion must be open, and free from trees. 



Time and Mode of Sowing. — It may 
be sown at the close of March, but for 
the main crop not until the early part of 
April, those plants raised from earlier 
sowings being apt to run at the close of 
autumn ; for a late crop, a sowing may 
be performed in June. The best prac- 
tice is to sow in patches of three or 
four rows four feet apart each way, to 
be thinned finally to one in each place, 
the weakest being removed. If, how- 
ever, they are raised in a seed bed, 
they will be ready for transplanting in 
about eight or ten weeks from the time 
of sowing, and must be set at similar 
distances as are specified above. 

The plants of the first sowing are 
generally three weeks before they make 
their appearance ; those from the latter 
ones about two. If after a lapse of 
these times they do not appear, it 
should be ascertained if the seed is de- 
cayed, and in that case the sowing re- 
newed. The seed must be sown rather 
thin, and covered about half an inch. 
When about a month old, the seed- 
lings, when too thick, must be thinned 
to four inches apart, and those removed 
may be pricked out at a similar dis- 
tance. When of the age sufficient for 
their removal they must be taken up 
carefully, and the long straggling leaves 
removed. The bed for their reception 
must be dug well and laid, out in 
trenches as for celery, or a hollow sunk 
for each plant ; but as they are liable 
to suffer from excessive wet, the best 
mode is to plant on the surface, and 
form the necessary earthing in the form 
of a tumulus. Water must be applied 
abundantly at the time of planting, as 
well as subsequently, until they are 
established ; and also in August, if dry 
weather occurs, regularly every other 
night, as this is found to prevent their 
running to seed. The only other ne- 
cessary point to be attended to is, that 
they may be kept free from weeds dur- 
ing every stage of their growth. When 
advanced to about eighteen inches in 
height, which according to the time of 
sowing will be in August, and thence 
to October, the leaves must be closed 
together by encircling them with a hay- 
band, and earth placed round each 
plant, a dry day being selected for per- 
forming it. As they continue to grow, 
fresh bands and earth must be constant- 
ly applied until they are blanched to 
the height of two feet, or about two- 



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thirds of their stems. They will be fit 
for use in eight or ten weeks after the 
earthing first commences. Care must 
be had in earthing them up, to prevent 
the earth falling in between the leaves, 
which is liable to induce decay. The 
surface of the soil should likewise be 
beaten smooth to throw off the rain. In 
severe weather their tops should be 
covered with litter, by which they may 
be preserved in a serviceable state 
throughout the winter. 

To obtain Seed — Which in this coun- 
try seldom comes to maturity, but in dry 
seasons a few plants should be set in a 
sheltered situation of the April sowing, 
not earthed up, but allowed the shelter 
of mats or litter in frosty weather. The 
flowers make their appearance about 
the beginning of July, and the seed is 
ripe in September. 

CARDUNCELUS. Two species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
Common soil. 

CARDUUS. Thirty-eight species. 
Hardy annuals, biennials, and peren- 
nials. Seeds or division. Common 
soil. 

CAREYA. Three species. Stove 
evergreens ; C. herbacea is a splendid 
herbaceous stove plant. Division. Light 
loam and sandy peat. 

CARGILLIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat 
and open loam. 

CARICA. Six species. Chiefly stove 
evergreen trees. Leafy cuttings. Loamy 
soil. 

CARISSA. Five species. Stove ever- 
green trees. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

CARLINA. Ten species. Hardy 
plants ; C. lyrata is a green-house 
biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 

CARLOWIZIA salicifolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Sandv loam. 

CARLUDOVICA. Five species. 
Stove evergreen climbers, or herbace- 
ous perennials. Suckers. Sandy peat 
and loam. 

CARMICHAELIA australis. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. 

CARNATION. Dianthus caryophyl- 
lus. The Carnation is a prominent 
flower at the horticultural shows in 
England, and exciting contests for the 
premiums are annually exhibited. In 
the United States it succeeds but indif- 
ferently well, and a really good col- 



lection of Carnations is a rarity : in- 
deed so rare, that but few of us have 
seen what a British amateur would 
deem worth looking at. We reprint 
the whole of the article on the subject 
as it originally stood in the Dictionary, 
for the benefit of those who may be 
disposed to make importations and em- 
bark in the culture of this charming 
flower* 

Mr. J. F. Wood, of the Coppice, 
Nottingham, gives the following list of 
varieties. ■ 

Scarlet Bizarres. — T witch ett's Don 
John ; Martin's Splendid ; Headley's 
Achilles; Headley's William Cobbett; 
Bucknall's Earl Fitzharding ; Strong's 
Duke of York ; Wilmer's Conquering 
Hero. 

Crimson Bizarres. — Puxley's Prince 
Albert ; Holmes' Count Paulina ; Maus- 
ley's Robert Burns ; Ely's Lord Milton ; 
Jacques' Georgiana; Chambers' Kate; 
Jacques' Iris ; Parker's Sophia. 

Scarlet Flakes. — Twitchett's Queen 
of Scarlet ; Wigg's Earl of Leicester ; 
Bucknall's Ulysses ; Wilson's William 
the Fourth ; Wilmer's Hero of Middle- 
sex ; Addenbrook's Lydia. 

Purple Flakes. — Mausley's Beauty of 
Woodhouse ; Headley's Empress of 
Purples ; Headley's Incognita ; Pol- 
lard's First-rate; Wilmer's Solander; 
Millwood's Premier ; Strong's Esther. 

Rose Flakes. — Brooks' Flora Gar- 
land ; Greasley's Village Maid; Wil- 
son's Harriet ; Ely's Lady Ely ; Sicla- 
more's Lady Rowley ; Pearson's Madam 
Mara . 

Scarlet Bizarres. — Jolly Dragoon- 
(Ely's) ; Game Boy (Rainforth's) ; Lead- 
er (Hepworth's) ; Don John (Mer- 
chant's) ; Lady of the Manor (Mill- 
wood's) ; Patriarch (Hulton's) ; Union 
Jack (Ward's); Sir Robert Peel 
(Groves') ; Locomotive (Morris') ; Duke 
of Leeds (Hoyle's) ; Prince Albert. 
(Hoyle's) ; Splendid (Martin's) ; Con-' 
quering Hero (Wilmer's) ; Brutus (Col- 
cut's) ; Juba (Colcut's) ; Charles the 
Twelfth (Mausley's) ; William the 
Fourth (Walmsley's) ; Colonel (Lee's) 
Duke of Devonshire ; Mars (Walms- 
ley's). 

Crimson Bizarres. — Duke of Bedford 
(Ely's) ; Count Paulini (Holmes') ; Duch- 
ess of Kent (Brown's) ; Bloomsbury 
(Soorn's) ; Hector (Brown's) ; Lord Mil- 
ton (Ely's) ; Lord Brougham (Greas- 
ley's) ; Squire Plumtree (Hufton's) j 



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Mrs. Brand (Ely's) ; William Caxton j ris') ; Will Stakely (Hutton's) ; Derby 

! Willow (Maw's) ; King of the French 
(Green's) ; Royal Briton (Hardy's) ; Ma- 
i tilda (Parkinson's) ; Venus (Hudson's) ; 
! Mary Antony (Benn's); Hector (Sharp's); 
: Cornelius (Barraud's) ; Colonel Foreman 
(Barraud's) ; Teazer (Giddens') ; Caesar 
j (Giddens') : Criterion (Sharp's); Cathe- 
j rine (Hardy's) ; Nulli Secundus (Maus- 
i ley's) ; Bloomsbury (Clegg's) ; Mrs. Jud- 
! son (Wheatley's) ; Lady Peel (Pullen's); 
i Vespasian (Giddens') ; Victoria (Mus- 
j Croft's) ; Queen of Sheba (Wakefield's); 
; Nottingham Hero (Robinson's); Mr. 
I Mugglestone (Robinson's); Hope (Brink- 
i ler's) ; Trip to Cambridge (Dickson's) ; 
j Grace Darling (Ely's) ; Pluperfect (Wil- 
son's) ; Queen Victoria (Kirkland's) ; 
Nehemiah (Hufton's) ; Delight (Jack- 
son's) ; Victoria (Crask's) ; Isabella 
(Hufton's); Miss Hunter (Hufton's), alias 
Toones, Miss Garey ; Mary (Lee's). 

Characteristics of Excellence. — Mr. 
Orson, at a meeting of the Floricultural 
Society, made these excellent observa- 
tions : — " Carnations were originally 
divided into three classes, viz., Bizarres, 
Flakes, and Picotees ; but the latter are 
now considered a distinct variety. Bi- 
zarres were distinguished by having two 
colours, and flakes by having only one 
colour upon a white ground ; these two 
principal classes being subdivided into 
scarlet, crimson, pink, and purple bi- 
zarres — scarlet, purple, and pink or 
rose flakes. In some counties pink, 
purple, and crimson bizarres were all 
classed under the head of pink bizarres, 
whereas in other parts of the country 
they were known as crimson bizarres. 

" The calyx, or pod, should be long, 
firm, and entire, of sufficient substance 
to support the petals, which should be 
thick, broad, and substantial, smooth, 
and free from indenture on the edge. 



(Ely's); Robert Burns (Mausley's) ; 
Tally-ho (Woolley's); Bonpland (Wil- 
mer's) ; Dord Durham (Tomlinson's) ; 
Rainbow (Cartwright's) ; Squire Ray 
(Hufton's); Betty (Lovegrove's) ; King 
Alfred (Gregory's) ; Eclipse (Eason's) ; 
Taglioni (Pickering's). 

Scarlet Flakes. — Beauty of Cradley 
(Wallis') ; Ringleader (Toane's) ; Bright 
Venus (Ely's) ; Premier (Creswell's) ; 
Lord Morpeth (Ely's) ; Captain Ross 
(Ely's) ; Mary Anne (Greasley's). 

Rose Picotees. — Few of this class are 
grown near Nottingham ; the following 
are amongst the best : Queen Victoria 
(Green's) ; Favourite (Giddens') ; Fanny j 
Irby (Wilson's) ; Marchioness of West- | 
minster (Evans') ; Queen Victoria 
(Wains'); Ann Page (Lovegrove's); Mar-_ 
quis of Granby (Simpson's): Earl of 
Errol(Wilmer's); Wellington (Foster's); 
Earl of Leicester (Wigg's) ; Rob Roy 
(Orson's) ; Madame Mara (Pearson's) ; 
William the Fourth (Wilson's); Lady 
Hill (Pugh's); Fox Hunter (Hufton's); 
Donna Maria (Millwood's); Red Rover 
(Fletcher's) ; Bishop of Gloucester 
(Brown's). 

Rose Flakes. — Lovely Anne (Ely's) ; 
Rosea (Hulton's) ; Queen Victoria (Hy- 
ron's) ; Lady Gardiner (Ely's) ; Lady 
Ely (Ely's); Elizabeth (Easum's) ; 
Village Maid (Greasley's); Lady Flora 
(Hudson's) ; Sarah (Hastings') ; Brew- 
ing (Hoyle's) ; Miss Walker (Ash- 
worth's) ; Mrs. Pickering (Pickering's) ; 
Lovely Nancy (Hoyle's); Eliza (Par- 
kinson's) ; Emma (Lakin's) ; Miss Molly 
(Ely's) ; Queen of England (Fletcher's); 
Luna (Brown's) ; Lady Egerton (Low's); 
Lady Grey (Malpas'). 

Purple Flakes. — Mango (Ely's) ; Beau- 
ty of Woodhouse (Mausley's) ; Bellero- 



phon (Leighton's) ; Prince Charlotte The guard petals should rise gracefully 
(Turner's); Premier(Millwood's); Squire above the pod, and turn in a horizontal 
Meynell (Brabbin's) ; Sir J. Plastain direction, having a gradual disposition 



(Bates') ; British Queen (Elliot's) ; In 
vincible (Simpson's) ; Major (Spray's) ; 
Miss Thornton (Hudson's) ; Enchanter 
(Pearson's); Rev. J. Gisborne (Bob- 
bins') ; Magnificent (Ely's) ; Queen Vic- 
toria (Ely's) ; Cleopatra (Weldon's) ; 
First Rate (Pollard's) ; Platoff (Hall's) ; 
Major Cartwright (Hall's). 

Red Picotees. — Mrs. Flower (Ely's) 



j to cup, but not terminating in an abrupt 
I curl, at the outer edge, the whole form- 
' ing a complete circle. The interior 
; petals should rather decrease in size as 
they approach the centre, each row be- 
j ing regularly and alternately arranged 
: above the other, and not have a loose 
\ and gaping appearance, in fact, the 
paces should be only sufficient to dis- 



Miss Bacon (Wollard's) ; Little Won- play the colouring distinctly. The num- 
der (Wollard's) ; Duke of Wellington ! ber of petals in a first rate flower 
(Sharp's) ; Mary (Morris') ; Pilot (Mor- | should not be less than seventeen, three 



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of them being placed in the centre, to 
form a crown. 

"The whole would then, if well ar- 
ranged, produce the form of the half of 
an oval or elliptic, when held on a side 
view; having, when seen from above, 
a circular appearance. The colours, 
whether biznrre or flake, should be 
strong, brilliant, and distinct through- 
out. The ground colour should be a 
pure white, free from speck, spot, tint, 
or tinge of any sort. The flakes should 
be broad and bold, commencing at the 
extreme edge, of a proportionate width 
to the petal, running through to the cen- 
tre, or as far as the eye can discern, and 
diminishing in breadth as they approach 
the centre, in the same ratio as the pe- 
tal. The distribution of colours should 
be equal in every respect : in a flake, 
not less than three divisions in each 
petal : in a bizarre, not less than five 
divisions, and properly arranged ; their 
respective and united beauties should 
be strikingly apparent. 

" Size should not be lost sight of, 
though it should never take precedence, 
unless the other general properties were 
equal. The disqualifications of a car- 
nation are — a dead, loose, mutilated, 
or split petal, a petal having no white 
on the upper side ; a petal having (if a 
flake) no colour upon the white on the 
upper side ; a petal upon which (if a 
bizarre) there are not two colours upon 
the white on the upper side ; if the pod 
be split down to the sub-calyx, or cut 
away in any part." — Gard. Chron. 

" The properties of the picotee, with 
regard to form and petal," says the same 
authority, " are the same as in the car- 
nation, with this exception, that, as the 
colour of the picotee is, or ought to be, 
confined to the margin of the petal, a 
greater degree of fulness was admissi- 
ble, proportionate with the lightness or 
narrowness of the marking. The co- 
lour should be clear and distinct, con- 
fined to the edge of the petal, and not 
running clown orbarring; neither should 
the white in the slightest degree run 
through to the edge of the petals, but 
whether lightly or heavily marked, the 
colour should be regular, at an equal 
distance from the edge all round the 
petal, each petal having the same .re- 
gularity of colouring throughout the 
flower. 

" Although a full flower is not so ob- 
jectionable as in the carnation, yet, as 



very full picotees are not to be advo- 
cated, a medium fulness is best. The 
same disqualifications with regard to 
the petal and pod are applicable as to 
the carnation." — Gard. Chron. 

Soil. — Dr. Horner recommends — 
" Two parts old pasture sods, two years 
old, and one part old frame manure, 
three years old, with a sufficient addi- 
tion of coarse river sand, to prevent te- 
nacity of the soil. Pasture sods reduced 
to mould, are preferable to soil taken 
from a greater depth, inasmuch as they 
contain the fibrous roots of the grass, 
which during their gradual decay afford 
a constant supply of most acceptable 
nourishment." — Gard. Chron. 

" Propagation. — Pipings stuck in this 
mould are to be covered with a hand- 
light, exposed fully to the sun ; but in 
hot weather, in the evening, water 
poured over the hand-light; pick out 
worms and slugs. If the pipings are 
placed in a box, covered first with a 
bell-glass, which is to be exchanged for 
a small hand-glass, or a larger bell- 
glass, as the pipings begin to grow, the 
boxes placed on a stage on the north 
side of a tree, and the stage resting on 
feeders, filled with lime-water, there is 
less trouble with insects, and the pipings 
will grow very well, but not so rapidly." 
— Gard. Chron. For the best mode of 
obtaining pipings, see Pink. 

Raising Varieties. — Dr. Lindley says, 
— "The fertilization of carnations 
should be performed as soon as the stig- 
mas unfold. The action of pollen is 
not instantaneous, but slow ; and it is 
necessary that it should adhere. 

" Although it may produce no effect 
at the time of applying it, yet it will 
eventually fertilize the seed-vessel, if 
the flower be kept dry. If the seed- 
vessel grows, and yet the seed does 
not swell, it is because fertilization has 
not taken place. It would increase the 
probability of procuring seed, to place 
the pots near a south wall. It is of no 
use to cut out the centre petals when 
the flower is very double." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Sowing. — " The surface of the soil 
should be finely pulverized, and the bed 
raised somewhat above the level of the 
adjoining ground. The seed may be 
scattered broadcast over the bed, and 
afterwards lightly pressed with the back 
of a rake." — Gard. Chron. 

" Seedlings are always more vigorous 



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than those that have been in cultivation 
for a length of time. 

" It is not usual for carnations and 
pinks to bloom the first season. When 
the seed is sown early, flower-stems 
are occasionally thrown up late in the 
autumn, and all destroyed by frost." — 
Gard. Chron. 

The plants generally come up in a 
month after sowing ; give occasional 
watering and weeding, and in July they 
will be fit to prick out into nursery beds, 
which prepare in an open situation, 
three feet wide ; and taking advantage 
of moist weather, prick the plants there- 
in four inches apart, and finish with a 
general watering, which repeat occa- 
sionally till all the plants have taken 
good root. Here let them remain till 
September, — when they will be so well 
advanced in growth as to require more 
room ; and should have their final trans- 
plantation into other three-feet- wide 



The method of performing the work 
is as follows: — First provide a quan- 
tity of small hooked sticks, three or 
four inches long, with which to peg 
the layers down, also in a barrow a 
quantity of light rich mould to raise the 
earth, if required, around each plant; 
and provide also a sharp penknife. 
Having all these ready, then proceed 
to the work of layering : first, strip off 
all the leaves from the body of the 
sboots, and shorten those at the top an 
inch or two evenly; and then, fixing 
upon a strong joint about the middle of 
the shoot, and on its under side, cut 
the joint half way through, directing 
your knife upward, so as to slit the 
shoot up the middle almost to the next 
joint above ; of which joint the thin 
skinny part must be trimmed off, for 
the layers always form their root at 
that part. This done, loosen the earth 
around the plant, and, if necessary, add 



beds of good earth, in rows lengthways | some fresh mould to raise it for the 



the bed, nine inches asunder, and th 
same distance in the lines, placing them 
in the quincunx order ; and here they are 
to remain all the winter, and until they 
flower, and have been increased by 
layers ; until which periods all the cul- 
ture they require is, that if the winter 
prove very severe, an occasional she' 



more ready reception of the layers ; 
then with your finger make a hollow or 
drill in the earth to receive the layer, 
which bend gently down horizontally in 
the opening, raising the top upright, so 
as to keep the gash, or slit part of the 
layer, open, and with one of the hooked 
sticks peg down the body of the layer 



ter of mats, during the hardest frost, j to secure it in its proper place and po- 



will be of much advantage , and jn 
spring, loosen the ground between them 
with a hoe. Keep them always clear 
from weeds, and when their flower- 
stalks advance, tie them up to sticks. 
They will flower in June, July, and 
August, at which times, as soon as the 
singles and doubles are distinguishable, 
all the singles may be rejected. 

When fully blown, examine their pro- 
perties ; the finest may be marked for 
stage flowers, and the others are furni- 
ture for the borders ; all of which may 
be increased by layers the same year. 

Propagation by Layers. — The proper 
parts for layers are those leafy shoots 
arising near the crown of the root, 
which, when about five inches long, are 
of a proper degree of growth. 

The general season for this work is 
June, July, and beginning of August, 
and the sooner it is done after the shoots 
are ready the better, that they may 



sition, still preserving the top erect and 
the slit open, and draw the earth over 
it an inch or two, bringing it close about 
the erect part of the shoot ; and when 
all the shoots of each plant are thus 
layered, give some water to settle the 
earth close, repeating the waterings 
often in dry weather ; and in five or six 
weeks the layers will have formed good 
roots, when they should be separated 
with a knife from the old plants, and 
planted in beds or pots. 

Taking off and transplanting the 
Layers. — The layers are generally well 
rooted in six weeks after layering, which 
you will observe by opening the earth a 
little, and examining the bottom, or 
root part; and if it has emitted plenty 
of fibres, they should be taken off, and 
planted out. 

They must be cut, or separated with 
a knife from the old plant, gently rais- 
ing them out of the earth with the point 



have sufficient time to acquire strength | of a trowel, to preserve the fibres, or 
before winter. Those layered in June j roots of the layers ; and when thus taken 



and July will be fit to take off in Au- 
gust and September. 



I up, cut off the naked sticky part at bot- 
| torn close to the root, and trim the tops 



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of the leaves a little : they are then 
ready for planting, either into beds or 
pots, but rather into nursery-beds of 
good earth, to remain six weeks, and 
then the fine sorts may be potted. 
Therefore, choosing a bed or border of 
rich light earth, let it be then neatly 
dug, and the surface raked smooth, and 
here plant the layers, with a dibble, at 
six or eight inches distance ; give di- 
rectly a good watering, and repeat it, 
in dry weather," every day or two, for a 
week or a fortnight, when the plants 
will have taken fresh root, and begin to 
advance. 

In this bed let them take their growth 
till October, then the fine varieties may 
be potted in small pots (forty-eights) for 
moving to occasional shelter from hard 
frosts, till spring, then into large pots, 
to remain to flower; therefore, at the 
above-mentioned time in autumn, take 
up the layers of the prime sorts from 
the nursery beds into small pots, and 
give a moderate watering, and place 
them in a warm situation, in the full 
air, till November, then move them to 
occasional shelter, as directed in their 
winter culture. 

The more common sorts may either 
at the above time in autumn be trans- 
planted into the borders or other com- 
partments of the pleasure ground, where 
they are to remain to flower, or may be 
continued in the beds until spring ; and 
then a due quantity may be disposed in 
the borders, or retained in the same 
bed, for flowering. 

Winter Culture. — In November, the 
varieties in pots should be moved to a 
sunny, sheltered situation for the win- 
ter ; and if placed in a frame, &c, to 
have occasional protection from hard 
frost, it will be of much advantage. 
The pots may be placed close together, 
or if the bed is raised three, four, or 
six inches, with a light dry earth, sand, 
or ashes, and so plunge the pots in it to 
their rims, it will be a greater protec- 
tion for their roots, covering them oc- 
casionally with the glasses in hard 
frosts, &c. ; but for want of frames, a 
bed prepared as above may be arched 
over with hoops, to be covered occa- 
sionally with mats. 

Under either of those shelters the 
plants are to be covered with glasses 
or mats only in time of severe frost, 
but must enjoy the full air in all open 
weather, by having all covering en- 



tirely off, for if much covered it would 
draw them up weak and tender. 

Be careful also that the drainage in 
the pots is very good. 

Thus continue your care of the potted 
plants till spring, and then shift them 
into large pots, to remain to blow, as 
directed in their spring culture. 

In respect to those in the open beds, 
although they commonly stand the win- 
ter tolerably, yet, if you have any spare 
frames, or the beds arched over, to be 
covered with mats or long dry litter in 
severe frosts, it will be of much advan- 
tage. 

Spring Culture, Shifting, fyc. — In 
the latter end of February, or some 
time in March, the layers in the small 
pots, or such as are in beds, and that 
you intend shall blow in pots, should 
be transplanted with balls into the large 
pots, where they are to remain. 

The pots proper for their reception 
for flowering, should be nine or ten 
inches at least in the clear at top, but 
if a foot the better, that there may be 
due room to lay the layers, at the pro- 
per season, for a further increase, 
which is an essential point to be con- 
sidered. 

The pots being ready, put some 
pieces of tile or oyster shells over the 
holes at the bottom; add plenty of 
drainage, and fill them halfway with 
earth, then turn the plants out of the 
pots, &c, with the ball of earth about 
their roots; and after taking away a 
little of the earth around the sides of 
the ball, place one plant in each of 
the large pots, filling up the vacancy 
around the ball with fresh compost, 
bringing it also close up about the 
body of the plant, which should stand 
nearly as high as the rim of the pot ; 
and finish each pot with a moderate 
watering. 

Being thus potted, place them in a 
sheltered sunny situation in the full air, 
and in dry weather supply them with 
water twice a week, and here let them 
remain till they are considerably ad- 
vanced towards flowering, then the fine 
sorts may be placed on the Carnation 
stage. 

Summer Culture. — During dry warm 
weather continue the care of watering 
those in pots every day or two. Like- 
wise clear out all weeds, and at times 
lightly stir the surface. In May and 
June the flower-stems of the plants will 



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advance, when sticks should be placed | stage, by means of small neat rails, 
for their support, which should be two ] carried along lengthways of the stage, 
feet and a half or a yard long, either j just over the place where each row of 
round or square, but perfectly straight, j pots stand, and from which rails up- 
and tapering from the bottom: sharpen- j right sticks half an inch thick are car- 
ing the lower end thrust one down by j ried to another such rail above, placing 
every plant, to which tie the flower- j them at such distances that there be 
stems in a neat manner, which repeat ! two to each pot, and so train the 
as they advance in height. flower-stems up to the outside of the 

In June, or beginning of July, the ! sticks, 
plants will be considerably advanced I With respect to the cups of water 
towards flowering, when those intended | above mentioned, they are earthen or 
for the stage shouid be placed there, to j leaden, about fifteen inches wide, and 
prevent the depredation of slugs ; the ' three or four deep, having a hollow or 
posts or supporters of the stage should | vacancy in the middle six inches wide, 
be surrounded at the bottom by small I like a socket to receive the posts ; and 
cups of water; and by placing the is formed by a raised rim in the middle, 
plants on a stage, having the platform i equal in height to that of the circum- 
eighteen inches or two feet high, the ference, and the hollow or socket so 
flowers are viewed to more advantage ; formed as to receive the bottom of the 
and if there is erected an awning over j posts quite through to the ground ; and 
the top, supported four feet above the the space between the outer and inner 
platform, the flowers being screened j rim is filled with water, so that each 
from the heat of the mid-day sun, and j post standing in the middle of such a 
defended from heavy rains, are con- j cistern, sufficiently guards the plants 
tinued much longer in beauty. against creeping insects, for they will 

Some Carnation stages are con- j not attempt to cross the water, 
structed upon very elegant plans, both For want of a covered stage to screen 
to render them useful and ornamental, j the flowers, you may contrive a kind of 

But as to the general construction of | small umbrellas or round spreading 
a common Carnation stage, it is formed caps, either of tin or canvas, nine or 
entirely of slight timber work, thus — a i ten inches diameter, one for each plant; 
boarded platform is erected eighteen I having a socket in the middle to receive 
inches or two feet in height, formed by the tops of the support-sticks ; those 
two ranges of planks, to contain two | umbrellas which are formed of tin are 
rows of pots lengthways, supported on j the best, but if you make them of can- 
posts, ranged either in one row along 
under the middle of the platform, or in 
two ranges, one on each side ; and 









make little round frames, 
rim formed with slips of 



over is erected a roof of open work, 
five or six feet high, to be covered with 



vas, first 

having th 

lead, wire, cane, &c, the above width 

with cross slips of the same materials; 

contriving a socket of lead or tin in the 



painted canvas, supported either by a middle for the support-stick to go quite 
range of neat posts on each side, or by through, as just observed ; and upon 
one row ranging along the middle, be- these frames paste or sow canvas, 
tween the planks of the platform, which which paint with oil-colour, that they 
is the most eligible; the roof maybe may stand the weather; either of 
formed either archways or like the ; which covers are placed over the 
ridge of a house, having the arches or flowers by running the support-stick up 
spars about afoot asunder, and stiffened ! through the hole or socket in the mid- 
by thin slips ofdeal, carried across them ! die, and resting the cap upon a piece 
the whole length of the stage; and the [ of wire put across the stick at such a 
roof thus formed may be covered with , height from the flower as to screen it 
coarse canvas paintea white. I effectually from the sun and rains. 

All the wood work of the stage Give attention to continue to tie up 
should be painted white, both to pre- neatly the flower-stalks of the plants as 
serve it from the weather, and give it they advance in stature. When they 
a more lively appearance. In con- are arrived at their full height, support 
structing Carnation stages, some con- them erect at top with wires, having a 
trive sticks for the support of the j small eye or ring at one end, for the 
flower-stalks, fixed to the work of the j reception of the flower-stalk ; so put 



CAR 



131 



CAR 



the other end into holes made in the 
support-sticks. These wires should be 
five or six inches long, and several holes 
are made in the upper part of the sticks; 
the first at the height of the bottom of 
the flower pod, the other above that, an 
inch or two distant ; and place the wires 
in the holes lower or higher, that the 
eye or ring may be just even with the 
case of the calyx, to support the flower 
in an upright position ; and by drawing 
the wire less or more out, the flower is 
preserved at any distance from the sup- 
port as shall seem necessary to give it 
proper room to expand ; and if two or 
three of the like wires are placed also 
in the lower parts of the support-sticks, 
placing the stem of the flowers also in 
the eye of the wires, all the tyings of 
bass, &c, may be cut away. 

To have as large flowers as possible, 
clear off all side shoots from the flower- 
stem, suffering only the main or top 
buds to remain to flower. 

When the flowers begin to open, at- 
tendance should be given to assist the 
fine varieties to promote their regular 
expansion, particularly the large burster 
kinds, they being apt to burst open on 
one side ; and, unless assisted by a little 
art, the petals will break out of com- 
pass, and the flower become very ir- 
regular ; therefore, attending every day 
at that period, observe, as soon as the 
calyx begins to break, to cut it a little 
open at two other places in the indent- 
ings at top, with narrow-pointed scis- 
sors, that the openings be at equal dis- 
tances, and hereby the more regular 
expansion of the petals will be pro- 
moted ; observing if one side of any 
flower comes out faster than another, 
to turn the pot about, that the other side 
of the flower be next the sun, which will 
also greatly assist the more regular ex- 
pansion of the flower. 

Likewise, when intended to blow any 
particularly fine flowers as large and 
spreading as possible, florists place 
spreading paper collars round the bot- 
tom of the flower, on which to spread 
the petals to their utmost expansion ; 
these collars are made of stiff white 
paper, cut circular, about three or four 
inches diameter, having a hole in the 
middle to receive the bottom of the 
petals, withinside of the calyx, the 
leaves of which are made to spread flat 
for its support ; and then spread or draw 
out the petals upon the collar to their 



full width and extent, the longest un- 
dermost, and the next longest upon 
these, and so of the rest quite to the 
middle, observing that the collar must 
nowhere appear wider than the flower 
when it begins to burst. 

Continue the care of watering the 
pots, which in dry hot weather will be 
necessary every day, being essential to 
promote the size of the flowers, and 
increase the strength of the shoots of 
the plants at bottom for layers. 

And as in June and July these layers 
will have arrived at proper growth for 
layering, they should also be layered to 
continue your increase of the approved 
varieties, and so continue layering the 
shoots of each year's growth at the 
above season, managing them always 
as before directed. 

As to the border carnations, i. e., 
such as you intend shall flower in bor- 
ders or beds, in the open ground, any 
of the varieties may be employed ; and 
their propagation both by seed and 
layers is the same as already directed. 
The season for transplanting them into 
the places of their final destination for 
flowering, is October or beginning of 
November, for the autumn planting ; 
and for that of the spring, any time in 
March or first fortnight in April ; re- 
moving them with little balls about their 
roots, planting them about two feet from 
the edge of the border; and as to cul- 
ture, it is principally tying up the flower- 
stalks as they advance in stature, and 
to make layers of all the approved 
sorts annually, in June or July. — Aber- 
crombie. 

Carnation Pots. — The pots commonly 
made and used for the purpose of 
blooming carnations in, are called wide- 
mouthed twelves. Two plants are put 
in each pot, and they are made wide at 
the top for the convenience of layering 
the plants in. 

Disease. — The " black spot" on the 
leaves of carnations, is an infection 
propagating itself in the same manner 
as rust in corn, or mildew of plants, 
each spot being composed of innumera- 
ble small fungi. 

CAROB TREE. Ceratonia. 

CAROLINEA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich loamy 
soil. 

CARPINUS. Three species, and as 
many varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. 
Seeds or layers. Common soil. 



CAR 



132 



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CARPODONTUS lucida. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

CARRICHTERA vella. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. A dry 
situation suits it best. 

CARROT. {Daucus carota.) « The 
Carrot is a hardy biennial. The root of 
the plant in its wild state is small ; dry, 
sticky, of a white colour, and strong 
flavoured." 

Varieties. — Those with a regular fusi- 
form root, are named long carrots; and 
those having one that is nearly cylin- 
drical, abruptly terminating, are de- 
nominated horn carrots. The first are 
employed for the main crops, the se- 
cond, on account of their superior deli- 
cate flavour, are advantageously grown 
for early use, and for shallow soils. 

" The principal sorts are the Long 
Orange, best for the main crop ; the 
Early Horn, for early summer use ; 
and the Altringham and Large White, 
for field culture. 

" The cultivation of all the varieties 
is the same. The plant requires a 
deeply dug or ploughed soil, in good 
tilth, otherwise the root is apt to branch 
or become forked. For the early sup- 
ply drill the seed (allowing 12 or 14 
inches space between the drills), in a 
warm protected border, any time during 
spring; the main crop need not be put 
in before its close. When the plants 
are up two or three inches in growth, 
they will require thinning, and cleaning 
from weeds, either by hand or small 
hoeing; thin from three to five inches 
distance, such as are designed for draw- 
ing, in young and middling growth ; but 
the main crop, intended for large and 
full sized roots, thin to six or eight 
inches distance; keep the whole clean 
from weeds in their advancing young 
growth. 

" To preserve them during the win- 
ter, remove them to the cellar, and pile 
them up with alternate layers of earth 
or sand ; or they may be placed in heaps 
in the garden, with sufficient soil over 
them to exclude frost. The Carrot is a 
tolerably hardy root, and but little diffi- 
culty attends its preservation. 

" It is a valuable food for stock, and 
in an especial manner worthy of exten- 
sive field culture. When grown for 
that purpose sow in drills three feet 
apart, and cultivate thoroughly — the 
Long Orange is perhaps the best even 



for this purpose — does not grow so 
large as the White, but is of superior 
quality." — Rural Register. 

To obtain Seed. — Leave some where 
raised, but if this is impracticable, some 
of the finest roots should be selected, 
and their tops not cut so close as those 
for storing ; these likewise must be 
placed in sand until March, then to be 
planted out two feet asunder, in a stiff 
loamy soil. Those left where grown, or 
those planted at the close of autumn, 
must, during frosts, have the protection 
of litter, it being invariably removed, 
however, during mild weather. As the 
seed ripens in August, which is known 
by its turning brown about the end of 
August, each umbel should be cut ; for 
if it is waited for until the whole plant 
decays, much of the seed is often lost 
during stormy weather. It must be 
thoroughly dried by exposure to the sun 
and air, before it is rubbed out for stor- 
ing. For sowing, the seed should al- 
ways be of the previous year's growth ; 
if it is more than two years old it will 
not vegetate at all. 

CARROT MAGGOT. This under- 
ground enemy of the carrot is banished 
by mixing spirit of tar with sand until 
saturated, and applying it to the soil 
previously to digging, at the rate of 
about one gallon to sixty square yards. 
— Gard. Chron. 

CARROT MOTH. See Tinea. 

CARTHAMUS. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Sandy loam or com- 
mon soil. 

CARTONEMA spicatum. Stove her- 
baceous perennials. Seeds. Sandy 
peat. 

CARUM carui. Caraway. Hardy 
biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 

CARYA. Ten species, and some 
varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. Seeds 
or layers. Common soil. 

CARYOCAR. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy open 
loam, or loam and peat. 

CARYOPHYLLUS aromaticus. 
Clove Tree. Stove evergreen tree. 
Cuttings. Sandy peat and loam. 

CARYOTA. Three species. Stove 
palms. Seeds. Rich soil and a moist 
warm atmosphere. 

CASCADE, or Waterfall, is an im- 
portant adjunct in landscape gardening, 
but agreeable only when properly as- 
sociated with the scenery around ; that 
association is a bold broken ground, and 






CAS 



133 



CAT 



a dense plantation of trees; nothing is 
more misplaced or tasteless than a sheet 
of water falling into another uniform 
collection of water, in an open un- 
wooded plain. Mr. Whateley justly 
observes, that " a rill cannot pretend 
to any sound beyond that of a little 
waterfall ; the roar of a cascade belongs 
only to larger streams: but it may be 
introduced by a rivulet to a considera- 
ble degree, and attempts to do more 
have generally been unsuccessful ; a 
vain ambition to imitate nature in her 
great extravagancies betrays the weak- 
ness of art. Though a noble river 
throwing itself headlong down a preci- 
pice be an object truly magnificent, it 
must however be confessed, that in a 
single sheet of water there is a formality 
which its vastness alone can cure, but 
the height, not the breadth is the 
wonder: when it falls no more than a 
few feet, the regularity prevails, and its 
extent only serves to expose the vanity 
of affecting the style of a cataract in an 
artificial cascade; it is less exceptionable 
if divided into several parts, for then 
each separate part may be wide enough 
for its depth ; and in the whole, variety, 
not greatness, will be the predominant 
character. But a structure of rough, 
large, detached stones cannot easily be 
contrived of strength sufficient to sup- 
port a great weight of water, it is some- 
times from necessity almost smooth and 
uniform, and then it loses much of its 
effect: several little falls in succession 
are preferable to one greater cascade, 
which in figure, or in motion, ap- 
proaches to regularity. 

" When greatness is thus reduced to 
number, and length becomes of more 
importance than breadth, a rivulet vies 
with a river, and it more frequently runs 
in a continued declivity, which is very 
favourable to such a succession of falls. 
Half the expense and labour which are 
sometime bestowed on a river to give it 
at the best, a forced precipitancy in any 
one spot only, would animate a rivulet 
through the whole of its course ; and 
after all the most interesting circum- 
stance in falling waters, is their anima- 
tion : a great cascade fills us with sur- 
prise, but all surprise must cease ; and 
the motion, the agitation, the rage, the 
froth, and the variety of the water are 



finally the objects which engage 
attention; for these a rivulet is 



the 
suf- 



ficient, and they may there be produced 



without that appearance of effort which 
raises a suspicion of art. To obviate 
such a suspicion, it may sometimes be 
expedient to begin the descent out of 
sight; for the beginning is the difficulty: if 
that be concealed, the subsequent falls 
seem but a consequence of the agita- 
tion which characterizes the water at its 
first appearance, and the imagination is, 
at the same time, let loose to give ideal 
extent to the cascades ; when a stream 
issues from a wood, such management 
will have a great effect, the bends of its 
course in an open exposure may afford 
frequent opportunities for it, and some- 
times a low broad bridge may furnish 
the occasion, a little fall hid under the 
arch will create a disorder, in conse- 
quence of which, a greater cascade be- 
low will appear very natural." 

CASCARIA. Six species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

CASINE. Seven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

CASSIA. One hundred species. 
Chiefly stove or green-house evergreen 
shrubs. Some are annuals, and a few 
herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Light 
loamy soil, or loam and peat. 

CASSINIA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. C. aurea is 
an herbaceous perennial. C.spectabilis, 
an evergreen annual. Division, cut- 
tings, or seed. Loam and peat. 

CASTANEA. Chestnut. Five species 
and some varieties. Hardy deciduous 
trees. C. indica is a stove evergreen. 
Seeds or grafts. Common soil. 

CASTANOSPERMUMausfra/e. 
Green-house evergreen fruit tree. Lay- 
ers. Loamy soil. 

CASTELEA erecta. Stove evergreen 
tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

CASTILLEJA. Four species. The 
stove evergreen shrubs succeed in loam 
and peat, and increase by cuttings. The 
hardy herbaceous and annuals by divi- 
sion or seeds. Sandy peat. 

CASUARINA. Nine species. Green- 
house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

CATALPA. Three species. Hardy 
deciduous and stove evergreen trees. 
Seed, layers, or cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

CATANANCHE. Two species. C. 
ccerulea, hardy herbaceous perennial. C. 
lutea. an annual. Seed. Common soil. 



CAT 



134 

— ♦ — 



C AU 



CATAPHAGUS, a synonyme of Ela- spring ; and to behold some acres over- 
ter. See Wireworm. j spread with such glasses, gives a 

CATASETUM. Seventeen species \ stranger a forcible idea of the riches 
and some varieties. Stove epiphytes. ' and luxury of the metropolis. In Eu- 
Division. Wood. rope it is had in fine perfection during 

CATCH FLY. See Silene. \ a great portion of the year, and with 

CATERPILLAR. This is the young scarcely more trouble than attends the 
of either the butterfly or the moth, in growing of the cabbage. But in this 
its first state after emerging from the country it is at best very uncertain, and 
egg. There are many kinds, and the : unless the summer prove cool, seldom 
best mode of preventing their invasions, < succeeds. 



is to destroy every butterfly, moth, chry- 
salis, and egg that can be found. Hand- 
picking, dusting with lime, or soot, and 
other modes of destroying the caterpil- 
lar, are mentioned when noticing the 
plants they attack. Wherever a solu- 



" For the main summer crop sow the 
seed early in autumn, and that it may 
vegetate freely, observe the directions 
for sowing Broccoli. Having succeeded 
in getting the seeds to sprout, an occa- 
sional watering is given if dry weather 



tion of ammonia, in the proportions of! ensue. The plants remain in the seed- 
one to nine of water can be applied by i bed until the close of autumn, by which 
the syringe, it will destroy many minute \ time they will be good sized plants, 
caterpillars undiscerned by the eye. : having four or five leaves. Then place 
Sparrows and other small birds in early a frame provided with a sash, in a 
spring should not be scared from the | sheltered situation, on rich earth, deep- 
garden, for they destroy myriads of. ly dug, loose, and finely raked, in 
caterpillars. At that season they can i which the plants should be pricked out 
do no harm if the gardener properly at J 
guards his seed beds. Boys paid a hall- 
penny per dozen for leaves having eggs 
or smaller caterpillars upon them, have 
been found to keep a garden free for a 
whole season for about seven shillings. 

CATESBJEA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
Light turfy loam and peat. 

CATHARANTHUS. Two species 
and varieties. Stove evergreen shrubs. 
Seeds or cuttings. Common soil. 

C. pusillus is an annual, and requires 
a light rich soil. 

CATTLEYA. Twenty-two species 
and some varieties. Stove epiphytes. 
Division. Wood. 

CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica oleracea 
cauliflora.) 

" The Cauliflower is one of the most 
delicate and curious of the whole bras- 
sica tribe ; the flower-buds forming a 
close, firm, cluster or head, white and 
delicate, and for the sake of which the 
plant is cultivated. 

" These heads or flowers being 
boiled, wrapped generally in a clean 
linen cloth, are served up as a most 
delicate vegetable dish. * Of all the 
flowers in the garden,' Dr. Johnson 
used to say, ' Hike the Cauliflower.' 

" For the early supply of the London 
market very great quantities of Cauli- 
flowers are fostered under hand-glasses 
during winter and the first part of 



distances of two to three inches 
square. When the bed is filled, water 
them gently through a fine rose. Thus 
they remain until frosty nights render 
it prudent to run on the sash ; observ- 
ing to remove the sash entirely in very 
fine days, or elevate to a greater or 
less degree, as the temperature of the 
atmosphere demands. Even in cool 
weather during the winter, more or 
less air should be admitted, especially 
if the sun shine ; taking care to put 
down the sash before sunset, and cover- 
ing all snug for the night. During mild 
showery weather the sash should be 
occasionally drawn off, which will re- 
fresh the plants. 

" As the winter advances and cold 
increases, a mat covering at night will 
be requisite, and as the weather be- 
comes still colder, an additional one, 
or a quantity of loose straw so placed 
over the sash, and round the edges, 
that the severe frost may be excluded. 

" As early in the spring as the weather 
will admit, prepare a piece of ground 
to plant them in ; let it be deeply dug, 
and richly manured with thoroughly 
decomposed stable dung. In selecting 
the ground in which to plant them, 
choose that which is convenient to 
water, for in dry seasons, irrigation will 
promote their growth, and increase the 
chance of success. (Select the evening 
for watering, having previously drawn 



CE A 



135 



C EL 



the earth around each plant, in the form 
of a basin.) 

" Before removing the plants from the 
beds, mark as many of the strongest as 
the frame will hold, allowing eighteen 
inches square to each plant ; there per- 
mit them to remain undisturbed, re- 
taining the sashes, and treating them as 
if in a hot-bed. They will come for- 
ward before those transplanted, and 
frequently do well, when the latter fail. 
We would advise that the plants to be 
put out, be divided, one half placed on 
a warm border with southern exposure, 
under the lee of a building or board 
fence, the others in an open compart- 
ment of the garden. — For this reason, 
if the spring prove cold, those on the 
border will be hastened and protected 
from late frosts, and if the early part of 
summer prove dry and hot, those in the 
open compartment will be more favour- 
ably situated. Hand glasses, flower 
pots, or boxes put over them at night, 
during cool weather, are highly advan- 
tageous. When they begin to show signs 
of heading, break a leaf over them, to 
protect from the direct rays of the sun. 

" To force Cauliflowers ; make a hot- 
bed at close of winter, planting them 
therein, from the cold bed or frame, at 
the distances of fifteen inches. A pret- 
ty free admission of air is necessary, 
otherwise they will advance too rapid- 
ly, and become weak and spindling; 
during mild days in April, the sash 
should be drawn off, and as the wea- 
ther becomes warm, plentiful irrigation 
should be administered. 

" Late Cauliflowers are sown at the 
same time with the Broccoli ; they head 
as it does, and require similar treat- 
ment, though not so certain to succeed." 
— Rural Register. 

CEAXOTHUS. Twenty-two species. 
Chiefly stove or green-house evergreen 
shrubs; some are hardy deciduous. C. 
perennis is herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

CECIDOMYIA. C. nigra. Black 
Gall Midge. This insect lays its eggs 
in the blossom of the pear early in the 
spring, and the larvae thence born con- 
sume the pulp of the embryo fruit. 
Sometimes they eat their way through 
its skin, and at others remain within its 
core until it falls. 

CECROPIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 



CEDAR OF GO A. Cupressus lusi- 
tanica. 

CEDAR OF LEBANON. Cedrus Li- 
bani. 

CEDRELA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Light loam. 

CEDRUS. Cedar. Two species. 
Hardy evergreen trees. Seeds. C. 
deodara, grafts readily on the common 
larch. Sandy loam. 

CELASTRUS. Twenty-seven 
species. Chiefly green-house or stove 
evergreen shrubs, trees, or climbing 
plants. C. bullatus and C. scandens, 
are hardy deciduous climbers. Ripe 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

CELERIAC, or TURNIP-ROOTED 
CELERY (Apium rapaceum). 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — It may 
be sown in March, April, and May, to 
afford successive plantations in June, 
July, and August. The seed must be 
sown in drills six inches apart, and kept 
regularly watered every evening in dry 
weather, otherwise it will not germi- 
nate. The bed must be kept free from 
weeds, and when about three inches 
high, they may be pricked out into 
another border in rows three inches 
apart each way ; giving water abund- 
antly and frequently: by adopting the 
precautions mentioned in the cultiva- 
tion of celery, the same seed bed will 
afford two or three distinct prickings. 
In the neighbourhood of Dresden, where 
this vegetable is grown in great perfec- 
tion, they sow in February or March, in 
a hot-bed under glass, and the plants 
are removed in April, when two or 
three inches high to another hot-bed, 
and set an inch and a half apart. The 
fineness of the plants is there attributed 
to the abundance of water with which 
they are supplied. 

When five or six inches high, they 
are fit for final planting; they must be 
set in rows two feet asunder, and the 
plants eight inches apart, on the level 
ground, or in drills drawn with the hoe 
at most three inches deep, as they do 
not require earthing up. In dry weather 
they should be watered plentifully, at 
least every other evening. The only 
additional attention they require, is to 
keep them free from weeds. They 
require a very light fertile soil. 

Saving Seed. — The directions given 
for saving the seed of Celery, are in 
every respect applicable to this vege- 
table. 



C EL 



136 

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C E L 



CELERY. (Apiumgraveolens). "The 
Celery is a hardy biennial plant, a na- 
tive of Britain, and known in its wild 
state, by the name of smallage ; the 
whole plant has a rank coarse taste, 
and the effects of cultivation in pro- 
ducing from it the mild sweet stalks of 
Celery, are not a little remarkable. 

" The blanched leaf stalks are used 
raw as a salad; they are also stewed, 
and put in soups. In Italy the unblanch- 
ed leaves are used for soups, and when 
neither the blanched nor the green 
leaves can be had, the seeds bruised, 
form a good substitute. 

" In Europe, they enumerate several 
varieties of Celery, two only of which 
we cultivate, viz : Large Solid Stalked 
White, Large, Solid, Stalked Red. 

" It delights in damp rich soil, deeply 
dug, and heavily manured with decom- 
posed vegetables or manure, from the 
barn yard, thoroughly rotted. 

"For avery.early crop, sow the seed 
in a hot-bed very early in the spring, 
either by itself, or among Radishes, 
Salad, or Cabbage. For the main au- 
tumnal and winter supply, sow in the 
open ground on a damp spot, conveni- 
ently situated to apply water, which 
give freely in dry weather, even after 
the plants are well grown. 

" That intended for the early supply, 
may be planted out by the close of 
spring. Make several plantings through 
the early part of summer, of such as 
are intended for the later supply. 

" It will greatly strengthen the plants 
if they be transplanted into nursery 
beds, after they attain the height of two 
or three inches. Such beds it is re- 
commended to form ' of old hot-bed 
dung, (decomposed manure from the 
barn yard will answer the same pur- 
pose,) very well broken, laid six or 
seven inches thick on a piece of ground 
which has lain some time undisturbed, 
or has been made hard by compression ; 
the situation should be sunny ; the 
plants set six inches apart in the dung 
without soil, water well when planted, 
and frequently afterwards.' From this 
bed they are in due time transplanted, 
where they are to remain. A stalk 
which had been thus treated, was raised 



those which have been transplanted 
into the nursery-bed just described, 
have reached the height of six to twelve 
inches, they may be removed into the 
trenches for further growth and blanch- 
ing. These trenches are formed in 
deep well cultivated soil, in straight 
lines, three feet apart, twelve to four- 
teen inches wide, and six inches deep, 
incorporating, with the soil abundance 
of well rotted manure ; therein set the 
plants, four or five inches apart, (having 
removed them with all their roots, cut 
off the straggling fibres, and a third of 
the tops, and slit off the suckers or side 
shoots,) water them freely, and shade 
them from the hot sun for some days. 
Experience has shown that this vegeta- 
ble may be more successfully cultivated 
by having a liberal portion of manure 
placed on the surface around the plants, 
rather than by the old plan of placing 
it in excessive quantity in the bottom 
of the trench, which in dry seasons fre- 
quently injure the plants. Cedar brush, 
corn stalks, or boards, laid across the 
trenches, afford ample shade, for the 
newly transplanted plants, observing 
to remove them in the evening, and 
replace them in the morning. In the 
course of a few weeks, the plants will 
have grown sufficiently to admit of 
1 earthing up,' which is performed by 
drawing the loose earth around the 
stalks, taking care to keep the leaf 
stems together, and the heart of the 
plant uncovered. The operation should 
be gradual, not drawing at once too 
great a body of earth around them, lest 
its application should cause the young 
shoots to rot. It is not advisable early 
to commence earthing up, such as are 
intended for the late autumn and win- 
ter supply, because the plant soon per- 
ishes after it becomes fully blanched, 
especially in warm weather. 

" To preserve Celery during the win- 
ter, is sometimes attended with trouble, 
the frequent changes of temperature in 
our climate causing it to decay. The 
usual practice is to cut down the earth 
of one row in a perpendicular line near 
the plants, against which, as if it were 
a wall, the stalks from the other rows 
are compactly arranged, tops erect : the 



near Manchester, which weighed nine | earth is then banked up as before, and 



pounds when washed, with the roots 
and leaves attached to it, and measured 
four feet six inches in height. 

" When the plants in the seed-bed, or 



again cut down, to make room for an- 
other row, thus continuing, until the 
entire crop is placed side by side, 
within the compass of a single bed. 



C EL 



137 



C ES 



On either side of the bed, earth is piled 
up to the thickness of three feet at least. 
On the top, (through which the extreme 
ends only of the plants appear,) some 
dry straw litter is placed, to save them 
from the frost, and keep them green. 
Boards placed over the beds so as to 
turn off the rain, are very useful, for 
much moisture frequently proves ruin- 
ous. In taking out for use, begin at 
one end, digging down to the roots, 
always observing to keep the aperture 
closed with straw. 

" Some take up the crop on the ap- 
proach of winter, and place it in a cel- 
lar, with alternate layers of dry sand ; 
but it is apt, when thus treated, to 
become tough and wilted." — Rural Reg. 

To Save Seed. — To raise seed, some 
plants must be left where grown, or in 
February or March, some may be care- 
fully taken up, and after the outside 
leaves are cut off and all laterals re- 
moved, planted in a moist soil a foot 
apart. Those which aremostsolid,and 
of a middling size, are to be selected. 
When they branch for seed, they must 
be early attached to a stake to preserve 
them from being broken by the violence 
of winds. The flower appears in June, 
and the seed is swelling in July; if dry 
weather occurs they should be watered 
every other night. In August the seed 
will be ripe, and when perfectly dry, 
may be rubbed out and stored. 

CELOSIA. Cockscomb. Fourteen 
species and some varieties. Chiefly 
stove or green-house annuals. C. echi- 
nata, C. glauca are evergreen shrubs. 
Seeds. Rich mould. See Cockscomb. 

CELSIA. Nine species. Chiefly half 
hardy biennials, some stove annuals. 
C. orientalis is a hardy annual. Seeds. 
Peat and loam. 

CELTIS. Eleven species and two 
varieties. Stove evergreen trees or 
hardy deciduous trees and shrubs. 
Seeds or layers. Common soil. 

CENTAUREA. One hundred and 
fifty-two species and some varieties. 
Chiefly hardy and half hardy herbaceous 
perennials; a few annuals and biennials. 
C. ragusina is a green-house evergreen 
shrub. Seeds. Division. Common soil. 

CENTRANTHUS. Three species, 
and variety. Hardy annual and her- 
baceous perennials. Seeds. Common 
soil. 

CENTROCARPHA. Nine species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials. 



Two are biennial. Seeds. Division. 
Common soil. 

CENTROCLINIUM. Two species, 
one a stove annual, the other an ever- 
green shrub. Seeds. Light vegetable 
soil. 

CENTROSPERMUM chrysanthum. 
Hardy annual. Seeds. Common soil. 

CENTAURY. Centaurea. 

CENTUNCULUS minimus. Bastard 
pimpernel. Hardy annual. Seeds. 
Sandy loam. 

CEPHAELIS. Eight species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs, two are trailing 
plants. Cuttings. Peat and sandy 
loam. 

CEPHALANTHERA. Three spe- 
cies. Hardy orchids. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

CEPHALANTHUS occidentalis and 
variety. Hardy deciduous shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings or layers. Sandy peat and 
loam. 

CEPHALOTUS follicularis. Green- 
house herbaceous perennial. Offsets. 
Boggy soil. 

CERANTHERA subintegrifolia . 
Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

CERASUS. Twenty-eight species 
and many varieties ; chiefly hardy de- 
ciduous fruit trees and shrubs, a few 
evergreens. C. occidentalis, and C. 
spharocarpa, are stove evergreens. 
Seeds. Budding or grafting. 

CERATIOLA ericoides. Half hardy 
green-house evergreen under shrub. 
Cuttings. Sandy peat. 

CERATOPETALUM gummiferum. 
Green-house evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

CERERA. Six species. Stove ever- 
green trees or shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
mould. 

CERCIS. Two species and varie- 
ties. Hardy deciduous trees. Seeds. 
Light loamy soil. 

CEREUS. One hundred and thirty- 
one species. Stove cactaceous plants. 
Cuttings, dried before planting. Sandy 
loam. 

CERINTHE. Five species. Hardy 
annual or biennial plants. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

CEROPEGIA. Thirteen species. 
Stove or green-house evergreen twining 
or deciduous climbing plants, tuberous 
rooted perennials and evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

CESTRINUS carthamoides. Hardy 



C ES 



138 



CH A 



herbaceous perennial. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

CESTRUM. Twenty-eight species. 
Stove and green-house evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Peat and loam. C. auran- 
tiacum is the prettiest species for the 
green-house. 

CETONIA aurata. Green rose chafer, 
is most severely felt by the gardener 
when it attacks his strawberries, which 
it does in May or June. It is described 
by Mr. Curtis as being " one of our 
largest and most beautiful beetles, being 
of a bright burnished green, often re- 
flecting a rich golden or copper tint ; 
the horns are short with a small club. 
The scutel forms an elongated triangle; 
the wings are very long, brownish, and 
folded beneath the horny wing-cases, 
which have a few scattered white lines 
placed transversely, resembling cracks 
in the green epidermis; the under side 
is of a fine copper tint often inclining to 
rose colour. From its nestling and 
reposing in the flower of the rose, it is 
generally called the rose-chafer, but it 
is also attached to the white-thorn, 
candy-tuft, elder, mountain-ash, paeony 
and strawberry, the flowers of which it 
feeds upon. The female rose-chafers 
lay their eggs in the ground, and the 
larvae they produce are no doubt often 
confounded with those of the cock- 
chafer (Melolontha vulgaris), being as 
large and very similar, and probably, 
under the name of " Leverblanc," 
they have contributed in no small de- 
gree to augment the ravages in the 
rose-tree nurseries of France. Although 
these larvae are very much alike, it is 
not difficult to distinguish them, those 
of the rose-chafer being downy, and 
covered with transverse series of short 
hairs ; and the feet are pointed, whereas, 
the grubs of the cock-chafer are naked, 
and the feet are blunt and rather dilated 
at the trips. 

" These maggots are fat, the head- 
horns and six pectoral feet are rusty 
ochreous ; the tips of the strong jaws 
are black, the extremity of the abdo- 
men is of a pale ink colour from the 
food shining through the transparent 
skin ; but in the rose-chafer there is a 
large horny bright rust-coloured spot on 
each side of the first thoracic segment. 
The simplest remedy is to collect the 
beetles, which are large and conspicu- 
ous, into bottles or cans of water, in 
the morning and evening, or in dull 



weather during the day, for they fly 
very well, when the sun shines, which 
renders it difficult to capture them 
unless a net be used : when the search 
is ended, the contents of the vessel 
should be emptied into boiling water. 5 ' 
— Gard. Chron. 

CHJETACHLiENA odorata. Green- 
house herbaceous perennial. Seed. 
Sandy loam. 

CHiETANTHERA. Two species. 
Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Peat and loam. 

CHZETOCALYX vincentina. Stove 
evergreen climber. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

CH^TOGASTRA. Two species. 
Stove annual and herbaceous peren- 
nial. Seed. Peat and loam. 

CHALK. Carbonate of lime, con- 
tains, when pure — 

Carbonic acid .... 45 

Lime 55 

But as it usually occurs it contains about 
twenty-four per cent, of water, and five 
per cent, of silica (flint), alumina (clay), 
and oxide (rust) of iron. After these 
deductions it will be apparent that if 
fifty tons of lime be applied to land, it 
will be equal to more than one hundred 
of chalk, a subject worthy of considera- 
tion when it has to be conveyed from 
afar. Chalk is usually employed in 
large quantities to improve the staple of 
a soil. It makes heavy soils less re- 
tentive of moisture, and light sandy 
soils more retentive. On wet sour lands 
it neutralizes the acids which render 
them unproductive. Some chalks con- 
tain phosphate of lime, and this being a 
constituent of all plants, such chalk is 
to be preferred. Some contains a large 
proportion of carbonate of magnesia, 
which is less beneficial. 

CHAM^DOPcEA. Two species. 
Palms. Rich sandy loam. Suckers. 

CRAMMLEVON procumbens. Hardy 
evergreen shrub. Layers. Sandy peat. 

CHAMiELIRIUM carolinianum. 
Hardy herbaceous perennial. Division. 
Peat and loam. 

CHAMISSOA altissima. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Common soil. 

CHAM^EROPS. Seven species. 
Palms. Suckers. Rich mould. 

CHAMOMILE. Anthemis. See 
Camomile. 

CHAPTALIA tomentosa. Hardy her- 
baceous perennial. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 



CH A 



139 



CH A 



CHARCOAL. Soot, a chief consti- 
tuent of which is charcoal, has long 
been known as a very effective fertil- 
izer ; and burning has still longer been 
known as a mode of reducing stubborn 
soils to prompt productiveness. But 
both these sources of fertility might 
owe their efficiency to other causes 
than their affording carbon to plants ; 
and it is only within these very few 
months that anything like a general 
knowledge has been diffused that mere 
charcoal is one of the best of manures. 
The fact has been known for many 
years to individuals, as, for example, 
to Mr. Barnes, of Bicton ; but it is only 
very lately that gardeners generally 
have learned, and I ani happy in being 
able to join my voice to that excellent 
cultivator's in announcing, that — char- 
coal is a most efficient manure to all 
cultivated plants, especially to those 
under glass. Heaths, rhododendrons, 
cucumbers, roses, orchidaceous plants, 
hydrangeas, camellias, melons, and pine 
apples, have been the subjects of ex- 
tended and most successful experi- 
ments. The advocates are too well 
known to require more than naming, 
for among them are Dr. Lindley, Mr. 
Barnes, Mr. Maund, Mr. Snow of S win- 
ton Gardens, Mr. Stewart of Stradsett 
Hall Gardens, and Mr. Rivers. I think 
no cultivated plant would be unbene- 
fited by having charcoal applied to the. 
soil in which it is rooted. It should be 
broken into small pieces, about the size 
of a nut, and for potted plants may be 
mixed in the proportions of one part 
charcoal to twenty parts earth. If ap- 
plied to the open ground, one-fourth of 
a bushel may be sown over a square 
rod, and dug in just before inserting the 
crop. The reason of charcoal being so 
useful as a manure is very apparent. 
MM. Sennebier, Ruckert, Saussure, 
and others, have demonstrated that 
plants are rendered much more luxuri- 
ant and productive, by having carbonic 
acid applied to their roots, than other 
plants to whose roots no such applica- 
tion was made. Now charcoal kept 
moist, as when buried in the soil, slow- 
ly combines with oxygen, and emits 
carbonic acid — in fact, it slowly dis- 
solves. I am sorry to differ from such 
an authority as Liebig, who broadly 
asserts that " Carbon never combines 
at common temperatures with oxygen, 
so as to form carbonic acid." This was 



long since shown to be otherwise by 
Count Rumford ; and may easily be de- 
monstrated to be incorrect, by confining 
a few ounces of fresh and moistened 
charcoal powder, mixed with earth, in 
a glass receiver full of oxygen, over 
lime water; carbonate of lime will 
form, showing the gradual evolution or 
carbonic acid. The following com- 
munication from Mr. Barnes shows, 
that carbonized vegetables are a better 
manure for onions than even bone- 
dust. 

" A piece of ground that was cropped 
with coleworts last autumn, (1843,) was 
cleared early, and the refuse trenched 
in during the winter. 95 feet in length 
and 10 feet in width, was planted with 
small onions on the 14th of February, 
which onions had been sown the se- 
cond week of September in the pre- 
vious autumn. They were planted in 
rows one foot apart, and six inches 
from plant to plant — with the intention 
of drawing every alternate one for use 
through the summer — but the whole 
nine rows did not get entirely thinned. 
The following is the weight when ripe 
for storing on the 1st of August. 

" Five rows grown where 4 lbs. of 
bone-dust to each row had been sown 
in a drill drawn 3 inches deep and 
filled up, and the onions planted over 
it — producing 420 lbs. weight of onions 
— each row yielding from S2 to 88 lbs. 

" The other 4 rows had applied to 
them of fresh dry charred refuse and 
ashes, made from the garden rubbish- 
heap, two common buckets full, weight 
14 lbs. They produced 366 lbs. of 
onions, the rows weighing respectively 
99, 89, 95, and 83 lbs. The last row 
being injured by a row of red cabbage 



growing near. 

" Many of 

which were a 

Deptford, and 



the foregoing onions, 
mixture of the Globe, 
Reading, measured in 
circumference from 14 to 16j inches, 
and weighed as many ounces. I 
weighed 12 together, that turned the 
scale at 12 lb. 9 oz. I can only fancy 
what a wonderful saving and benefit it 
would be to the country, to char the 
refuse of old tan, chips, sawdust, ditch 
scourings containing sods, weeds, 
bushes, and refuse. By keeping the 
surface of the earth well stirred, no 
crops appear to suffer by drought that 
are manured by charrings, but continue 
in the most vigorous health throughout 



CH A 



140 



CHE 



the season, never suffering materially 
by either drought or moisture." 

On spring sown onions and on tur- 
nips, Mr. Barnes finds charred or car- 
bonized vegetable refuse equally bene- 
ficial. Three rows, each 95 feet long, 
of the white globe onion, manured with 
bone-dust, weighed 251 lbs.; whilst 
three similar rows of the same variety, 
and grown under precisely similar cir- 
cumstances, but manured with char- 
rings, weighed 289 lbs. 

CHARD. See Artichoke. 

CHARDOON. See Cardoon. 

CHARJEAS graminis. Antler or 
grass moth, has a yellowish-brown 
head and back— upper wings brownish 
grey, appears in July and August. Its 
caterpillar brown or blackish, with five 
lighter stripes down the back. This 
lives at the roots of grasses, and eats 
their young blades. 

CHASMONIA incisa. Hardy annual. 
Seeds. Common soil. 

CHEILANTHES. Fourteen species. 
Ferns. Green-house, stove or hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

CHEIMATOBIA brumata. Winter 
moth. This is the parent of that 
scourge of fruit trees, the greenlooper 
caterpillar. It appears in November. 
One female will lay 200 eggs, deposit- 
ing them on the bends and bark of the 
tipper branches of the apple and other 
fruit trees. The caterpillars appear 
with the bursting of the buds, on the 
tips of the leaves, petals, and calyxes 
of which they feed. They form a small 
web within the blossom, and glue and 
gnaw its petals so as to destroy it. 
When the fruit is formed, that becomes 
their favourite food. They descend 
and bury themselves in the earth, to 
assume the chrvsalis form about the 



end of May. Frosts in November, anta 
and birds, are their natural enemies. 
As the females have no wings, a thick 
coating of gas-lime sprinkled a foot 
broad over the surface, round the stems 
of fruit trees at the end of October, and 
renewed once or twice in November 
and December, would prevent their 
ascent ; or a broad band of bird lime 
might be smeared round the stems 
themselves. An advantage of espalier 
and dwarf fruit trees is, that their buds 
are easily examined for these cater- 
pillars and other marauders. 

CHEIRANTHUS. Eleven species, 
and many varieties. Green-house or 
half-hardy evergreen shrubs. C.fruti- 
culosus, C. ochroleucus are hardy herba- 
ceous perennials. Cuttings. Rich com- 
mon soil. See Wallflower, 

CHEIROSTEMON platanoides. 
Stove evergreen tree. Leafy cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

CHELIDONIUM. Two species.— 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Di- 
vision. Common soil. 

CHELONE. Seven species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

CHENOLEA diffusa. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
soil. 

CHERLERIA sedoides. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennial. Division. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

CHERMES. See Psylla. 
CHERRY. {Cerasus.) 
Varieties. — There are eighty in the 
London Horticultural Society'6 list, of 
which some are quite inferior and others 
scarcely differ except in name. The 
following we extract from the Cata- 
logue of D. Landreth & Fulton, Phila- 
delphia : 



CHE 



141 

— ♦— 



CHE 



Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — b black; 1 light; r red 
y yellow. Size — l large; m medium; s small. 

Those marked * are of American origin. 



NAME. 


COLOUR. 


FORM. 


&5 

N 
DO 

M 


1 


SEASON. 


Belle de Choisey .... 


r 


round 


June 


*Bleeding Heart . 






b 


heart 


L 


1 


June 


Black Tartarian 






b 


heart 


L 


1 


June 


Carnation 






1 r 


round 


L 


2 


July 


*Downer's Late Red 






1 r 


round 


L 


1 


July 


Downton 






1 r 


round 


L 


1 


July 


Knight's Early Black . 






b 


round 


L 


1 


June 


Late Duke 






r 


heart 


L 


1 


July 


May Duke, Early 






r 


heart 


L 


1 


June 


Mazzard Black 






b 


round 


S 


2 


July 


Morello, English . 






r 


heart 


L 


1 


July 


Morello, French . 






r 


heart 


L 


1 


July 


Morello, Plumstone 






r 


heart 


L 


2 


July 


Morello, Kentish . 






r 


heart 


L 


1 


July 


*Morello, Rumsey's Late 






r 


heart 


L 


1 


August 


Ox Heart 






y r 


heart 


L 


1 


July 


White Heart . . 






y r 


heart 


L 


1 


July 


Yellow Spanish * . 






r 


heart 


E 


1 


July 



The annexed drawings and descrip- 
tions of a few valuable varieties may 
interest some of our readers. 




Belle de Choisey. Thomp.: Pom. 
Mag. (Cereise Doucette, Cereise Pa- 
lembre.) (Fig. 23.) " The Bon Jar- 
dinier speaks highly of this variety, 



which was produced at Choisey, near 
Paris, many years ago. It has proved 
hardy and well adapted to this country, 
and we can recommend it as among 
the very best of its class. The fruit is 
middle sized, roundish ; skin red, mot- 
tled with amber, exhibiting the flesh 



Fig. 24 




CHE 



142 



beneath, which is amber coloured, deli- 
cate and sweet. The habit of the tree is 
not unlike the well known May Duke, 
with which it ripens." — Rural Reg. 

Carnation. Thomp. : Lind. : Coze. 
(Fig. 24.) " This, though an old, is 
still a highly popular variety. Coxe 
says, i one of our most excellent Cher- 
ries.' More recently introduced sorts 
have divided our attention, but it is 
among those most frequently ordered 
from the Nurseries. The size is large, 
round. Skin beautifully variegated, 
red and yellow. It ripens in July, and 
hangs long without decaying: highly es- 
teemed for preserving." — Rural Reg. 

Fig. 25. 




Downton. Lind. : Thomp. (Fig. 25.) 
"The Downton is especially valuable 
from its time of ripening, which is after 
most good cherries have declined, or 
disappeared. The fruit is roundish, of 
large size, and of prepossessing appear- 
ance. Skin creamy white, red on the 
sunny side. Flesh yellowish, rich and 
well flavoured." — Rural Reg. 

May Duke. Miller ; Lind. : Thomp. 
(Fig. 26.) It would occupy some 
space to enumerate all the English and 
French synonymes of this widely known, 
and as widely esteemed variety. Per- 
haps the entire catalogue of the London 







Horticultural Society does not contain 
one so universally esteemed. Downing 
justly remarks, among all the new va- 
rieties, none has been found to sup- 
plant the May Duke. 

The fruit is large, obtusely heart 
shaped, produced in clusters; when 
perfectly ripe of a deep purple hue. 
Flesh tender, juicy, and when in per- 
fection, all that can be desired in a 

Fig. 27.— (P. 143.) 




CHE 



143 



cherry. Ripens at Philadelphia, latter 
end of May and early in June. 

Plum Stone Morello. Thomp. — 
(Fig. 27.) There is some difference of 
opinion as to the merits of this va- 
riety — it has, however, many admirers, 
and is on the whole, worthy of culture; 
though we cannot pronounce it of first 
quality. It ripens late in the season, 
possesses good flavour, and has a pre- 
possessing appearance, all of which 
are desirable properties, and render it 
popular. The fruit is large, of a deep 
red colour. Flesh juicy and acid, as is 
the case with all Morellos. Ripe at 
Philadelphia, middle to close of July. 

Fig. 28. 




Knight's Early Black. Pom. Mag.: 
Thorn. (Fig. 28.) "This is, as its 
name imports, one of Mr. Knight's 
seedlings, raised in England, about 
1810. It is not, externally, unlike the 
Black Tartarian, of which such exagge- 
rated descriptions have been given, 
ripens earlier than it — at Philadelphia, 
about the 1st of June. The fruit is 
over medium size, heart shaped. Skin 
deep purple, when fully ripe quite 
black. Flesh delicate, juicy, and well 
flavoured. Taken altogether it may 
be pronounced a cherry of the first 
order." — Rural Reg. 

Elton. Pom. Mag.: Thomp. — 
(Fig. 29.) "The Elton is an English 
cherry, raised in 1806. It is truly ex- 




cellent, and must always remain a 
favourite, even though newer varieties 
contest the claim to our esteem. It is 

Fig. 30.— (P. 144.) 




CHE 



144 

— ♦ — 



CHE 



above the medium size, ripens early, 
shortly after the May Duke. The flesh 
is tender, abounding in luscious juice ; 
skin pale yellow, with a blush on the sun- 
ny side. The tree is of strong growth, 
and on that account additionally en- 
titled to our regard." — Rural Reg. 

Late Duke. Pom. Mag. : Thomp. 
{June Duke of Coxe. Shippen Cherry.) 
(Fig. 30.) " This is a valuable variety, 
similar to its predecessor, the May 
Duke. It ripens considerably later 
than it, and has the property of hang- 
ing long on the tree. The fruit is 
large, rather flattened ; when fully 
ripe, rich dark red ; flesh yellow, 
abounding in juice, scarcely so rich as 
the May Duke; its habit is robust; 
bears abundantly. Coxe calls it the 
most valuable cherry of the season." — 
Rural Reg. 

Propagation. — Although grafting is 
sometimes adopted, budding is far pre- 
ferable. The stock for standards should 
be the wild cherry, but for dwarfs or 
walls the mahaleb. If the stones be 
sown either for stocks or to raise varie- 
ties, they are best committed to the 
ground in September. They will vege- 
tate the following spring, and when one 
year old are fit for budding if dwarfs 
are required, but four years usually 
elapse before they attain the height of 
six feet, required for standards. 
%. Walls. — No fruit is more improved 
by a good aspect than the cherry. Allot 
a south wall to the best sorts, and east 
and west for succession. The Morello 
will be productive on a north wall, but on 
a south wall it is very superior fruit. No 
garden should be without one so grown. 
Wall pruning. — In May or June dis- 
bud all unnecessary and foreright shoots. 
Train in the best-placed, lateral and 
terminal shoots as required. When the 
leaves have fallen, prune away all ir- 
regular, unproductive branches, train- 
ing in their place first laterals. Never 
shorten a shoot unless absolutely requi- 
site from want of space, much less 
prune so as to have numerous foreright 
spurs. All cherries bear upon very 
short studs with a terminal bud, on the 
branches from two years old and up- 
wards. The Morello bears chiefly on 
the previous year's shoots, and very 
scantily on studs of the older branches. 
The Morello, therefore, requires the 
older laterals to be removed as often as 
their places can be supplied by young 



shoots. All studs and foreright shoots 
should be removed, especially from the 
Morello. 

Diseases. — The leaves are liable to be 
honey-dewed, especially in ill-drained 
soils; but gumming is the most weaken- 
ing disease. (See Honey-dew and Ex- 
travasated sap.) 

The Aphis cerasi, a black species, and 
the red spider, sometimes attack the 
cherry on walls; and a still rarer enemy 
is described as follows, by Mr. Nai- 
smith: — 

"Our cherry trees, both in the open air 
and on the natural walls, particularly the 
tops of the young shoots, are much at- 
tacked with a small black insect, provin- 
cially called the black beetle. The 
remedy I have found most effectual for 
their destruction is a mixture of pitch 
with one-sixteenth part of powdered 
orpiment; one-sixteenth part of sulphur, 
dissolved over a slow fire in an earthen 
pipkin, until they be well incorporated; 
when cold, divide into small pieces, 
about the size of a hen's egg, and burn 
it under the trees with damp straw, di- 
recting the smoke as much as possible 
where the insects are most numerous. 
In an hour afterwards, (if the state of 
the fruit will admit,) give the trees a 
good washing with the garden engine, 
which generally clears off the half dead 
beetles, and prevents the spreading of 
the red spider." — Enc. Gard. 

Forcing. — Mr. G. Shills, of Erskine 
House Gardens, says: — " For accelera- 
ting the ripening of cherries, I prefer the 
open flued wall. The cherries setting 
well without artificial assistance, and 
ripening in succession from the latter 
end of April till the latter end of June or 
beginning of July, and with sufficient 
rapidity to supply a family with a dish 
daily during that period. About the 
middle of February, or when the buds 
naturally begin to swell, a little fire-heat 
is supplied in the evening and in dull 
cloudy weather, kept up during the day; 
but in bright sunshine the fire is stopped 
about nine or ten A. M., and set on again 
about two P. M. This practice is fol- 
lowed until the middle or latter end of 
May, when the fire-heat is discontinued. 
"A little before the expansion of the 
blossom, which is about the beginning 
of March, the net is put over the tree, 
by fixing the upper side of it on nails 
fastened in the joints of the. coping near 
the edge, and the under side is tied to 



CHE 



145 



CHI 



temporary stakes about three feet in 
height, placed three feet from the wall. 
About the middle of April the woollen 
net or double herring-net, together with 
the stakes, are taken away, and a single 
herring-net put close over the tree, to 
protect the ripening fruit from birds." 
— Gard. Chron. 

The trees are trained in the fan form, 
with lateral bearing branches of from 
one to three feet in length, according 
to their strength, trained in between the 
principal branches. In all parts of the 
tree, these are allowed to continue 
several years. When they become bare 
of spurs, or inclined to get too luxuri- 
ant, they are cut out — young shoots to 
supply their place being previously pre- 
pared. 

CHERVIL, Parsley-leaved. Chcero- 
phyllum sativum. Fern-leaved chervil, 
or Sweet Cicely, C. aromaticum, for 
soups, salads, &c. They are still culti- 
vated by the Dutch, but in this country 
are not often found in the kitchen gar- 
den. 

Soil and Situation. — The soil for 
these plants must be light, with a large 
portion of calcareous matter from super- 
abundant moisture. The situation can- 
not be too open ; but a shelter from the 
meridian sun is beneficial. 

Time and Modes of Sowing. — The 
only sowing that can be depended upon 
must be performed in early autumn, im- 
mediately after the seed is ripe; for if 
kept until the following spring it will 
seldom germinate, or the seedlings are 
generally weak and die away, during 
the hot weather. If, however, it should 
fortunately retain its vegetative powers, 
it may be sown early in the spring at 
short intervals, for use in spring and 
summer, and towards the end of July 
for autumn supply. Sow in drills eight 
inches apart. The plants are to be 
thinned to eight inches asunder, and to 
remain where they are raised. The 
only after cultivation required by them 
is to be kept clear of weeds. 

The perennial sort, C. aromaticum, 
must be trimmed as directed for Sage. 
The leaves are fit to be gathered when 
from two to four inches in growth ; in 
doing which they should be cut close, 
when the plants will shoot afresh. 

To obtain Seed. — Some of the autumn- 
raised plants must be left ungathered 
from; they flower in April, and ripen 
their -seed about June. Of the other 
10 



species, some must in a like manner be 
left untouched; they will flower about 
June, and ripen their seed in July or 
August. 

CHESTNUT. Fagus castanea.— In 
the London Horticultural Society's list 
are twenty varieties enumerated. If the 
seedlings are left ungrafted, they are 
about thirty years before they bear fruit, 
but grafts inserted upon these seedling 
stocks from bearing branches, afford 
blossoms the next year, and are fruitful 
much earlier. 

Soil. — A dry subsoil is the great re- 
quisite for this tree. It thrives best in 
a sandy well-drained soil. 

After- culture. — No other attention is 
required than to thin the over-crowded 
and to remove over-wrapping branches. 

Nuts. — These are ripe about October. 
They are best preserved in sand. 

CHICORY. See Succory % 

CHICKASAW PLUM. Cerasus chi- 
casa. 

CHILODIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

CHILOGLOTTIS diphylla. Half- 
hardy orchid. Division. Light turfy 
loam, turfy peat, and sand. 

CHIMAPHILA. Two species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. 
Peaty soil. 

CHIMONANTHUS fragrans, and 
varieties. Hardy deciduous shrubs. 
Layers or cuttings. Loam and peat, or 
any common soil. 

CHINA ASTER. Callistema. 

CHINA ROSE. Hibiscus rosasinensis. 

CHINESE TREE. Paonia moutan. 

CHIOCOCCA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

CHIONANTHUS. Three species. 
Hardy and stove deciduous shrubs and 
trees. Seeds, buds, or grafts. Peat 
and loam. 

CHIRONIA. Eleven species. Green^ 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

C. decussata should be potted in light 
rich soil, and liberally watered during 
the summer months. Keep it in a good 
situation near the glass, where it gets 
plenty of light and air. Always keep 
some young plants to take the places of 
the old ones. 

CHITONIA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs and trees. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 



CHI 



146 

— ♦ — 



CHR 



CHIVE or GIVE (Allium ScJueno- 
prasum). Is used as a very superior 
substitute for young onions in spring 
salading. A single row a few yards 
long, will supply a family. 

Soil. — A light rich soil is most suit- 
able, but it will grow anywhere not 
overshadowed. 

Plant the offsets of the bulbs early in 
spring. They are to be inserted by the 
dibble eight or ten inches apart, and 
eight or ten offsets in each hole. The 
only cultivation required is to keep 
them free from weeds. By autumn they 
multiply into large-sized bunches, and 
if required may be taken up as soon as 
the leaves decay, and be stored as a 
substitute for the onion. The leaves, 
which are fit for use as long as they 
remain green, must, when required, be 
cut down close to the ground, when 
they will speedily be succeeded by 
others. 

CHLIDANTHUS fragrans. Green- 
house bulbous perennial. Division. 
Two-thirds sandy loam, one-third sand 
and peat. 

CHLOANTHES. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CHLORA. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

CHLORANTHUS. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. C. monas- 
tachye is herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

CHLORIDE OF LIME, or Bleaching 
Powder, is composed of 

Chlorine . 63.23 

Lime ........ 36.77 

Exposed to the air it is converted into 
chalk, and muriate of lime, a salt which 
absorbs moisture from the air very 
powerfully. By this conversion it be- 
comes a useful addition to soils ; and as 
it also gives out some chlorine gas, so 
offensive and destructive to insects, it 
has been suggested as a useful applica- 
tion to the land at the time of turnip 
sowing. 

CHLORODYLON swietenia. Stove 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

CHOCOLATE-NUT. Theobroma. 

CHOISYA ternata. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

CHOKE. Cerasus hyemalis. 

CHOMELIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 



CHORISPORA tenella, and variety. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

CHOROMOZEMA. Eight species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Seeds 
or cuttings. Peat, loam, and sand. 

CHOU DE MILAN. See Borecole. 

CHRISTMAS ROSE. Helleborus 
niger. 

CHRIST'S EYE. Inula oculus 
Christi. 

CHRIST'S THORN. Paliurus. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM. C. sinense. 
Often designated the Chinese chrysan- 
themum. 

Varieties of this flower are numerous, 
but the following is as good a selection 
as can be made. Those to which an 
asterisk is prefixed, are most deserving 
of attention: — 

Abelard, quilled pink. 

Achmet Bey, dark purple. 

Adventure, yellow. 

Annie Jane, brownish red. 

Annie Salter, pale yellow. 

Aristides, orange and brown. 
*Beaute de Verseilles, yellow. 

Beauty, pale lilac. 

Belvidere, buff and rose. 

Bertram, purplish rose. 

Bethulia, large purple. 

Bicolor, white and yellow. 

Bijou, white, tipped with pink. 
*Campestroni, purple. 
*Celestial, blush. 

Champion, lemon. 

Chancellor, white and pink. 

Changeable, yellow. 

Columbus, rose. 

Compactum, white. 

Comte d'Eu, light red. 

Conductor, orange. 

Criterion, white. 

David, yellow. 

De Crequi, small rosy purple. 

Defiance, white. 

Demosthenes, yellow and brown. 
*Duc de Conigliano, crimson. 

Duchess de Montebello, light rose. 

Empress, lilac. 
*Exquisite, white. 

Flechier, dark rose. 

Florabundum, dark lilac. 
*Formosum, white and yellow. 

General Laborde, lilac. 
*Goliath, white. 

Gouvain St. Cyr, orange. 
*Grand Napoleon, purple. 

Grandish, flesh colour. 

Hardy, blush white. 

Horace, purplish rose. 






CHR 



147 



CHR 



Horatio, fine rose. 

Imogene, light buff. 

Imperial, pale lilac, 
incomparable, large buff". 

Invincible, creamy white. 

Irene, fine yellow. 

Isabella, white. 

Isolier, rosy red. 

Itobate, shaded rose. 

Ivanhoe, brown. 
*King, pale rose. 

Letitia Buonaparte, blush. 

Lamarque, orange. 

Leontine, brownish red. . 

Louis Philippe, purplish lilac. 
*Lucidum, white. 

Madame Mina, buff. 
*Madame Pompadour, dark rose. 
*Magnet, yellow. 

Malvina, purple. 

Marechal Soult, yellow. 

Marie, red. 

Marie Antoinette, rose and buff. 

Marquis, light rose. 

Memnon, creamy white. 
*Minerva, pink and white. 

Mirabile, white and buff*. 
*Ne Plus Ultra, white. 

Old Purple. 

Orion, creamy white. 

Perfection, pale lilac. 
*Phidias, rosy red. 

Phyllis, lemon. 

Prince Albert, amaranth. 

Princess de Lamalle, rosy lilac. 
*Princess Mario, light pink. 
*Queen, rose. 

Queen Victoria, lilac. 

Queen of Gipsies, orange. 

Queen of Yellows. 

Reine de Prusse, rose. 

Rosetta, quilled pink. 

Saladin, orange purple. 

Sanguineum, red. 

Sappho, reddish brown. 

Small, brown. 

Solon, yellow. 
. Surprise, white. 

Tasselled Yellow. 

Tedjini, yellowish brown. 

Timon, yellow. 
*Theresia, red. 

Triumphant, pink and buff. 

Two-coloured Incurved, yellow 
brown. 

Venusta, amaranth. 
*Vesta, white. 

Victorine, light rose. 
*Victory, white. 

Zelinda, rosy blush. 



and 



Soil. — A warm sheltered well-drain- 
ed border, manured with leaf mould 
abundantly, for the out-door plants. 
For those in pots, four parts light fresh 
turfy loam, four parts leaf mould, and 
one part rubbly charcoal. 

In Borders, the stools require to be 
taken up and divided in early spring, 
not more than three suckers being left 
united, otherwise the flowers are nu- 
merous and small. 

By Suckers in Pots.— Turn out the 
old pots in March ; separate the suckers 
by a gentle twist ; plant three suckers 
in a thirty-two pot; shade them and 
shelter in a cold frame for about a fort- 
night ; then expose them to the sun- 
shine ; shift into larger pots as they 
increase in growth ; place them in a 
gentle hot-bed in April, and keep them 
under the frame until the middle of 
May; when ten inches high, pinch off 
the tops of each stem. They will throw 
out shoots from each bud ; retain only 
six shoots, removing all the others ; 
plunge the pots in a sunny sheltered 
border ; water daily in dry weather, 
and give liquid guano always once a 
week, so soon as the flower buds ap- 
pear. Let the pots they flower in be 
sixteens, that is, nine inches in diame- 
ter at the top. Move them into a very 
airy green-house or conservatory, to 
bloom. 

" The shifting of the plants in the 
earlier part of the summer," says a 
well-informed writer, " should be par- 
ticularly attended to. If this is neglect- 
ed, no good after-management will save 
them from losing their leaves, and look- 
ing badly in autumn and winter. As 
soon as they are fairly starting into 
growth, the top of each should be nip- 
ped with the finger and thumb, which 
will cause several shoots to spring from 
the under part of the plant, and thus 
form it into a compact bush. This may 
be repeated two or three times with 
advantage in the earlier part of the 
season with the free flowering kinds ; 
but after the plant is fairly formed it 
should be discontinued, otherwise the 
flowering will be injured." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Cuttings. — The same authority says, 
that " the proper time for striking cut- 
tings depends upon the objects which 
the propagator has in view. Nursery- 
men who want a good stock of a par- 
ticular kind may propagate it at almost 



CHR 



143 



CIB 



any season, and generally begin very j There is another plan for making small 
early in spring. But, for ordinary pur- ] dwarf flowering specimens, which de- 
poses, from the middle of March to j serves especial notice. The young 
the middle of April is quite soon enough; shoots which have grown to a consider- 
and the amateur can then do so without i able length, have their points c layered' 



any artificial heat, which is of great 
consequence to those who 
limited gardens. 

" It matters very little whether the 
cuttings are taken off with roots or 
without them, as in the latter case they 
will form them in a few days, and soon 
begin to grow rapidly. The frame 
should be kept very close, moist, and 
shaded, until the cuttings have formed, 
roots for their support; when this takes 
place, a little air may be admitted grad- 
ually as the plants will bear it, and then 
afterwards they must be fully exposed." 
— Gard. Chron. 

After-Culture. — " After the flowering 
season is past, and the old stems cut 
down, the plants should be removed 
from the green-house or conservatory, 
and placed in a cold frame, where they 
are merely protected from severe frost. 
Here they should have plenty of air, 
and on fine days the ligb's should be 
drawn quite off, and ti.< plants fully 
exposed. When the winter is mild, 
they will stand very well unprotected ; 
but owing to their having been grown 
and excited in the green-house, they 
are more apt to suffer from severe 
weather than if they had been planted 
out in the open air. For this reason it 
is always better to have the means of 
giving them some slight protection. If 
they are kept too close and warm in 
winter, they begin to grow fast : the 
leaves are yellow, and the stems weak, 
and consequently they form bad cut- 
tings when the season of propagation 
comes round. But if they are merely 
protected and attended to, as has been 
already described, they grow slowly, 
and make excellent cuttings. Those 
who wish to make very large specimens 
of these plants with little troublesome- 
times plant them out in a rich border 
in April or May, as soon as the cuttings 
are rooted. Here they grow with great 
luxuriance, and are very large and 
bushy, when the time comes for taking 
them up, and removing them into the 
green-house. In autumn, they are taken 
up very carefully, and placed in a shaded 
situation for a few days, until they re- 
cover from the effects of the operation, 
and are then taken to the creen-house. 



bout the month of August, in small 
have very j pots. As soon as they are well rooted, 
they are cut from the parent stock, re- 
potted, and placed for a short time in a 
shaded place until they recover. They 
are then subjected to the same treat- 
ment as the others, and generally flower 
on stems about a foot or eighteen inches 
in height." — Gard. Chron. Give liquid 
guano twice a week so soon as the 
flower buds are well formed. 

Seed should be saved, and crosses 
effected, from semi-double flowers. 

Mildew. — " At the end of summer 
chrysanthemums are extremely liable to 
be infected with mildew. Those plants 
upon which it makes its appearance, 
should be immediately separated from 
the rest, and well dusted with flowers 
of sulphur. This should be allowed to 
remain on them at least a day or two, 
and may afterwards be washed off with 
a syringe or garden engine." — Gard. 
Chron. A very weak solution of com- 
mon salt syringed repeatedly over the 
leaves, and, after remaining a few 
hours, washed off by a syringing with 
pure water, would be equally effectual. 

CHRYSEIS. Three species. Hardy 
tuberous-rooted perennials. Seeds. 
Rich soil. 

CHRYSIPHIALA. Four species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Light loam. 

CHRYSOCOMA. Fourteen species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials, and stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

CHRYSOPHYLLUM. Six species, 
and some varieties. Stove evergreen 
trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam and peat. 

CHRYSOSPLENIUM. Three spe- 
cies. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Moist soil. 

CHRYSOSTEMMA tripteris. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

CHYSIS aurea. Stove epiphyte. 
Division. Wood. 

CIBOTIUM Billardieri. Green-house 
evergreen tree fern. Division. Loam 
and peat. 

CIBOUL, or WELSH ONION. Al- 
lium fistulosum. This is a perennial, 
never forming any bulb, but is sown 



CIC 



CIN 



annually, to be drawn young for salads, 
&c. On account of its strong taste, it 
is greatly inferior to the common onion 
for this purpose ; but from its extreme 
hardness in withstanding the severest 
frost, it may be cultivated with advan- 
tage as a winter-standing crop for spring 
use. 

Varieties. — Two varieties are in cul- 
tivation, the white and the red; the 
first of which is in general use. 

Cultivation. — As it may be sown at 
all times with the onion, and is simi- 
larly cultivated, except that it may be 
sown thicker, and only thinned as 
wanted, the direction given for that 
vegetable will suffice. The blade usu- 
ally dies away completely in winter, but 
fresh ones are thrown out again in Feb- 
ruary or March. 

To obtain Seed. — To obtain seed 
some of the roots must be planted out 
in March, six or eight inches asunder. 
The first autumn they will produce but 
little seed; in the second and third, 
however, it will be produced abundant- 
ly. If care is taken to part and trans- 
plant the roots every two or three years, 
they may be multiplied, and will re- 
main productive for many years, and 
afford much better seed than that from 
one-year-old roots. 

Scallions. — There is good reason for 
concluding that by a confusion of names, 
arising from similarity of appearance, 
this vegetable is the true scallion, whilst 
the hollow leek of Wales is the true 
Welsh onion ; for the description of 
scallion, as given by Miller, accords 
exactly with that of the Welsh onion. 
At present all onions that have refused 
to bulb, and formed lengthened necks 
and strong blades in spring and sum- 
mer, are called scallions. 

CICCA disticha. Stove evergreen 
fruit tree. Leafy cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

CIMICIFUGA. Four species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Seeds. 
Common soil. 

CINCHONA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen tree^and shrub. Ripe cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CINERARIA. Fifty-four species. 
Chiefly hardy and green-house herba- 
ceous ; but some green-house ever- 
green shrubs. It is a genus of florists' 
flowers, and the varieties which they 
have raised are very numerous. A 
good selection is the following : — 



Eclipse; Gem; Nobilis ; Perfecta; 
Queen Victoria; Rival King; Royal 
Blue; Sapphire; Splendida ; Water- 
housiana ; and Webberiana. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — The 
cineraria does not exhibit so much im- 
provement as most florists' flowers. 

" The petals should be thick, broad, 
blunt, and smooth at the ends, closely 
set, and form a circle without much 
indentation. The centre, or yellow 
disk, should be less than one-third of 
the diameter of the whole flower; in 
other words, the coloured circle formed 
by the petals should be wider all round 
than the disk measures across. The 
colour should be brilliant, whether 
shaded or self; or if it be a white it 
should be very pure. 

" The trusses of flower should be 
large and close, and even on the sur- 
face, the individual flowers standing 
together with their edges touching each 
other, however numerous they may be. 
The plant should be dwarf. The stems 
strong, and not longer than the width 
across the foliage ; in other words, 
from the upper surface of the truss of 
the flower to the leaves where the 
stem starts from should not be a greater 
distance than from one side of the foli- 
age to the other." — Hort. Mag. 

Propagation by Seed. — " Sow in May 
in the open border ; thin out the plants 
where they are crowded, and transplant 
them when they have three good leaves , 
and pot them to remain in October." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Propagation by Cuttings. — " After 
the bloom has perfected itself and de- 
cayed, cut down the stems, stir the 
earth upon the surface, then earth up 
with fresh compost, filling the pot 
rather full than otherwise ; refresh the 
plants with a little water, and place 
them in the frame again; or if you have 
none convenient, in a dry and sheltered 
place in the garden. 

ec The growth of a few weeks will 
enable you to detect side shoots, some 
with roots, and some without roots, and 
leave only the main plant in the pot, 
which should be earthed up again, and 
set by. The shoots which have no 
roots to them should be stripped of two 
or three of the bottom leaves, that they 
may be placed in a pot of the usual sort 
of compost that the plant may have 
been growing in, with a little sand at 
top, say a quarter of an inch thick, and 



CIN 



150 



CIR 



covered with a bell glass ; or if there 
be enough, they may be placed a dozen 
or two in a large pan, and a glass that 
will fit inside the rim, covered over 
them. They must never be allowed to 
dry. The glasses should be occasion- 
ally wiped dry inside. Whether there 
be one cutting or a dozen, they should 
be so placed that the glass can be 
pressed into the sand to keep out the 
air until they have all struck. 

" They can always be watered with- 
out disturbing the glass, if it be pro- 
perly placed inside the rim, because by 
watering over the glass, the whole can 
be soaked ; but the drainage must be 
good, or they will rot. 

" If you happen to have a declining 
hot-bed in which there remains a little 
bottom, heat, the pan or pots maybe 
placed therein. It will rather hasten 
the striking. Those side-shoots which 
have roots to them may be immediately 
potted into sixty-sized pots, and treated 
the same as seedlings just potted off. 
In a few weeks the cuttings will have 
struck, which will be indicated by their 
beginning to grow ; they may be potted 
off also, as seedlings are potted, in 
sixty-sized pots. Here the treatment 
is just the same as that directed for 
seedlings." — Hort. Mag. 

After-Culture. — " About the first 
week in June, the plants being removed 
from the green-house, and turned out 
of their pots, the old earth shaken from 
their roots, plant rather deeply, and 
about eighteen inches apart in light 
rich soil in the open garden, and water 
as often as they seem to require it. 
By the end of July, they throw up 
myriads of suckers; they are then taken 
up and parted, preserving the smallest 
atom that has a root to it. The largest 
plants are potted in pots proportionate 
to their size, in a compost consisting of 
leaf mould, rotten dung, and strong 
turfy loam, in about equal quantities, 
and placed in a shady situation. These 
will flower in September and October, 
and will do well either for the house, 
or for filling up beds, or vacancies in 
the flower garden. The other plants 
are replanted in the open garden, wa- 
tered, and shaded until established, 
taken up with balls, and potted about 
the end of October, and protected from 
frost in a cold frame or pit through the 
winter. In this manner, and by keep- 
ing plants of various sizes, a regular 



supply of flowers maybe had from Sep- 
tember to the end of June. Single 
plants in thirty-two or twenty-four-sized 
pots are large enough. No plants suf- 
fer so much from being crowded toge- 
ther ; indeed, when short of room it is 
better to throw away a few plants than 
have the whole cramped for room." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Winter-blooming. — " When the cine- 
rarias have done flowering, cut off all 
the flower-stems and old leaves, and 
place them in a cold pit or frame, which 
must be kept rather close for two or 
three weeks to cause the plants to grow; 
afterwards admit air freely by day, but 
keep them close at night ; then about 
the beginning of August divide the old 
plants into pieces, and put them into 
small pots filled with a mixture of good 
loam and sandy peat, to which may be 
added a small portion of well-rotted 
dung. When potted, return them to 
the pit or frame, and keep them close; 
afterwards, as they grow, shift them 
into larger pots, and use a little manure- 
water ; and finally, as the danger of 
frost approaches, remove them to the 
green-house, where they will bloom well 
all the winter and spring, if kept free 
from insects." — Gard. Chron. 

CINNAMOMUM. Cinnamon. Ele- 
ven species. Stove evergreen trees. 
Ripe cuttings. Loam and peat. 

CINNAMON. Cinnamomum. 

CION. See Scion. 

CIRC^A. Three species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Offsets. Com- 
mon soil. 

CIRCUMPOSITION differs from lay- 
ering, only that in this the shoot to be 
rooted is bent down to the soil, whilst 
in circumposition the soil is placed in 
a vessel and raised to the shoot. There 
are pots called layering pots made for 
this practice, and differing from the 
common garden pot, only by having a 
section about an inch broad cut through 
one side, and to the centre of the bot- 
tom, for the admission of the shoot or 
branch. 

M. Foulup employs 1 small tin cases 
of a conical form, like the upper part 
of a funnel, two and three-quarter 
inches in length, and two and a sixth 
inches in width at top, narrowing to- 
wards the lower part till only sufficient 
room is left for the introduction of the 
shoot or branch intended to be propa- 
gated. These cones are supported on 



CIR 



151 

— ♦ — 



CIT 



rods, to which they are secured by wire. 
Commencing with the central branches, 
the leaves are taken from the parts 
which the tin is intended to inclose; 
the branch is cut two-thirds through as 
in layering, and being enclosed by the 
funnel, the latter is well packed with 
moss. Moisture necessary for favour- 
ing the emission of roots is supplied by 
means of a bottle, from which the bot- 
tom is struck off, and the neck furnished 
with a cork, perforated so as to admit 
a small pigeon's feather or bit of wool 
to form a syphon, by means of which 
the moss is kept in a proper state of 
moisture. Hard-wooded plants are pro- 
pagated in this way from the middle of 
May till the end of June ; and the 
branches are sufficiently rooted to be 
taken off by the end of September. It 
is, however, necessary in all cases, to 
ascertain whether the branches are suffi- 
ciently rooted previously to their being 
separated. This is easily done by open- 
ing up the edges of the tin ; when the 
branches are found to be sufficiently 
rooted they are potted off without re- 
moving the moss by which the roots 
are surrounded. Being moderately 
watered, they are immediately placed 
under glass on a slight hot-bed, and kept 
shut up for a fortnight. They are then 
gradually exposed, and afterwards 
placed in the shade of large trees, so 
that only half the rays of the sun shall 
reach them." — Gard. Chron. 

CIRRHiEA. Six species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

CIRROPETALUM. Seven species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

CIRSIUM. Eighty-six species. 
Hardy~ annuals, biennials, and herbace- 
ous perennials. Seeds or division. 
Common soil. 

CISSAMPELOS. Six species. Stove 
or green-house climbers. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

CISSUS. Seventeen species. Stove 
or green-house evergreen climbers. 
Cuttings. Light rich soil. 

CISTERNS for the accumulation of 
rain-water should be formed in connec- 
tion with the gutters of the various 
buildings in the gardens, for no water 
is equal to it for the artificial supply of 
moisture to plants. 

CISTUS. Thirty-nine species, and 
varieties. Hardy evergreen shrubs. 
Layers or ripened cuttings. Common 
soil. 



CITHAREYLUM. Nine species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

CITRON. Citrus. 

CITRUS. Fourteen species. Green- 
house evergreen fruit trees or shrubs, 
budding or grafting, and sometimes 
cuttings. Rich loamy soil mixed with 
dung. 

For the structure of a house suitable 
for their cultivation, see Orangery. 
The following extracts from an essay 
by Mr. Jones, gardener at Knowsley, 
exhibits the successful practice in cul- 
tivating this genus, pursued by Mr. 
Durden, gardener at Hurst House, Lan- 
cashire. 

Varieties. — Those who wish to culti- 
vate the orange tree for the sake of the 
fruit, ought to be very careful in making 
a selection of sorts, especially of sweet 
oranges. 

The best way, perhaps, is to procure 
grafts or young plants from such varie- 
ties as have proved themselves to be 
good in other establishments, or proved 
plants from a nursery. 

Soil. — Too much attention cannot be 
paid to the soil ; its principal features 
ought to be lightness, richness, and 
openness of texture, and unless it pos- 
sess these qualities it is unfit for the 
orange tribe. 

Water. — This must at all times be 
sparingly administered, especially if 
the trees are kept in a high moist tem- 
perature. Occasionally give a little 
weak liquid manure. 

Temperature. — It is doubtless an erro- 
neous opinion, that if the atmospheric 
temperature is 8° to 10° above the 
freezing point during winter, and is 
never allowed to rise above 70° or 80° 
during summer, that the orange tribe, 
other ; circumstances being favourable, 
may be cultivated successfully. Mr. 
Durden never allows the temperature 
of his house to fall below 50° during the 
winter season, and during summer 
retains a moist atmosphere of 80o or 
90°. 

After-Culture. — In pruning, if the 
plants are trained on trellises, the 
branches should be kept thin to allow 
the greater part of the leaves to be ex- 
posed to the sun. The fruit is generally 
produced at the tips of the small spur3 
or brackets; therefore it would be a 
positive injury to the crop to shorten 
any of these spurs, except it is desirable 



CL A 



152 



CL A 



to increase their number. The opera- 
tion of pruning is performed at any time 
when it appears to be necessary, always, 
however, taking care to have a suc- 
cession of young wood coming in. In 
thinning the fruit, particular attention 
ought to be paid to the state of the tree, 
for the quantity of fruit must be entirely 
regulated by the vigour of the tree ; no 
better rule can be laid down than that 
for governing the operation of thinning. 

If a tree appears debilitated in the 
extreme, it must not be allowed to carry 
any fruit for an entire season. 

One cause of debility is, allowing the 
fruit to remain long after it is ripe. Of 
that required for confectionary purposes 
a larger quantity may be left on the 
trees, but it must always be propor- 
tioned to the capabilities of the tree. 

Cleaning the Plants. — The greatest 
attention should be paid to cleanliness ; 
the consequences of allowing insects to 
overrun a collection of plants are fami- 
liar to every one acquainted with gar- 
dening. 

" The aphis attacks the tender shoots 
and young leaves; the red spider the 
more advanced foliage; and the coccus 
hesperidum every part of the plant. 

" Almost every gardener has his pe- 
culiar nostrum for destroying these ani- 
mals ; but a good preventive is cleanli- 
ness in everything about the plants. 

" The coccus may be brushed off, 
using a brush that is no harder than is 
just necessary to remove the insect. 

" For the thrips red spider, and aphis, 
a sponge and clean water will remove 
them all, if used before the insects have 
become very numerous. 

" Fumigation should never be re- 
sorted to except in extreme cases. 

" The leaves should also be cleaned 
with a damp sponge as often as they 
appear clogged by dust adhering to the 
resinous exudations on their surface." — 
(Gard. Chron. — Gard. Almanack.) 

CLADANTHUS. Two species. 
Hardy annual and half hardy evergreen 
ahrub. Seeds. Common soil. 

CLARKIA. Three species and va- 
riety. Hardy annuals. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

CLARY. (Salvia scla7*ea.) Its leaves 
are sometimes used in soups and medi- 
cated wines. A very small number of 
plants are sufficient for a family. Sow 
early in April, or a month earlier in 
any light-soiled border. Thin the 



plants to two feet apart. The sowing 
must be annual. Seed may be saved 
by allowing some plants to run up the 
next spring; they ripen their seed in 
September. 

CLAUSEN Apentaphylla. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam. 

CLAVIJA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

CLAY is a constituent of all fertile 
soils, though in these it rarely exceeds 
one-sixteenth part, and generally bears 
a much smaller relative proportion to 
the other constituents. In its pure 
state it is known as alumina. It is the 
best of all additions to light, unretentive 
soils, for it retains moisture much more 
powerfully than any other earth. M. 
Schubler found, that when silicioussand 
lost eighty-eight parts of moisture, and 
chalky sand seventy-six, stiff clay in the 
same time lost only thirty-five parts. 
When clay has to be conveyed in large 
quantities, and to a distance, it should 
be dug and laid exposed in rough spits 
to the air for several days before it is 
carted, and, indeed, so should all earths; 
for, as Mr. Cuthbert Johnson states in 
his valuable Farmer's Encyclopedia, if 
one hundred cubic yards of chalk, clay, 
or marl have to be moved, by drying 
previously they will lose in weight as 
follows : — 

Chalk . . 20 to 24 tons. 

Clay . . 32 " 42 " 

Marl . . 18 " 26 " 

For the improvement of clay lands, 
by rendering their staple less retentive, 
burning some of their own soil is an 
efficient application. One hundred tons 
per acre for this purpose are not too 
many ; for a dressing as a manure, thirty 
tons are a good quantity. The follow- 
ing is the mode of burning clay. 

" Let sods be cut of a convenient 
size to handle, say a foot wide and 
eighteen inches in length ; with these 
form a parallelogram or long square; 
let the walls be a couple of feet thick, 
and trampled or beaten firmly together, 
and raised at least three feet high ; the 
first heap should be so situated, that the 
wind may blow against one of its sides; 
it may be from four to six yards long, 
by .three yards wide, and an aperture 
within one yard of each end, and others 
at a distance of about five feet from 
these should be left in the side walls, 
when building, for the purpose of form- 



C L A 



153 



CLI 



ing drain-like openings across the heap; 
make one of these drain-like openings 
from end to end in length ; these funnels 
are to be built also with sods; some dry 
turf, such as is used for fuel, is to be 
put into these funnels and oyer it, and 
between the funnels well-dried sods or 
any other combustible materials are to 
be laid on to the depth of a couple of 
feet over these sods, partially dried to 
the level of the walls; these materials 
being set on fire, a powerful heat will 
be produced, quite capable of burning 
clay, without previously drying it. Care, 
however, will be necessary to avoid 
throwing it on in too great a quantity 
at once, until the fire is well up, when 
a large quantity may be thrown on. The 
sod walls are to be raised as the heap 
rises ; and as soon as it is perceived by 
the strength of the smoke and glow of 
heat, that the mass is ignited in all its 
parts, the apertures may be closed up, 
and the heap left to become charred ; 
should appearances indicate a likeli- 
hood of the fire being smothered, it 
will only become necessary to open one 
or more of the funnels to secure its 
acting. If the land on which the burned 
or charred clay is to be applied be defi- 
cient in calcareous matter, earth con- 
taining it, if burned, would improve it 
much. If well done, there is no im- 
provement so cheap, and at the same 
time so valuable; if, on the other hand, 
the burning is hurried, or the fires neg- 
lected, the consequence will be, either 
the clay will be burned into lumps like 
brick ends that will not fall to pieces 
when exposed to the air, or the clay 
will not be charred or burned at all ; 
therefore, the heat should always be 
slow and steady, never, if possible, 
burning the clay red, but black. This 
is difficult to manage, depending much 
upon the wind, stopping up the aper- 
ture upon the windward side, and open- 
ing that on the other side. The whole 
time the heaps are burning will take 
from two to three months, the time de- 
pending much on the weather; from 
sixty to one hundred yards may be 
burned in a heap ; and if there be not 
sufficient sod, coarse turf, bushes, &c, 
on the spot to keep up a sufficient body 
of fire at the commencement, wood of 
any kind, or small coal, must be used." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Clay soils are the worst that can be 
for gardens, for there is scarcely one of 



the crops there cultivated that \sj\ot in- 
jured by stagnant water, which can 
scarcely be prevented in clay soils at 
some seasons ; and in wet weather 
clayey soils cannot be worked, whereas 
the gardener must be inserting or at- 
tending to his crops every day. 

CLAYTONIA. Fifteen species. Har- 
dy annuals or tuberous-rooted peren- 
nials. Seeds. Peat soil. 

CLEMATIS. Fifty species, and 
many varieties, chiefly climbers. The 
stove and green-house species grow 
well in a light loam and peat soil, and 
increase from cuttings. The hardy her- 
baceous kinds, divisions. The hardy 
deciduous, layers. Common soil. 

CLEOME. Twenty species. Stove 
or hardy annuals, biennials, or ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings or seeds. Rich 
light soil. 

CLEONIA lusitanica. Hardy annual. 
Seeds. Common soil. 

CLERODENDRUM. Forty species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. C. 
volubile, a climber. Cuttings. A rich 
soil of loam, rotten dung, and sandy 
peat. 

CLETHRA. Nine species. Hardy 
deciduous or stove green-house ever^ 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Peat earth, or 
light sandy loam. The hardy kinds in- 
creasealso by layers. 

CLEYERA japonica. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. 

CLIANTHUS puniceus. Half hardy 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

CLICK-BEETLE. See Wireworm. 

CLIDEMIA. Twelve species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

CLIFFORTIA. Sixteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings of the young wood. Peat and 
loam. 

CLIMATE controls the growth of 
plants most imperatively, and in the 
cultivation of his fruits, flowers, and 
culinary vegetables, it forms the first 
object of the gardener's inquiry. He 
must first know the climate in which 
any given plant is native ; and second- 
ly, the soil which it affects, before he 
can cultivate it successfully. How all- 
influential is climate appears from the 
fact, that different countries have often 
a totally different Flora on soils similar 
in constitution. Thus, as is observed 



CLI 



154 
— ♦— 



CLI 



by Decandolle and Sprengel, in The 
Philosophy of Plants, " there are a 
great many perfect plants which ex- 
clusively belong to the tropics, which 
never pass beyond them, and which are 
found equally in Asia and Africa, in 
America and the South Sea Islands, and 
even in New Holland. Although, as 
we have said, these are rather families, 
as Palmse Scitaminese, Musese, Sapin- 
dese, and Anoneae ; or genera, as Epi- 
dendrum, Santalum, Olax, Cymbidium, 
and so forth ; yet there are particular 
species, which grow in all parts of the 
world only between the tropics, as for 
instance, Heliotropium Indicum, Age- 
ratum conyzoides, Pistite stratiotes, 
Scoparia dulcis, Guilandina Bonduc, 
Sphenoclese zeylanica, Abrus precato- 
rius, Boerhavia mutabilis, and so forth. 
But most commonly there are other 
species, which, under the same degree 
of latitude, supply in the new world the 
place of related species in the old. 
Dryas octopetala, indeed, grows equal- 
ly upon the mountains of Canada, and 
in Europe ; but Dryas tenella of Pursh, 
which is very like the former, grows 
only in Greenland and Labrador. In- 
stead of the Platanus Orientalis, there 
jfrows in North America the Platanus 
Occidentalis ; instead of Pinus Cembra, 
in Europe and Asia, there grows in 
North America Pinus Strobus ; instead 
of Prunus Laurocerasus, in Asia Minor, 
there grows under the same latitude in 
North America the Prunus Caroliniana. 
There are many exceptions to this rule, 
however, depending on circumstances 
that have been already noticed. In the 
first place, countries are wont to share 
their Floras with neighbouring regions, 
especially islands lying under the same 
latitude, as the Azores possess the 
Floras of Europe and of Northern Af- 
rica, rather than those of America, be- 
cause they are scarcely ten degrees of 
longitude from the coast of Portugal. 
Sicily, and, still more, Malta, possesses a 
Flora made up of those of the South of 
Europe and the North of Africa. The 
Aleutian Islands share their Flora with 
the north-west coast of America, and 
the north-east of Asia. But the most 
distant countries, lying under the same 
latitude, may have the same or a simi- 
lar vegetation, while countries or isl- 
ands which lie between them, have not 
the least share in this particular Flora. 
The island of St. Helena, which is 



scarcely eighteen degrees of longitude 
from the west of Africa, and which lies 
a little further south than Congo, has 
yet no plants, which are found in those 
last-named regions. (Roxburgh's List 
of Plants seen in the Island of St. He- 
lena, appended to Beatson's Island of 
St. Helena.) Japan has a great many 
plants common to Southern Europe, 
which, however, are not found in those 
regions of Asia that lie under the same 
latitude. 

We must further remark, that the 
eastern countries of the old world, and 
the eastern shores of America, as far as 
the Alleghany Mountains, have a much 
lower temperature than the western 
regions ; and that it is always colder in 
Siberia and the north-east of Asia, than 
under the same latitude in Europe ; 
and, that even Petersburgh is colder 
than Upsal, and Upsal than Christiania ; 
although they all three lie in the six- 
tieth degree of north latitude. In 
North America the difference is still 
greater, and there are commonly fifteen 
degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer 
between the temperature of the east 
and west coast. It hence happens that 
many plants which in Norway grow 
under the polar circle, scarcely reach 
the sixtieth degree, on the limits be- 
tween Asia and Europe. To this class 
belong the Silver Fir, Mountain Ash, 
Trembling Poplar, Black Alder, and 
Juniper. Even in the temperate zone, 
the vegetation of many trees ceases 
sooner in the east than in the west. In 
Lithuania and Prussia, under the fifty- 
third degree, neither vines nor peaches 
nor apricots thrive : at least their fruit 
does not ripen, as also happens in the 
middle of England. The most remark- 
able example of this great difference of 
temperature is furnished by the Mespi- 
lus Japonica, which grows at Nanga 
Sacki, and Jeddo, under the thirty-third 
and thirty-sixth degrees of north lati- 
tud e ; and which also grows in the open 
air in England, under the fifty-second 
degree of north latitude, when it is 
planted against a wall. — Botanical Re- 
gister, Vol. V. 

The same degree of latitude in the 
southern and northern hemisphere, are 
connected with very different tempera- 
tures, and produce a completely differ- 
ent vegetation. This, however, must 
I be understood rather of the temperate 
I and frigid zones, than of the tropical 



CLI 



155 



CLI 



climates, which, as we have already no- 
ticed, are pretty much the same over 
the whole earth. But the summer is 
shorter in the southern hemisphere, be- 
cause the motion of the earth in her 
perigee is more rapid. The summer 
is there also colder, because the 
greater quantity of ice over the vast 
extent of sea requires more heat for dis- 
solving it than can be obtained ; as also 
because the sunbeams are not reflected 
in such quantity from the clear surface 
of the sea water, as to afford the proper 
degree of heat. It thence happens that 
in the southern hemisphere the Flora of 
the pole extends nearer the equator, 
than in the northern. Under the 53d 
and 54th degrees of latitude, we meet 
with plants which correspond with the 
Arctic Flora. In Magellan's Land, and 
in Terra del Fuego, Betula antarctica 
corresponds with Betula nana in Lap- 
land ; Empetrum rubrum with Empe- 
trum nigrum — Arnica oporina with Ar- 
nica montana — Geum Magellanica with 
Geum rivale in England — Saxifraga 
Magellanica with Saxifraga rivularis in 
Finmark. Instead of Andromeda tetra- 
gona and hypnoides of Lapland, Terra 
del Fuego produces Andromeda myrsi- 
nites ; in place of Arbutus alpina and 
Uva ursi of the Arctic polar circle, 
Terra del Fuego produces Arbutus mu- 
cronata, microphylla, and pumila. Aria 
antarctica reminds us of the Holcus al- 
pina of Wahlenburgh ; and Pinguicula 
antarctica recalls to our recollection 
Pinguicula alpina. We must recollect, 
however, that in South America the 
great mountain chains of the Andes 
stretch from the tropical regions, al- 
most without interruption, to the Straits 
of Magellan (from the 52d to the 53d 
degree of S. lat.), and that, on this ac- 
count, tropical forms are seen in that 
frigid southern zone, because the tract 
of mountains everywhere determines 
vegetation. It is hence that the straits 
of Magellan are prolific of Coronariae, 
Onagrae, Dorsteniae, and Heliotropias, 
which in other parts of the world grow 
only within the tropics, or in their 
neighbourhood. In general the vege- 
tation of the southern hemisphere is 
very different from that of the northern; 
and there is a certain correspondence 
between the Floras of Southern Africa, 
America, and New Holland. Most of 
the trees are woody with stiff leaves, 
blossoms sometimes magnificent, but 



fruit of little flavour. In Southern Af- 
rica, as well as in New Hollaud, it is 
the form of the Proteae which prevails, 
as if appropriated to these regions. In- 
stead of the South American Ericae, we 
find the Epacridae of New Holland ; Lo- 
beliae, Diosmae, and a great number of 
rare forms of compound blossoms and 
of umbellatae, are common to all these 
southern regions." 

Now, the reason for these differences 
is, that the countries thus contrasted 
differ in climate — that is, they differ in 
the intensity and duration of light and 
heat they enjoy — they differ in the con- 
trast of their day and night tempera- 
tures — they differ in the relative length 
of the day and night — they differ in the 
length of their summer and winter, or, 
which is synonymous, in the relative 
length of their periods of vegetable ac- 
tivity and rest — they differ also in the 
amount of rain which falls, not only an- 
nually, but at particular seasons — they 
differ in having much atmospheric moist- 
ure deposited in the form of rain or 
dew, or snow, at different periods of 
vegetable activity or rest. Now, what- 
ever these differences are, whatever 
the peculiarities of a climate are from 
which a plant comes, the gardener can- 
not cultivate it successfully unless he 
secures to that plant those climatal dif- 
ferences and peculiarities. 

CLIMBERS are plants which attach 
themselves to supporters by their natu- 
ral appendages, as either by their ten- 
drils or by their hooks. 

CLINOPODIUM. Three species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
or seeds. Common soil. 

CLINTONIA. Two species. An- 
nuals. C. elegans may be sown where 
it is to remain in the open borders, but 
C. pulchella requires its seedlings to be 
raised in a green-house or under a 
frame. — " If it is sown as soon as the 
seed is ripe, in two-thirds leaf mould, 
and one-third common soil, with a little 
sand, care being taken to make the soil 
firm enough to prevent the seed from 
being dislodged in watering ; where it 
is intended to have beds of it in the 
flower garden, it may be planted out in 
the beginning of March : none of the 
frosts that happen after that time will 
injure it. 

" If the seedlings were planted out 
in the autumn, early enough to take 
root in the soil before the winter, there 



C LI 



156 

— ♦ — 



C LU 



is iii) doubt they would prove as hardy 
as any <>i" the California!) annuals, and, 
like them, succeed better in that way, 

than if sown or planted out in the 
Bp'ring." — (lard. Chron. 

CLIPP1 NTG hedges should be confined 
to those of the commonest and hardiest 
varieties of shrubs, as those of hawthorn 
and privet. The shears may, however, 
be used with great advantage by expert 
operators, even on the most delicate 
plants used for ornamental hedges. 
Clipping of deciduous hedges is most 

advantageously performed in the spring 

and early summer. A multitude of 
shoots are then induced, which secures 

that chief desideratum in hedges — thick- 
ness and closeness of te\t.ure. 

CLISIOCAMPA run/stria, the Lacky 
Moth, Hies only at. night. It appears 
about .Inly, and its eggs are laid round 

the twigs of trees in the form of.a broad 

band of ahout three hundred eggs, 
closely glued together, and resembl ing 
a ring of seed lac The caterpillars 
striped longitudinally blue, red. and 
yellow, appear from these in the April 
or May following. They congregate 
in large nests at the forks of the small 
branches, and are then easily crushed 
en masse. They enter the chrysalis 
stale at the end of June, and then they 
are to be found in cocoons between two 
leaves, &.C. 

"In June they are full grown and 
about an inch in length, gray striped 
With blue, red, and yellow, and having 
but lew hairs. The caterpillar spins 
between two leaves a thin web of an 
oval form, and it becomes a longish 
brown pupa, in which state it remains 
for three weeks or a month. In July 
the moth appears, which in size and 
colour, is not unlike the silkworm moth. 
Its colour is light yellow, and some- 
times dark olive colour. The upper 
wings are banded, and the lower wings 
are generally of B uniform brownish 

colour. The male is readily known 

from the female, by its strongly pecti- 
nated antenna' and thinner body. The 
insect Hies only at night, and conse- 
quently is rarely seen. It often appears 

m considerable numbers, and does not 

confine its ravages to fruit trees, but 
attacks many other trees; such as 

beeches, elms, poplars, 6aks, and even 

pines. The best humus of lessening 

the devastation! committed by the insect 

is, in the winter season, carefully to 



search the fruit trees for the bands of 
eggs laid on the branches, and to crush 
them. In May, when the caterpillar! 
are living in society, the nests contain- 
ing them should be collected and de- 
stroyed. Care must be taken when col- 
lecting the nosts, for if the caterpillars 
are much disturbed, they let themsel ves 
down to the ground by means of B thin 
silken thread, and escape. In July 
their cocoons should be looked for on 
the trees between the leaves, in the 
roofs of sheds, and even on the tops of 
Walls." — Gard. Chron. 

C LI TOR I A. Thirteen species. 
Chiefly stove or green-house evergreen 
climbers. C. mariana is a half hardy 
deciduous. Cuttings, seeds. Loam, 
peal, and sand. 

CLIVIA nobiliB. Green-house ever- 
green bulbous plant. Division, seeds. 
R ich sandy loam. 

CLOUDBERRY. Kubvs chamtemorus. 

CLOV 10. l)i<i nth us ccarycfhyllw, 

CLOVER TU.l<:i<:. Caryophyllus. 

CLOW E S I A rosea. Stove shrub. 
Cuttings. Rich loam. 

CLUB ROOT. See Ambury. 

CLUMPS when close are sometimes 
called Thickets* and when open Croups 
of Trees. They differ only in extent 
from a wood, if they arc close, or from 
a grove, if they arc open ; they are small 
woods, and small groves, governed by 
the same principles as the larger, after 
allowances made for their dimensions. 
But besides the properties they may 
have in common with woods, or with 
groves, they have others peculiar to 
themsel ves. They are. either indepen- 
dent or relative; when independent, 
their beauty as single objects is solely 
to be attended to; when relative, the 
beauty of the individuals must be sacri- 
ficed to the effect of the whole, which 
is the greater consideration. The least 
clump that can be, is of two trees ; and 
the best effect they can have, is, that 
their heads united should appear one 
large tree ; two, therefore, of different 
species, or seven or eight of such shapes 
as do not easily join, can hardly be a 

beautiful group, especially if it have ■ 
tendency to a circular form. Such 
clumps of firs, though very common, 
are seldom pleasing; they do not. com- 
pose one mass, but are only a confused 
number of pinnacles. The confusion 
is, however, avoided by placing them 
in succession, not in clusters; and a 



CLU 



157 



C N E 



clump of such trees is therefore more 
agreeable when it is extended rather in 
length than in breadth. 

Three trees together must form either 
a right line or a triangle ; to disguise 
the regularity, the distances should be 
very different. Distinctions in their 
shapes contribute also to the same end ; 
and variety in their growths still more. 
When a straight line consists of two 
trees nearly similar, and of a third much 
lower than they are, the even direction 
in which they stand is hardly dis- 
cernible. 

If humbler growths at the extremity 
can discompose the strictest regularity, 
the use of it is thereby recommended 
upon other occasions. It is, indeed, the 
variety peculiarly proper for clumps : 
every apparent artifice affecting the ob- 
jects of nature, disgusts ; and clumps 
are such distinguished objects, so liable 
to the suspicion of having been left or 
placed on purpose to be so distinguish- 
ed, that, to divert the attention from 
these symptoms of art, irregularity in 
the composition is more important to 
them, than to a wood or to a grove. 
Being also less extensive, they do not 
admit so much variety of outline; but 
variety of growths is most observable 
in a small compass, and the several 
gradations may often be cast into beau- 
tiful figures. 

The extent and the outline of a wood 
or a grove, engage the attention more 
than the extremities; but in clumps 
these last are of the most consequence; 
they determine the form of the whole, 
and both of them are generally in sight: 
great care should therefore be taken to 
make them agreeable and different. 
The ease with which they may be com- 
pared, forbids all similarity between 
them ; for every appearance of equality 
suggests an idea of art, and therefore a. 
clump as broad as it is long, seems less 
the work of nature than one which 
stretches into length. 

Another peculiarity of clumps is the 
facility with which they admit a mixture 
of trees and of shrubs, of wood and of 
grove; in short, of every species of plan- 
tation. None are more beautiful than 
those which are so composed. Such 
compositions are, however, more proper 
in compact than in straggling clumps ; 
they are most agreeable when they form 
one mass. If the transitions from very 
lofty to very humble growths, from 



thicket to open plantations, he frequent 
and sudden, the disorder is more suited 
to rude than to elegant scenes. 

The occasions on which independent 
clumps may be applied are many. They 
are often desirable as beautiful objects 
in themselves ; they are sometimes ne- 
cessary to break an extent of lawn, or 
a continued line, whether of ground or 
of plantation ; but on all occasions, a 
jealousy of art constantly attends them, 
which irregularity in their figure will 
not always alone remove. Though ele- 
vations show them to advantage, yet a 
hillock evidently thrown upon purpose 
to be crowned with a clump, is artificial 
to a degree of disgust; some of the 
trees should therefore be planted on 
the sides to take off that appearance. 
The same expedient may be applied to 
clumps placed on the brow of a hill, 
to interrupt its sameness ; they will 
have less ostentation of design if they 
are in part carried down either de- 
clivity. 

A line of clumps, if the intervals be 
closed by others beyond them, has the 
appearance of a wood, or of a grove ; 
and in one respect the semblance has 
an advantage over the reality in dif- 
ferent points of view ; the relations be- 
tween the clumps are changed, and a 
variety of forms is produced, which no 
continued wood or grove, however 
broken, can furnish. These forms can- 
not all be equally agreeable, and too 
anxious a solicitude to make them every- 
where pleasing, may, perhaps, prevent 
their being ever beautiful. 

The effect must often be left to 
chance, but it should be studiously con- 
sulted from a few principal points of 
vieV ; and it is easy to make any recess, 
any prominence, any figure in the out- 
line, by clumps thus advancing before, 
or retiring behind one another." — 
Whateley. 

CLUSIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Light sandy 
loam. 

CLUYTIA. Twelve species. Green- 
house or stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CLYPEOLA. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

CNEORUM. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

CNESTIS. Three species. Stove 



CO A 



158 



COC 



evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. 

COAL. See Fuel. 

COAL ASHES. See Ashes. 

COBCE A scandens. Half hardy ever- 
green climber. Seeds or cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

COBURGHIA. Three species. Green- 
house and half hardy bulbous peren- 
nials. Division. Peat and loam. 

COCCINELL^E. Lady Birds. There 
are about thirty species of this useful 
and beautiful insect. Let no one de- 
stroy a coccinella, for it is the greatest 
destroyer of the plant louse or aphis. 
This is much better appreciated on the 
continent than in England, for there 
the gardeners collect lady birds and 
place them upon rose trees, &c, in- 
fected with aphides. 

COCCOLOBA. Nineteen species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Leafy ripened 
cuttings. Loam and peat. 

COCCUS. Scale Insect. The species 
of this family are most usually, but not 
exclusively, found upon the tenants of 
our green-houses and hot-houses. The 
males are active, but the females usu- 
ally fixed to a part of the plant ; the 
former having wings, and are so small 
as to require a magnifier to distinguish 
them distinctly: they then appear some- 
what like a gnat in form. The females 
are much larger, and in shape not un- 
like a bed-bug, but with a scaly skin. 
When hatching they envelop them- 
selves in a woolly case. The eggs are 
oval, but no larger than dots. Brushing 
the stems and branches of trees and 
shrubs with a hand scrubbing-brush, 
will destroy many of these vermin, and 
if spirit of turpentine, with a painter's 
brush, is applied, so as to visit every 
cranny of the bark, the application is 
perfectly effectual. Smaller and more 
delicate plants in pots, may be placed 
under a sea-kale or other pot, with a 
little of the spirit in a saucer, and then 
submitted to a gentle heat ; the vapour 
of the turpentine will destroy the insect 
in an hour or two. If the first applica- 
tion fails, the second will not fail. The 
efficacy of a solution of soft soap in 
thinning the ranks of this pest, arises 
probably from the turpentine it con- 
tains. 

" C. hesperidum is found in green- 
houses, especially on orange trees. It 
infests leaves as well as stems. 

" C. bromelia. Pine Apple Scale in- 



fests 
8rc 



that fruit, the hibiscus, justitia, 



" C. adonidum. Mealy Bug. This 
feeds on tropical plants, with which it 
has been introduced into our hot-houses, 
especially Coffee, Cestrum, Justicia, 
Canna, Musa, Renealmia, fyc. ; but it 
also is very injurious to the vine and 
pine-apple. 

" C. testubo. Turtle Scale. This is 
found chiefly on stove plants requiring 
a high temperature. The scale is oval, 
very convex, and dark brown." — Gard. 
Chron. 

C. Vitis. Vine Scale preys upon the 
Grape Vine, both in the open air, and 
under glass. It seems to be the same 
species which also attacks occasionally 
the Peach, Nectarine, and Plum. It is, 
says Mr. Curtis, " a longish brown in- 
sect, which in old age assumes a black- 
ish-brown colour, and becomes hemi- 
spherical and wrinkled. The females 
are shield-like ; being convex above, 
and flat or concave below ; they are 
furnished with six small legs, which, 
when the insect is old, become part of 
the substance of the body. On the un- 
der side of the insect is a sucker, with 
which it pierces the cuticle of the 
plants, and extracts their juices. Soon 
after impregnation the female dies, and 
her body becomes a protection for the 
eggs, which are covered with long white 
wool, and sometimes completely enve- 
lop the shoots of the vines, or of plants, 
growing underneath them. The males 
are furnished with four wings, and are 
apterous. Their powers of propagation 
are immense ; and, where they once 
become very numerous, they are ex- 
ceedingly difficult to eradicate." 

As a genus of insects closely allied 
to the Coccus, and usually confounded 
with it, is Aspidiotus ; and as all reme- 
dial observations applicable to the one 
are equally applicable to the other, the 
prevailing kinds are here enumerated. 

ii A. nerii. Oleander Scale is found 
in our stoves and green-houses, chiefly 
on the Oleanders, Palmce, Aloes and 
Acacias. 

11 A. rosa. Rose Scale ; A. echino- 
cdeti. Cactus Scale ; A. lauri. Sweet 
Bay Scale ; infest chiefly the plants by 
the names of which they are distin- 
guished. 

"A. ostreceformis. Pear Tree Oyster 
Scale, is found upon the pear tree. 

Scale is much more difficult to destroy 



coc 



159 



COM 



than aphis ; as tobacco, soft soap, vine- 
gar, and other materials scarcely affect 
them, even when applied in quantity 
and strength sufficiently to kill plants. 

The most effectual method of ridding 
plants of these pests, besides those first 
named, is to brush or sponge the stems 
and leaves. If plants in pots are in- 
fested with this or any other kind of 
scale, they should never be cleansed in 
or near the house in which they are 
grown ; as, though the old ones have 
not always the power of locomotion, 
yet the young ones have. Shreds and 
matting which support plants in houses, 
should always be carefully examined, 
as they form a kind of nest for the 
young insects. Old shreds should never 
be used, without being previously 
boiled." — Gard. Chron. 

COCHLEARIA. Eight species and 
some varieties. Chiefly hardy annuals 
or biennials. C. armor acia, the com- 
mon horse-radish. Slips from the root. 
Deep rich soil. The annuals and bien- 
nials from seeds. Common soil. 

COCKCHAFER. See Melolontha. 

COCKSCOMB. Rhinanthus Christa- 
galli. 

COCKSCOMB. Erythrina Christa- 
galli. 

COCKSCOMB. Celosia cristata. — 
Sow the seed in a hot-bed, early in the 
spring, and transplant when danger 
from frost has passed : seed may also 
be sown later in the season, on an open 
border. To have Cockscombs in per- 
fection requires highly manured soil, (it 
cannot be too rich,) and a careful prun- 
ing of lateral or side shoots — but one 
head or flower should be borne by each 
plant. 

During dry weather water with a so- 
lution of manure or plain water, having 
first covered the earth around the plants 
with decomposed stable-dung. 

COCOA-NUT TREE. Cocos. 

COCOA PLUM. Chrysobalanus. 

COCOS. Three species. Palms. 
Loam and peat, or light sandy loam in 
a warm moist atmosphere. 

CODARIUM. Wild Tamarind. Two 
species. Stove evergreen tree and 
shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

CODONOPHORA. Stove evergreen 
shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

CCELOGYNE. Seventeen species. 
Stove orchids. Division. Wood. They 
require a hot damp heat. 

COFFEA. The Coffee Tree. Two 



species. Stove evergreen shrubs. Ri- 
pened cuttings. Peat and loam. 

COFFEE TREE. Coffea: 

COGWOOD TREE. See Laurus. 
Cloroxylon. 

COKE. See Fuel. 

COLBERTIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

COLBROOKIA. Two species. 
Greemhouse evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Peat and loam. 

COLCHICUM. Ten species and some 
varieties. Hardy bulbous perennials. 
Seeds or offsets. Light loamy soil. 

COLDENIA procumbens. Stove an- 
nual trailer. Seeds. Common soil. 

COLEONEMA alba. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

COLEWORT. See Cabbage. 

COLLIFLOWER. See Cauliflower. 

COLLIGUAJA odorifera. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. 

COLLLNSIA. Five species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

COLLINSONIA. Five species and 
some varieties. Chiefly hardy herbace- 
ous perennials. Division. Common 
moist garden soil. 

COLLOGANIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

COLOPHONIA mauritiana. Stove 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

COLUMBINE. Aquilegia. 

COLUNARREA. Six species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. C. scandens is a 
climber. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

COLURIA potentilloides. Hardy her- 
baceous perennial. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

COLUTEA. Five species. Hardy 
deciduous shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. 
Common soil. 

COLVILLEA racemosa. Stove ever- 
green tree. 

COMARASTAPHYLIS arbutoides. 
Half hardy shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

COMAROPSIS. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Seeds or di- 
vision. Rich light loamy soil. 

COMARUM palustre. Hardy her- 
baceous perennial. Division. Moist 
soil. 

COMBRETUM. Seven species. 
Stove evergreen climbers or shrubs. 
Cuttings. Loam and peat. 



COM 



160 

— ♦ — 



COM 



COMESPERMA. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. C. gra- 
cilis is a twining plant. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

COMFREY. Simphytum. 

COMMELINA. Twenty-five species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen trailers, which 
are increased by divisions and seeds : 



in a dry cellar for the winter, out of the 
reach of damp or frost; they will then 
require no more trouble until the follow- 
ing March, when they should be taken 
out, potted, and placed either in a warm 
pit or dung frame, to forward them 
again for planting out. 

" The roots will survive the winter in 



sandy loam and peat. The hardy kinds, the open border, if slightly protected 



seeds or offsets ; and the annuals, seeds 
and common garden soil. 

C. ccslestris is one of the most beauti- 
ful of this genus, and the following di- 
rections for its cultivation are given by 
Mr. G. Gordon, of the Chiswick Gar- 
dens. 

" About the end of February sow the 
seeds, in pans or pots, filled with a mix- 
ture of sandy loam and leaf mould, and 
place them in a warm pit, or dung- 
frame. When the young plants are 
large enough to handle, pot them oft* 
singly into sixty-sized pots, and return 
them to the warm frame, or pit, for a 
week or ten days ; afterwards admit air, 
and finally remove them to a cold 
frame, or pit, to harden, ready for 
planting out in the open border, which 
should be done about the end of May, 
or beginning of June, when the danger 
from late frosts and cold nights is over. 

"In planting, they must not be put 
in a dry or shaded situation, but in a 
warm, and rather damp one; and in a 
rich loamy soil. They will then flower 
freely all the summer and autumn ; but 
like the Dahlia, their beauty is destroy- 
ed by the first frost in the autumn. 

" The plants flower freely the first 



and kept dry ; but then they are late in 
starting, and never so fine *s when the 
roots are taken up, and preserved 
through the winter, like those of the 
Dahlia. The old roots may be divided 
like those of the Garden Ranunculus." 
— Gard. Chron. 

COMMERSONIA. Two species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripened cut- 
tings. Peat and loam. 

COMOCLADIA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Ripened cut- 
tings. Peat and loam, or any light rich 
soil. 

COMPARETTIA. Three species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood or 
fibrous peat. 

COMPOST is a mixture of manures, 
or of earths and manures, in such pro- 
portions, and of such qualities as are 
considered particularly applicable to 
the plant or crops to which the compo- 
sition is to be applied. The subject of 
Composts has been studied but slightly 
at present, by men who combine science 
with practice, and what is here offered, 
must consequently be less satisfactory 
than the author is conscious it might be. 

A correct preparation of Composts 
must be founded upon a due knowledge 



n from seed, but they display their of the food of plants. This is 



delicate azure blossoms in the greatest 
perfection the second season, if the 
roots are taken up, and preserved like 
those of the Dahlia, over the winter, 
which is best done in the following way: 
— When the plants have done flowering, 
and there is danger of the roots getting 
injured by severe frost, they must be 
taken up, and placed to dry for a few 
days ; then procure a box, or some 
large flower-pots, and place a little dry 
soil at the bottom ; (the best substance 
for packing all kinds of roots in during 
winter, is dry sandy peat) — then place a 
layer of roots, filling in between with 
soil ; and so on until you have disposed 
of all the roots, when the whole should 
be covered over with a thick layer of any 
dry substance. Place the plants either 
under the stage in the green-house, or 



tainable from their analyses, and these 
reveal what is sustained by practice, 
that there are some substances required 
by all plants as food, and that there are 
other substances which are beneficial 
to some plants, and useless, or even 
injurious to others. 

Now the substances universally re- 
quired by cultivated plants, are, carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phos- 
phate of lime, and, perhaps, common 
salt. These are supplied to plants by 
the atmosphere, and by decaying ani- 
mal and vegetable matters. 

The substances required only by par- 
ticular plants, are certain salts, such as 
sulphate of lime, by the turnip; — sul- 
phate of magnesia, (Epsom salt) by the 
potato ; — nitrate of potass (saltpetre;, 
by borage, and the lilac. 



COM 



161 



CON 



The food of plants, whether imbibed 
by their roots or their leaves, must be 
either in a liquid, or a gaseous form. 
In these states, most plants obtain a 
large portion of their food from the 
atmosphere, decomposing its carbonic 
acid, and water, and retaining only so 
much of their carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, as they require. From the 
same source also they obtain nitrogen. 
But they do not obtain these from the 
atmosphere alone. The roots also 
obtain them from the soil. Animal and 
vegetable matters, as they decay, give 
out carbonic acid ; and partly decom- 
pose into mucilage, soluble in water, 
both of- which are rapidly imbibed by 
the roots. Composts, therefore, should 
contain these decomposing matters in 
such proportion, as to give the plants, 
to which they are applied, the vigour 
required. If leaves are required to be 
largely developed, the compost can be 
scarcely too rich ; for the greater the 
quantity of food imbibed by the roots, 
the greater will be the surface of leaves 
requisite for its elaboration. But if 
flowers and fruit, as well as leaves, are 
desired, the composts, if excessively 
rich, will cause these to diminish in 
number and size, the flower-buds pass- 
ing into leaf-buds for the reason already 



Composts must also duly regulate 
the amount of moisture supplied to the 
roots, totally independent of drainage, 
as compost retains to them moisture by 
its chemical and capillary powers. The 
richer in decomposing animal and vege- 
table matter, — the richer in alumina, 
(clay), — and the looser its texture, the 
better does a compost retain water. 
And this power is diminished in pro- 
portion as siliceous sand, or calcareous 
(chalky) matters preponderate. 

Mr. Errington, (Gardeners Chroni- 
cle, 1845,) prepares his composts from 
strong tenacious loam ; half-rotten leaf- 
mould; heath-soil ; horse-manure; cow- 
manure ; charcoal and wood ashes; 
bone-dust; sharp sand ; burnt turf; and 
moss- well scalded; and, from these 
materials there is no doubt that a com- 
post could be prepared, embracing any 
desired degree of fertility. — See Ma- 
nures and Potting. 

COMPOST-GROUND. , This should 
be an enclosure, concealed from sight, 
but in the vicinity of the hot-beds, hot- 
houses, and other similar structures, for 
11 



the convenience of moving the pots to 
it, in the potting season ; conveyance of 
manures, Sec. All the earths and ma- 
nures should be under a shed, and the 
dungs, being liable to lose much of 
their fertile components in drainage, 
should be in water-tight tanks ; and if 
these are covered all the better. 

COMPTONIA asplenifolia. Hardy 
deciduous shrub. Layers. Sandy loam 
or peat. 

CONANTHERA. Two species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Light sandy loam. 

CONIFERiE or cone-bearing trees 
and shrubs are , numerous, embracing 
the Pines, Larches, Firs, Cedars, Juni- 
pers, and Thuyas. 

COMMON HARDY SPECIES. 

Juniperus virginiana. 
Cupressus thuyoides. 

sernpervirens. 

Pinus balsamea. 

larix. 

canadensis. 

sylvestiris. 

picea. 

abies. 



pinea. 
strobus. 
pinaster, 
cedrus. 



Thuya occidentalis. 

orientalis. 

Rarer kinds are thus classed by Mr. 
G. Gordon, of the Chiswick Gardens : — 
Section 1. — Mexican Species. 

1st Division. — Fine-leaved, with long 
slender leaves ; these may be expected 
not to be so hardy as the other species 
belonging to this section. 

Pinus Terocote. 

patula. 

-^ apulcencis. 

Devoniana. 

macrophylla. 

Pseudo-Strobus. 

'. Leiophylla. 

Oocarpa. 

Oocarpoides. 

filifolia. 

Montezumse. 

2d Division. — Swamp Pines, with 
long leaves and few branches, like P. 
pallustris ; they may be expected to 
prove hardy. 

Pinus Hartwegii. 

Russelliana. 



CON 



162 

— ♦ — 



CON 



3d Division. — Short leaved; which 
may be considered as hardy. 

Pinus Llaveana. 

Ayacahuite. 

Abies religiosa. 
Section II. — Calif ornian or North West 
American species. 

1st Division. — Fine leaved. These 
are the tenderest kinds, while those 
with short leaves are generally hardier, 
particularly in this American group. 

Pinus insignis. 

californica. 

Monticola. 

2d Division. — Coarse leaved. With 
robust stems, leaves, and cones. 

Pinus Macrocarpa. 

Sabiniana. 

3d Division. — Short leaved. All 
either Spruces or Silvers. 

Abies amabalis. 

grandis. 

nobilis. 

Menziesii. 

Section III. — European Species. 

1st Division. — The slender two- 
leaved pines; or those resembling the 
Aleppo Pine. (P e halepensis.) 

Pinus Brutia. 

Pithyusa. 

2d Division. — The robust two-leaved 
species ; or those strong growing kinds, 
resembling the Cluster Pinaster, and 
Corsican Laricie, Pines. 

Pinus nigricans, or austriaca. 

hispanica, or pyrenaica. 

romana. 

Ascarena. 

Lemoniana. 

3d Division. — The Silver or Spruce 
Firs. 

Picea cephalonica, or Mount Enos 
Fir. 

Pinus Pinsapo, or the Mount Atlas 
Cedar. 

Section IV. — Asiatic Species. 

1st Division. — The robust two-leaved 
Pines, or those resembling the Cluster 
Pine (P. Pinaster). 

Pinus taurica. 

2d Division. — Pinus Sinensis, or the 
Chinese Pine. 

Pinus excelsa, or the lofty Bhotan 
Pine. 

Pinus Longifolia. 

Gerardiana. 

3d Division. — The Silver, or Spruce 
Firs. 

Abies Webbiana, or the purple-coned 
Silver Fir. 



Pindrow, or Royles Silver. 

Abies Pichta or Sibirica, the Pitch or 
Siberian Silver. 

Abies Brunoniana, the Indian Hem- 
lock Spruce. 

Abies Khutrow, the large coned In- 
dian Spruce. 

Abies Morinda. 

Abies orientalis. 

The following notice of Junipers will 
be confined, like the preceding of 
Coniferous Plants, to the more rare 
and less known kinds. 

True Junipers. Juniperus oblonga 
(the oblong-fruited Juniper); Juniperus 
Oxycedrus (large brown-fruited Juni- 
per) ; Juniperus macrocarpa (the large 
purple-fruited Juniper) ; Juniperus squa- 
mosa (the Creeping Indian Juniper) ; 
Juniperus recurva (the recurved Indian 
Juniper) ; Juniperus nana (Dwarf Juni- 
per)." — Gard. Chron. 

Propagation by Cuttings. Mr. Gor- 
don gives these directions : — - 

" In August or September, select a 
young shoot of moderate strength, and 
cut it off with a piece of the last year's 
wood attached, forming what is techni- 
cally termed a heel. 

" The leaves at the bottom of the 
cutting should not be pulled off, but 
must either be left on entire, or short- 
ened with a sharp knife. When the 
cutting is made, it should be planted 
from a half to three-quarters of an inch 
deep in a pot, filled about one-third 
with potsherds, on which a layer of 
turfy peat should be placed, then an 
inch of good loam, and, on the top of 
all, a layer of white sand. The pot of 
cuttings may now be placed in a cold 
frame, kept close, and shaded when 
necessary ; they may remain in this 
situation till the end of October, when 
they should be put in a cold pit for the 
Winter. Care must be taken at that 
season, that they do not suffer from 
frost or damp ; but they must on no 
account have fire heat. About the end 
of February the pot of cuttings may be 
removed to a hot bed, a bellglass being 
placed closely over it ; the cuttings will 
root readily, and many of them will be 
fit to ppt off by the end of June. When 
first potted off, the young plants should 
be treated exactly in the same manner 
as the cuttings are. 

" In the case of Junipers and Cy- 
presses, older wood than that used for 
Pines is necessary, as they have not 



CON 



163 



CON 



sufficient strength to omit roots before 
the winter, and consequently perish 
during that season, when only callous. 
If wood of two or three years' growth 
be taken, it will be found hardy enough 
to stand the winter, and with the aid of 
artificial heat, in the spring will root 
freely." — Gard. Chron. 

By Seed. — The same excellent au- 
thority gives these directions relative 
to propagating the conifera from seed. 

" The cones should be gathered at 
the beginning of winter : they should 
be placed in some cool but dry place, 
until the end of March, at which time 
the seeds should be taken out of the 
cones; which in some cases is difficult, 
without injuring them, particularly if 
they are kiln-dried, as the seeds are 
easily damaged by fire heat. The 
cones of some kinds are so hard — of 
Cocarpa, for example — that it would 
take weeks on the kiln before they 
would open. The safest way is to bore 
a hole through the centre, beginning at 
the base, or stalk, and afterwards to 
drive a round piece of hard wood, 
through the hole, which will split the 
cones. The seeds may then be re- 
moved without injury. If the kinds are 
new or rare, they should be sown in 
pans filled with dry sandy loam, and 
without any mixture, of either peat, 
leaf mould, or rotten dung; all of 
which are injurious, and cause the 
young plants to damp off when they 
first come up, more especially if it 
should be damp weather at the time 
they appear above ground. If the 
loam is a little stiff, a small portion of 
sand may be used ; but this must be 
avoided as much as possible, because 
the more sand there is in the soil the 
weaker the plants come up. If they 
are in a doubtful condition, sow the 
seeds in pans filled with very dry loam, 
and place them in some dry situation, 
out of the reach of damp, they will then 
not be injured ; whereas if they were 
not placed in dry soil, they would be 
sure to perish, or if sown in damp 
soil, the like destruction would attend 
them. 

" When spring advances, place the 
pans in a gentle, but by no means damp 
heat ; taking care, however, to remove 
them to a much cooler place, before 
the young plants are fairly above 
ground, and afterwards harden them 
off by degrees, giving them but little 



water at first ; for much depends upon 
the use made of water, at this period, 
and the treatment given to them, when 
in this state, (that is, when the young 
plant has exhausted the nourishment 
supplied by the seed, and has to seek 
subsistence from its own roots ;) after 
which there is little danger of their 
damping off, except they are over 
watered. When the plants are fairly 
up, and a little hardened, they may be 
potted off singly, into small pots, filled 
with a mixture of loam and sandy peat. 
If the loam is rather poor or stiff, a 
little leaf-mould may be added; for the 
bad effects of the two latter substances 
seem only to occur during the time the 
young plant received its support from 
the seed. 

" When potted, they should be 
placed in a close pit or frame for a few 
days, until they recover the effects of 
the shift, and afterwards air must be 
freely admitted ; but water given rather 
sparingly at first. They will require 
little trouble afterwards, but probably 
may want shifting into larger pots in 
the autumn, (particularly the strong 
growing kinds,) as it is injurious to 
their future growth for their roots to 
get pot-bound when young. The more 
rare or tender kinds should not be 
planted out before the third season ; 
but the commoner ones may be planted 
out after the first year. 

" The common kinds, such as the 
Scotch fir, larch, spruce, and silver firs, 
Pinaster, Stone, and Weymouth seeds, 
and even the Deodar, and Cedar of 
Lebanon may be sown in the open 
border with great advantage in the fol- 
lowing manner : — select a good fresh 
loamy soil which is not stiff, but rather 
sandy, and about the end of March dig 
and break the surface rather finely ; 
then mark the ground out into beds 
about four feet wide, leaving an alley 
of a foot wide between each bed ; and 
on some fine dry day sow the seeds 
broadcast rather thickly, covering them 
over from a quarter to half an inch 
deep, according to the size of the 
seeds ; then smooth the surface by 
gently beating it with the back of the 
spade ; — (this must only be done if the 
soil is dry, and rather light.) They 
will then require no other care except 
keeping them from weeds, and the at- 
tacks of birds, mice, and slugs, which 
are very destructive to them, when 



CON 



164 

— ♦ — 



CON 



they first make their appearance above ■ 
ground. 

" By placing some small branches | 
thickly over the beds until the young 
plants have thrown off the old seed- 
coat, they may be protected from the 
ravages of birds ; if attacked by mice, 
traps must be set for catching them, as 
the only safe mode of preventing such 
pests; and if subject to be eaten by | 
slugs, some wood-ashes should be 
sown over the beds just as the young] 
plants are making their appearance. 



"Inarching is another way for in- 
creasing the pine tribe, but, like graft- 
ing, only suitable for the propagation 
of curious varieties, and is certainly a 
more unsightly way than that of cleft- 
grafting, as the stock and scion hardly 
ever unite to cover the old heel, when 
separated from the mother plant. 

" This operation may be performed 
either with the last year's or the pre- 
ceding year's wood, but the former is 
by far the quickest in taking ; it is best 
performed about the same time as graft- 



" The seeds of the greater part of! ing, but the inarches must not be re- 



the pine tribe come up in about six 
weeks after sowing in the open border, 
and the most of them will be fit for 
transplanting into nursery-rows the 
first year after sowing; afterwards they 
may be treated in the same way as 
other forest trees." — Gard. Chron. 

Grafting, fyc. — *' The pine or fir 
tribe are sometimes increased by graft- 
ing or inarching. It is at present little 
practised, and when it is so, only as a 
means of propagating some of the curi- 
ous varieties ofthe propersection Pinus, 
which are the most difficult and uncer- 
tain to strike from cuttings. Procure 
some good healthy young plants of the 
common kinds, of the same section to 
which the sort to be increased belongs 
in pots ; if it is to the robust two-leaved 
section, such as the Pinaster or Stone 
Pine, procure them for the stocks : if to 
the Weymouth or Scotch, procure them, 
but they will take on the common Scotch 
Fir. If the species or variety belongs 
to the Spruce or silver tribe, procure 
such for stocks ; if it belongs to the ce- 
dar or larch section, the common larch 
will do, bearing in mind that the species 
intended to be united should be as 
nearly related as possible; for although 
the true Pinus may be worked on a 
larch stock, they will soon perish. The 
operation is performed on the current 
year's growth by cleft grafting, (and 
always in the leading shoot, shortening 
several of the side shoots at the time,) 
or by splitting the stock down the cen- 
tre after the head is removed sufficiently 
deep for receiving the scion, which 
must be cut wedge-shaped, to fit. 
" The time of performing the opera 



moved for two yeai 

" Layering is certainly one of the 
best modes, where it can be done. 
Layering should be performed early in 
the spring, before the plant begins to 
grow, and in the usual common way, 
by slightly tonguing and laying the 
shoots in light sandy soil, pegging them 
securely down. 

" They will require two years to 
root, but it should be observed, that 
in layering, the whole plant must be 
layered, as it is very uncertain if only 
the bottom branches are so done, as 
these frequently die after the operation 
if the upper ones are left on : therefore 
the whole plant should be bent down, 
or the head cut off. 

" Pines and firs should be planted in 
the open ground, about the end of April, 
if they are rare or tender kinds : but if 
hardy and common ones, the end of 
February is best. 

" The Soil most suitable for them is 
a light sandy loam, on a dry subsoil; 
but they will all grow in almost any 
soil that is not overcharged with water, 
or too poor, if encouraged at first by 
mixing a little sandyloamandleafmbuld 
with the common earth, when planting 
them where they are permanently to 
remain. 

" In planting, the roots should be 
spread out as much as possible, and 
kept near the surface, leaving the plant 
a little elevated on a small mound, if 
the adjoining ground is level, but if on 
a declivity, it is of no consequence. 

" When planted, they should be well 
watered, not immediately at the roots, 
but for a yard or two all round, and 



tion is when the young shoots are about then a few spruce fir or other branches 

L.if ] u..:^ii„ :*L »u. _i u u _ -i-.-i- j *_ i i. _rr^u_ 



half-grown, and are brittle with 
stock ; the operation is done in 



the 
th 



should be stuck round, to break off the 
sun's rays, and the winds ; if they are 



usual way afterwards, by tying, and ex- , tender they should have a large hand- 



cludins: the aii 



glass over them for the first winter, 



CON 



165 

— ♦ — 



CON 



which may remain permanently on dur- 
ing the months of December and Jan- 
uary. 

" In preparing the compost for them, 
a little sand should be used, if the soil 
of the place is tolerably good, but ra- 
ther stiff; but if poor and light, a little 
loam and leaf mould must be added ; it 
is by far the best way to accustom the 
plants to the common soil at once, while 
they are young, for if the ground is 
made good for their reception only, 
they will grow vigorously and rapid, 
and as soon as they exhaust the pre- 
pared soil, they become stunted, and 
frequently die prematurely. 

" In protecting the tender kinds, a 
single mat covering at a sufficient dis- 
tance will keep most of them from in- 
jury ; but much damage is done to the 
plants by not being able to remove the 
covering early in the spring. 

" The covering should be constructed 
so that the top can be removed during 
the day time, and replaced at night, 
which hardens the plants, and at the 
same time protects them from the effects 
of the late spring frosts, which destroy 
the young shoots, especially of Web- 
biana, and other silver firs. 

" In pruning there is little to be done 
except to cut away all dead branches, 
and to protect the leader." — Gard. 
Chron. 

CONNARUS. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripened cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

CONOCARPUS. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripened cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

CONOSPERMUM. Nine species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

CONOSTYLIS. Three species. 
Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Sandy peat. 

CONSERVATIVE WALLS. See 
Walls. 

CONSERVATORY. This structure 
is a green-house communicating with the 
residence, having borders and beds in 
which to grow its tenant plants ; or it 
may be an appendage to the dwelling, 
of moderate size, into which the plants 
from the green-house are removed whilst 
in bloom, thus concentrating the more 
attractive specimens, and presenting a 
continuous show of flowers. 

Good plants for turning out into the 
beds of a conservatory are : — Templeto- 



nia Glauca ; Luculia gratissima ; Eu- 
taxia myrtifolia; Pimelea spectabilis ; 
Chorozema varium ; Brugmansia san- 
guined ; Crowea saligna ; Cytisus race- 
mosus ; Horea Celsi ; together with Ca- 
mellias, and the different kinds of 
Acacia. 

Mr. Beaton observes, that — " In some 
instances the more hardy stove climbers 
are now planted out into the conserva- 
tory after they have been grown in 
vineries, or other forcing-houses, or in 
stoves, till they are long enough to 
reach the top of the house at once, 
which is kept sufficiently close to afford 
them the necessary temperature. Many 
of this class must necessarily be left 
naked at bottom, where the air of the 
house is too cold for their young shoots, 
and thus a space is left for choice woody 
plants that are not climbers, among 
which the subject of these remarks may 
take a leading place. 

" At present, when climbers get 
naked at the bottom, the practice is 
either to cover the parts with long 
shoots from the top of the house, or to 
plant slender-growing climbers round 
them ; but a better way would be to se- 
lect fine plants, not exceeding ten or 
twelve feet in a rich border, or that 
might be easily kept to be the required 
height, by pruning, such plants being 
remarkable for some peculiar feature, 
such as a graceful mode of growth, fine 
foliage, conspicuous or sweet-scented 
flowers, &c. A situation of this kind 
would suit Luculia gratissima, particu- 
larly if it happened to be near the doors 
or source of ventilation. 

" This beautiful shrub, so lovely in 
the autumn, although a strong growing 
plant, is a delicate feeder; and a strong 
climber planted behind it may be said 
to assist its growth rather than impede 
it, by appropriating to itself the more 
gross parts of the soil in the border. If 
the climber, however, is of the very 
fibrous-rooted kind, like the ash, feu- 
plants can compete with it for nourish- 
ment ; whereas such climbers as Ipo- 
mcea, Horsfallise, Combretum purpu- 
reum, Beaumontia grandiflora, and most 
of the Passion flowers, Hardenbergias, 
Zichyas, &c, form their roots different- 
ly, and are suitable for this kind of 
furnishing when they become naked be- 
low. Plants for such a purpose ought 
to be well established and of consider- 
able size, before they are finally planted 



CON 



166 



COR 



out; and all plants, whether climbers 
or otherwise, that have been first reared 
in the stove, or in heat, ought to be 
thus treated, otherwise it is found in 
practice that many of them make little 
progress for the first season or two. 

"Another cause which operates 
against the free progress of some 
climbers is, that for the sake of conve- 
nience they are increased from cuttings 
of the flowering shoots, which are more 



CORCHORUS. See Sherria. 

CORDIA. Thirty species. Stov«r 
evergreen trees or shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

CORDYLINE. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Suckers. Peat and 
loam, or any light vegetable soil. 

COREMA alba. Hardy evergreen 
shrub. Layers. Sandy peat. 

COREOPSIS. Twenty-three species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials. 



or less stunted, and the young plants Cuttings and division. Rich light soil. 



for a time retain that character, until 
forced by a good feeding or strong heat 
to assume their native freedom ; and 
even after that is effected, if they are 
afterwards much confined in small pots, 
they become again stunted ; then the 
best remedy is to cut them down to the 
surface of the ground, and force them 
in a hot-bed to make a fresh growth. 



The annuals and biennials by seeds. 
Common soil. 

COREOPSIS. See Chrysostemona. 

CORETHROSTYLIS ftractea. Green- 
house shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. • 

CORIANDRUM sativum. Coriander. 
Hardy annual. Seeds. Common soil. 

CORIARIA. Two species. Hardy 



Beaumontia grandiflora, and some of i and green-house evergreen shrubs. The 
the stove Bignonias, are the first to suf- hardy species is increased by cuttings 
fer from either cause; yet when they! of the roots or suckers. Common soil, 
are young and vigorous, they grow from j The green-house species by cuttings. 



ten to twenty feet in length in one sea- 
son, and some Bignonias even much 
more. The former should be about two 
or three years old, and from fifteen to 
twenty feet in length before it is planted 



Sand, loam, and peat. 

CORIS monspeliensis. Green-house 
biennial. Seeds. Peat and loam. 

CORK TREE. Quercus suber. 

CORNELIAN CHERRY. Cornus 



in the conservatory, where it flowers mascula. 



freely for two or three months, in ter- 
minal heads, of large white trumpet- 
shaped flowers." — Gard. Chron. 

CONTORTION. See Deformity. 

CONVALLARIA. The Lily of the 
Valley. One species, and two varieties. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
Common soil. 

CONVOLVULUS. Fifty-one species. 
Chiefly twiners. The stove and green- 
house plants thrive best in loam and 
peat, and increase by cuttings ; the 
hardy kinds, and green-house annuals 
and biennials, by seeds. Common soil. 

COOKIA punctata. Stove evergreen 
tree. Ripened cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

COOPERIA. Two species. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Seeds. Sandy 
compost. 

COPTIS trifoliata. Hardy herba- 
ceous perennial. Division or 
Peat soil. 

CORAL TREE. Erythrina corallo- 
dendron. 

CORAXIC POISON BULB. Bruns- 
vigia coronica. 

CORBULARIA serotina. Hardy bul- 
bous perennial. Offsets. Sandy loam. 



CORN FLAG. Gladiolus bullatus. 

CORN SALAD. See Lamb's Lettuce. 

CORNUS. Thirteen species, and 
some varieties. Chiefly hardy decidu- 
ous shrubs and trees. Seeds or layers. 
Common soil. The herbaceous species 
thrive best in peat, and increase by di- 
vision of the root. 

C. florida is a common tree in the 
United States. It is a pleasing object 
when in bloom ; its creamy white brac- 
tea enlivening the woodland when but 
few plants have yet expanded their 
flowers. 

CORNUTI A pyramidata. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

CORONILLA. Sixteen species, and 
one variety. Chiefly half-hardy ever- 
green shrubs. The green-house species 
are increased by cuttings or seeds, 
seeds, j Peat and loam. The herbaceous re- 
i quire protection in severe weather. 
Seeds or division. The hardy annuals. 
Seeds. Common soil. Some are hardy 
deciduous creepers. 

CORRtEA. Nine species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand 
and loam. 



COR 



167 



CR A 



CORRIGIOLA. Three species. Har- 
dy trailers. Seeds. Common soil. 

CORTUSA Mathiole. Hardy herba- 
ceous perennial. Requires protection 
in severe weather. Division or seeds. 
Peat and loam. 

CORYANTHES. Three species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

CORYCIUM. Two species. Half- 
hardy orchids. Division. Loam and 
peat. 

CORYDALIS. Twenty- four species. 
Hardy annuals, biennials, or tuberous- 
rooted perennials. The latter increase 
by division. Peat and loam. The an- 
nuals by seeds. Common soil. 

CORYLUS. Nut Tree. Seven spe- 
cies, and many varieties. Hardy de- 
ciduous shrubs. Suckers or layers. 
Common soil. See Filbert. 

CORYNOCARPUS Icevigatus. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Layers. Rich 
mould. 

CORYPHA. Eight species. Palms. 
A strong moist heat, and sandy loam. 

COSCENIUM fenestration. Stove 
evergreen climber. Division. Loam 
and peat. 

COSMEA. Seven species. Green- 
house or hardy annuals. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

COSMELIA rubra. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. 

COSMUS. Three species. Hardy 
and green-house tuberous-rooted pe- 
rennials. Division. Common soil. C. 
tenuifolius is a hardy annual, increased 
from seeds. 

COSSIGNIA borbonica. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

COSTMARY. See Balsamita. 

COSTUS. Twelve species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Division or 
seed. Peat and loam. 

COTONEASTER. Ten species, and 
some varieties. Hardy deciduous 
shrubs. Layers. Common soil. 

COTYLEDON. Thirty-six species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs : a few 
herbaceous perennials. Cuttings dried 
in the sun. Sandy loam. 

COULTERIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Seeds. Peat and 
loam. 

COURGOURDE. Lagenaria vul- 
garis. 

COUTAREA speciosa. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 



CO WANI A plicata. Hardy evergreen 
shrub. Division. Sandy peat. 

COWBERRY. Vaccinium Vitis Idea. 

COWDIE PINE. Dammara australis. 

COWSLIP. {Primula veris.) There 
are several varieties, varying in colour 
from almost white to a very deep yel- 
low ; some are single, but others are 
double, in the form that florists distin- 
guish as hose-in-hose , the calyx in these 
being converted into corolla. Some 
specimens will produce one hundred 
pips upon a single truss, and they have 
been known to yield even more than 
one hundred and fifty. 

The cultivation is the same as that of 
the Polyanthus. 

CRAMBE. Three species. Hardy 
tuberous-rooted perennial. Division or 
seed. Rich soil. See Sea-kale. 

CRANBERRY. Oxy coccus palustris. 

CRANE'S BILL. Geranium. 

CRASSULA. Fifty-nine species and 
a few varieties. Hardy evergreen an- 
nual or biennial shrubs. Cuttings laid 
for a few days in the sun. Sandy loam 
and brick rubbish. 

CRATAEGUS. Hawthorn. Fifty 
species and many varieties. Chiefly 
hardy deciduous low trees. Seeds, 
buds, or grafts. 

Dr. Lindley gives the following list 
of the most showy kinds. 

C. Aronia. — Most showy species of 
all in the autumn ; very large bright 
yellow fruit in great abundance. 

C. Tenacetifolia. — Upright growing, 
finely cut leaves, the largest fruit of all, 
yellow. 

C. Odoratissima. — A spreading tree ; 
downy leaves, numerous large bright 
red fruit in the autumn. 

C. Orientalis. — Large dark red fruit. 

C. Coccinia. — Very showy; large and 
numerous bunches of bright red fruit in 
the autumn. 

C. Glandulosa. — Dense bush, and is 
ornamental in the autumn, covered 
with abundance of rather large red fruit. 

C. Punctata. — Three varieties, one 
with red fruit, another with yellow, and 
a third with an upright or fastigiate 
habit of growth. 

C. Oliveriana. — Small, deeply cut, 
woolly leaves, and small black fruit, 
numerous and ornamental in the au- 
tumn. 

C. Bouglasii. — Various shaped leaves 
and black fruit, which ripen early in 
the autumn. 



CR A 



168 



C RO 



C. Nigra. — Strong growing, with 
black fruit and deeply divided leaves, 
flowering rather early. 

C. Heterophylla. — Beautiful species, 
profusion of flowers in the spring, and 



curled leaved, and broad leaved. The 
method of cultivation is the same as is 
used for the parsley. To have a con- 
stant supply in perfection, very frequent 
sowings should be made; during hot, 



numerous small red fruit in the autumn. I dry weather, it should be sown in the 
C. Macracantha. — With immense j shade of trees, or protected by brush, 
spines and small shining yellowish-red &c.,from the direct rays of the sun." — 
fruit, produced in large bunches early j Rural Register. 



in the autumn 

C. Pyrifolia. — Free flowering kind, 
with small, but very numerous yellow- 
ish-red fruit, which ripen very late in 
the autumn. 

C. Crus-Galli. — Bright shining green 
leaves, and numerous bunches of dark- 
red fruit, which ripen very late in the 
autumn. The most desirable is the 
variety called sallicifolia, which has 
horizontal branches, forming a flat ta- 
ble-shaped head. 

C. Prunifolia. — A close bush, rather 
large shining leaves, and numerous 
bunches of dark-red fruit, which ripen 
late in the autumn. 

C. Flava. — Small greenish-yellow 
fruit late in the autumn. 

C. Virginiana. — A dwarf kind, with 
numerous green fruit, it retains its fruit 
nearly all the winter. 

C. Cordata. — The latest in flower, 
and bears the smallest fruit; it has bright 
shining angular leaves, and bright red 
berries. 

V. Oxycantha Rosea Superba. — The 
most brilliant of all when in flower, it 
bears bright crimson blossoms in May. 
The double variety of it has also flowers, 
nearly as intense in colour, and quite 
double. 

CRATtEVA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich strong 
soil. 

CREEPERS or TRAILERS are plants 
which by having numerous stems and 
branches resting upon and spreading 
over the soil's surface, are useful for 
concealing what would be unpleasing 
to the eye. 

CRESCENTIA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Ripened cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CRESS. (Lepidium sativum.) 

" The Garden Cress, or Pepper 
Grass is a hardy annual plant ; its na- 
tive country is unknown. It is culti- 
vated in gardens for the young Reaves 
which are used in salads, and have a 
peculiarly warm and grateful relish. 

" The varieties are the plain leaved, 



CRESS ROCKET. See Vella. 

CRINUM. Sixty-six species and some 
varieties. Stove or green-house bulbous 
perennials. Offsets. Rich loam, peat, 
and sand. 

C. capense, is thus recommended by 
the best cultivator of the amaryllidee, to 
which the Crinum belongs. The Rev. 
W. Herbert says, — "Crinum capense is 
good for covering small islands, as af- 
fording by its abundant arched foliage, 
the best possible covert for wild fowl, 
and producing an abundant succession 
of beautiful flowers throughout the sum- 
mer, and even the autumn. The plant 
is equally capable of flowering and 
ripening its seed when planted in a 
border, or two feet under the surface 
of the water, or in a rainy season. It 
could be best planted a little above the 
level of the water. The seed sprouts 
as soon as it is ripe, and the young 
plants should be sheltered in pots the 
first and second winter, and then plant- 
ed out; taking care that the weeds do 
not smother them while young. The 
bulbs when full grown are hardy." — 
Gard. Chron. 

CHRISTARIA coccinea. Hardy her- 
baceous perennial. Division or seeds. 
Peat soil. 

CROCUS. Many species and varie- 
ties. Hardy bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets or seeds. Light sandy soil. 

Spring Crocuses. — C. vernus: of this 
there are about five varieties, varying 
in colour, chiefly yellow, white, purple, 
and blue ; C. annulatus, four varieties, 
blue and white ; C. speciosus, three va- 
rieties ; C. pulchellus; C. Sibthorpianus; 
C. Icevigatus, two varieties ; C. lagena- 
florus, many varieties ; C. campestris; 
C. cancellatus; C. retaulatus, four va- 
rieties ; C. gargaricus ; C. Siberianus ; 
C. Fleischerianus; C. parvulus; C. pyre- 
caus; C. asturinus; C. serotinus; C. 
salmnaunianus; C. versicolor, five va- 
rieties ; C. imperatorianus ; C. suaveo- 
lens; C. insularis; C. odorus; C. longi- 
florus ; C. medius ; C. Pallasianus ; C. 
Thomasianus, two varieties ; C. sativus. 






CRO 



169 



CRO 



Of the Autumn Crocus, the Rev. Dr. 
Herbert particularizes the following : 

C. Damascenus, pale purple; C. By- 
zantinus, white ; C. Touraefortianus, 
French white ; C. Cambessedesianus, 
white, streaked with purple ; C. medius, 
purple ; C. Cartwrightianus, purple ; 
C. var. Creticus, purple and pink ; C. 
Chusianus, light purple. — Bot. Reg. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — 

" First. — It should be composed of 
six.petals, three inner and three outer; 
but fitting so close as to form a cup the 
shape of half a hollow ball. 

" Second. — The petals should be 
broad enough and blunt enough at the 
ends to form an even edge all round 
the cup, and lap over each other so 
much as to have no indentations where 
they join. 

" Third. — The petals should be thick 
and smooth on the edge, without notch 
or serratine. 

"Fourth. — The colour should be 
dense and all over the same, if the 
variety be a self; and the marking 
should be very distinct, if variegated. 

" Fifth. — It should be hardy enough 
to stand the frost, for those which are 
spoiled by the frosts, which come after 
they flower, are almost worthless, be- 
cause they all bloom early, before the 
frosts are gone, and therefore their only 
beauty would be destroyed unless they 
stood the cold well. 

"Lastly. — They ought to bloom 
abundantly, the flowers succeeding each 
other to lengthen the season of their 
bloom." — Hort. Mag. 

Cultivation. — "The seeds of crocuses 
are best sown thinly, immediately after 
being gathered in light dry earth in large 
pots or pans, with a sufficiency of holes 
and potsherds at the bottom for the pur- 
pose of draining all, and cover not more 
than half an inch with the mould. The 
most eligible aspect or situation until 
the autumnal rains set in, is a moderate- | 
ly shady, yet unsheltered one, permit- j 
ting them to receive all the influence of | 
the weather, except such heavy showers 
as would wash bare the seeds. As soon, 
however, as the autumnal rains com- 
mence, remove to a warm aspect ; and 
protect them from all excessive rains, 
frosts, and snows, by the occasional 
shelter of a garden-frame, allowing 
them, nevertheless, the benefit of the 
full air at other times ; but more espe- 
cially after the seminal leaf, for they 



have but one, (being monocotyledonous 
plants,) appears above the surface of 
the earth. 

"This occurs sometimes about the 
end of the year; but oftener in earliest 
spring. After this it is essential that 
they should have complete exposure to 
the air, even in frosty weather, screen- 
ing them, however, occasionally with 
loose straw from other injurious effects 
of frost. In this manner may the young 
crocuses be treated until the sun ac- 
quires sufficient power to dry the earth, 
or as to require daily waterings. It will 
be then found advantageous to remove 
them to a cooler, but not sheltered 
situation, and here they may remain 
until their leaves lie down ; giving them 
at all times, and in every situation, 
while their leaves are growing, such 
discretional rose waterings, when the 
sun is not shining, as they may reason- 
ably appear to require ; but never until 
the earth they grow in becomes dry; 
not any whatever after their leaves 
begin to look yellow. After this period 
it is necessary to defend them from all 
humidity, except dews and gentle rains, 
until the end of August or beginning of 
September. 

" If the surface of the earth is oc- 
casionally stirred with the point of a 
knife it will never fail to be attended 
with beneficial effects, and invigorate 
the bulbs ; if notwithstanding the pre- 
caution of thinly sowing the seeds, the 
plants should have grown so thickly to- 
gether as to have incommoded each 
other, it will be desirable to have such 
taken up and replanted immediately 
further asunder in fresh earth, and about 
three quarters of an inch deep. But if 
they are not too crowded, they will re- 
quire no shifting ; sift a little earth over 
them, previously stirring and cleaning 
the surface of the old from moss and 
weeds, and observing not to bury the 
young bulbs, not yet so large as lentils, 
deeper than three quarters of an inch, 
or an inch at the most. The second 
season requires exactly the same man- 
agement as the first. But as soon as 
their second year's foilage has passed 
away, the roots should all be taken up 
and replanted again, the same or fol- 
lowing day, into fresh earth of the same 
kind a»before; sifting over them in au- 
tumn half an inch of fresh earth. The 
spring following, if they have been duly 
attended to, most of them will show 



CRO 



170 



cue 



flowers ; a few, perhaps, having done 
so in the midst of their fourth crop of 
leaves." — Hort. Soc. Trans. 

They are very hardy, and require no 
care till the leaves begin to fade, when 
they should be taken up and kept in a 
state of rest for two or three months : 
some do not take them up oftener than 
once in three years, which answers 
very well for the border sorts. Even 
these, however, should not be left 
longer; because, as the young bulbs 
are formed on the top of the others, 
they come nearer to the surface every 
year, till at last, if neglected, they are 
thrown out and lost. — Enc. Gard. 

Soil, 8fC. — They like a warm, dry, 
light soil, in which they will thrive for 
many years without requiring removal. 
Both are, however, better for being 
taken up occasionally, because in that 
way their roots are exposed to fresh soil, 
and are not obliged to search through 
exhausted earth for their necessary food. 
They are fond of cow-dung as a manure; 
it may be applied just after Christmas. 
-~-Gard. Chron. 

CROWEA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

CROWN IMPERIAL. See Fritil- 
lary. 

CRUCIANELLA. Fourteen species. 
Hardy annuals and herbaceous peren- 
nials. C. americana and C. maritima 
are green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

CRYPTANDRA. Two species. 
Green-house shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
light loam. 

CRYPTOCHILUS sanguined. Stove 
orchid. Offsets. Peat and potsherds. 

CRYPTOLEPIS elegans. Stove ever- 
green climber. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

CRYPTOMERIA japonica. Japan 
Cedar. " Hardy evergreen tree, which 
will probably prove one of the most 
ornamental of the Conifers. Sow the 
seed in sandy loam in a cool place; pot 
singly ; the first year it will attain a 
height of from twelve to eighteen 
inches. It grows rapidly, and is as easily 
managed as the Chinese Arbor Vitas 
{Thuja Orientalis), succeeding in almost 
any soil or situation, not very p\>or or 
wet." — (Hort. Soc. Journ.) — It will be 
propagated, probably, by cuttings. 

CRYPTOSTEGIA. Two species. 



twiners. Cuttings. 



Three species. 
Common soil. 
Lychnis flos- 



Stove evergreen 
Loam and peat. 

CRYPTOSTEMMA. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. 

CUCKOO-FLOWER. 
cuculi. 

CUCKOO-FLOWER. Cardaminepra- 

t&7ZS2S 

CUCKOO-SPIT. See Tettigonia. 

CUCULLIA verbasci. Mullien Shark. 
The caterpillars of this moth are very 
destructive to Verbascums in June and 
July. Mr. Curtis describes them as 
being " about two and a half inches 
long, bluish white and thickly sprinkled 
with black and bright yellow spots ; 
when touched, they emit a considerable 
quantity of dark green fluid from their 
mouths. When they have attained their 
growth, they burrow into the ground at 
the roots of the plant on which they 
have been feeding, and in a few days 
form a cocoon made principally of half 
rotted leaves and fine mould, and bound 
firmly together with silk, so as to re- 
semble a stone, or a small lump of earth. 
They remain in this state till the follow- 
ing May, and sometimes for two years, 
when they emerge as pretty blackish 
brown moths. The wings, when ex- 
tended, measure between one and two 
inches across; the upper pair are brown- 
ish, clouded with black, and have on 
the inner edge a pale white patch, re- 
sembling the figure 3, or the Greek 
letter ?; the lower wings are pale 
brownish, and sometimes nearly white, 
and have a broad dark border. We 
have seen those caterpillars in such 
abundance in some gardens, as to com- 
pletely destroy all the different kinds of 
Mullein, and the nearly allied plants. 
The only way to lessen their ravages, 
is to collect and kill the caterpillars." 
—Gard. Chron. 

CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativus. 
This, like many other esculent vege- 
tables, has been divided into a number 
of varieties and subvarieties, the greater 
portion of which could be easily dis- 
pensed with ; for all useful purposes, 
three or four varieties are amply suffi- 
cient. " Those principally grown are 
the Early Frame and Long Green 
Prickly. The Early Frame is of mode- 
rate length, prickly, and is the variety 
generally used as the early crop for 



" The Long Green is mostly grown 
for pickling ; all the varieties are very 



cue 



171 



cue 



tender, not bearing the least frost. For 
an early supply start some plant in pots 
or boxes, early in the spring, and when 
the season is more advanced set them 
out on a well sheltered border, in hills, 
with some thoroughly rotted manure 
incorporated with the soil. Seed for 
succeeding crops may then be planted. 
For pickles, plant the latter end of 
June and beginning of July. The Cu- 
cumber, like the Squash, &c, is liable 
to be preyed upon by yellow bugs, 
which are very destructive. To coun- 
teract them prepare a mixture of slaked 
lime and wood ashes, and sprinkle it 
freely on the leaves and stems whilst 
the dew is on, that it may adhere. As 
often as it may be washed or blown off, 
repeat the application, till the enemy be 
conquered. 

" For the method of making sieves or 
boxes to protect cucumber ,jines, melon 
vines, &c, against the yellow bug, see 
the New England Farmer, vol. 2, page 
305." — Rural Register. 

To force Cucumbers. — Most persons 
who have the requisite conveniences 
force this vegetable. The following hints 
may be useful, even to those who have 
some experience. 

The hot-bed for seedlings must be 
moderate, and a single one or two light 
frames will be quite sufficient if dedi- 
cated to their cultivation. The mould 
need not be more than five or six inches 
deep. The seed is best sown four 
together in small pots, and plunged in 
the earth of the bed ; but whether here 
or in the mould, it must not be buried 
more than half an inch deep. Two or 
three days after sowing, or when the 
seminal leaves are half an inch in 
breadth, those in the mould of the bed 
must be pricked three together in small 
pots, quite down to their leaves in the 
earth, which should be brought to the 
temperature of the bed before this re- 
moval, by being set in it for a day or 
two previously ; those seedlings that 
have been raised in pots, must likewise 
be thinned to three in each. They 
must remain plunged in the hot-bed 
until their rough leaves have acquired 
a breadth of two or three inches, when 
they are fit for ridging out finally. 

During this first stage of growth, 
great care must be taken that air is ad- 
mitted everyday as freely as contingent 
circumstances will admit, as also at 
night, if the degree of heat and steam 



threatens to be too powerful. It must 
never be neglected to cover the glasses 
at night, apportioning the covering to 
the temperature of the air and bed. 
The heat should not exceed 80° in the 
hottest day, or sink below 65° during 
the coldest night. 

If the heat declines, coatings of hot 
dung are to be applied in succession 
to the back, front, and sides, if that 
source of heat be employed. As the 
mould appears dry, moderate waterings 
must be given, care being taken not to 
wet the leaves. The best time for ap- 
plying it is between ten and two of a 
mild day, the glasses being closed for 
an hour or two after performing it. 
The temperature of the water must be 
between 65° and 80°. The interior of 
the glass should be frequently wiped, to 
prevent the condensed steam dropping 
upon the plants, which is very injurious 
to them. If the bed attains a sudden 
violent heat, the necessary precautions 
to prevent the roots of the plants being 
injured or scalded, must be adopted ; 
but if hot water is the source of heat, 
this danger is avoided altogether. 

It is a material advantage if, previous 
to planting finally, the plants be turned 
into pots a few sizes larger, without at 
all disturbing the roots, and plunged 
into a hot-bed for a month longer, the 
same attention being paid them as 
before. 

The second stage of cultivation is 
planting them out into hot-beds for final 
production. The hot-bed for their re- 
ception must be of the largest size, as 
being required to afford a higher and 
longer continued warmth through the 
coldest periods of the year. 

When the earth is put on, it is at first 
to be spread only two or three inches 
deep, but under the centre of each light 
a hillock must be constructed, eight or 
ten inches deep and a foot in diameter. 
The earthing should be performed at 
least four or five days before planting, 
at which time the earth must be ex- 
amined ; if it be of a white colour and 
caked, or, as it is technically termed, 
burnt, it must be renewed, for the 
plants will not thrive in it, and holes 
bored in the bed to give vent to the 
steam. 

Thetnould of the hillocks being well 
stirred, the plants must be turned out 
of the pots without disturbing the ball 
of earth, and one containing three plants 



cue 



172 



cue 



inserted in each; a little water, previ- 
ously heated to the requisite tempera- 
ture, must be given, and the glasses kept 
perfectly close until the next morning. 
Any plants not in pots must be moved 
by the trowel with as much earth per- 
taining to their roots as possible. The 
shade of a mat is always requisite dur- 
ing the meridian of bright days until 
the plants are well established. They 
must be pressed gradually away from 
each other, until at least eight inches 
apart ; nothing can be more erroneous 
than to allow them to proceed with the 
stems nearly touching. 

When well taken root, earth must be 
added regularly over the bed, until it is 
level with the tops of the mounds ; for 
if there be not a sufficient depth of soil 



keep the frames close, and to lessen 
the opening of the glasses, in propor- 
tion as the air is cold or the beds de- 
clining, it never exceeding two inches 
under the most favourable circum- 
stances. Water is usually required two 
or three times a week ; it must be 
warmed as before mentioned previously 
to its application. Instead of watering 
the inside of the frame, it is a good 
plan to do so plentifully round the 
sides, which causes a steam to rise, and 
affords a moisture much more genial to 
the plants than watering the mould. 

The last stage of growth includes the 
blossoming and production of fruit. The 
training must be regularly attended to, 
and all superabundance of shoots and 
leaves especially kept away. If the 



the leaves will always droop during hot | plants which have been once stopped 



days, unless they are shaded, or more 
water given them than is proper. 

An important operation for the ob- 
taining early fruit, but by no means so 
necessary for later crops, is the first 
pruning, or as it is termed, stopping the 
plant, that is, nipping off the top of the 
first advancing runner, which is to be 
done as soon as the plant has attained 
four rough leaves ; this prevents its at- 
taining a straggling growth, and compels 
it at once to emit laterals, which are 
the fruitful branches. When they be- 
gin to run, the shoots must be trained 
and pegged down at regular distances, 
which not only prevents their rubbing 
against the glass, but also becoming 
entangied with each other. Never 
more than two or three main branches 
should be left to each plant, all others 
to be removed as they appear. If more 
are left it causes the whole to be weak, 
and entirely prevents the due exposure 
of the foliage to the sun. The greatest 
care is necessary in regulating the tem- 
perature ; it must never be allowed to 
decline below 70° or rise above 95°. 
As it decreases, coatings of hot dung 
must be applied to the sides, and the 
covering increased. The temperature 
of the bed, as well as of the exterior 
air, governs also the degree of freedom 
with which the air may be admitted ; 
whenever allowable, the glasses should 
be raised. The best time for doing so, 
is from ten to three o'clock. 

It may not be misplaced to remark, 
that chilly foggy days are even less pro- 
pitious for admitting air than severe 
frosty ones; during such it is best to 



have extended their runners to three 
joints without showing fruit, they must 
be again stopped. 

The impregnation of the fruit now 
requires continued attention ; as soon 
as a female blossom, which is known 
by having fruit beneath the flower-cup, 
opens, or on the second morning at 
farthest, a fresh full expanded male 
flower is to be plucked, with its foot- 
stalk pertaining to it, and the corolla or 
flower-cup being removed, the remain- 
ing central part or anther applied to the 
stigma of the female, which is similarly 
situated, and the fecundating dust dis- 
charged by gently twirling it between 
the finger and thumb. If possible a 
fresh male blossom should be employed 
for every impregnation, and the opera- 
tion performed in the early part of the 
day. An attention to this is only re- 
quisite to such plants as are in frames ; 
those grown in the open air are always 
sufficiently impregnated by bees and 
other insects. If impregnation does not 
take place the fruit never swells to more 
than half its natural size, nor perfects 
any seed, but generally drops imma- 
turely. When the male flowers appear 
in clusters they may be thinned mode- 
rately with benefit; but it is almost 
needless to deprecate the erroneous 
practice sometimes recommended of 
plucking them off entirely. As the fruit 
advances, tiles, sand, or other material, 
must be placed beneath it to preserve 
it from specking, or a glass cylinder is 
still better; if a bulb containing water is 
attached, the fruit grows faster and finer. 
The same precautions are necessary as 



cue 



173 



cue 



regards the preservation of tempera- 
ture, admission of air, &c, as in the se- 
cond stage of the growth of the plants. 
Towards the conclusion of the first pro- 
duction, it is a good practice to renew 
the heat by adding eighteen inches of 
fermenting dung all round the bed, pre- 
vious coatings being entirely removed, 
and to earth over it to the same depth 
as in the interior of the bed. This pre- 
vents the roots, when they have ex- 
tended themselves to the sides of the 
bed, being dried by exposure to the 
air and sun. As the spring advances 
the glasses may be often taken off dur- 
ing mild days, or even to admit a light 
temperate rain. In June, or July, accord- 
ing to the geniality of the season, they 
may be removed finally, and even before, 
the frames may be raised on bricks, so 
as to allow the runners to spread at will. 

For a middling-sized family, from four 
to eight lights are sufficient to afford a 
constant supply, and for a larger one, 
double those numbers. During mid- 
winter, twelve weeks elapse between 
the time of sowing the seed and the fit- 
ness of the fruit for gathering ; but as 
the more temperate seasons of the year 
advance 5 this period decreases gradually 
to eight. Between the time of impreg- 
nation and their full growth, from fifteen 
to twenty days usually elapse. Under 
favourable circumstances and manage- 
ment, the same vines will continue in 
production three or four months. 

Mr. Mills, one of the most successful 
growers with dung heat, gives me these 
leading points of his culture : — 

Mr. Mills sows on the 29th of Sep- 
tember, and transplants into the fruit- 
ing-pit on the 29th of October. Range 
of temperature in pit, 65° to 85° and 
95° ; and of the bottom-heat from 85° to 
95^. He uses neither saline nor liquid 
manure. The water employed is about 
80°, but in this Mr. Mills is not particu- 
lar; Mr. Beaton, to avoid the degene- 
rating almost unavoidably incident to 
the fancy varieties, if propagated by 
seed, employs cuttings or layers. His 
practice was also adopted by Mr. Mears, 
gardener to W. Hanbury, Esq., near 
Leominster, and is recommended by 
Mr. McPhail. We also saw a very fine 
cucumber, ripened in January of this 
year (1844), by Mr. Mills, from a cut- 
ting planted in October. As the end of 
September is the best time for pursuing 
this mode of propagation, we will just 



state the mode. Put five inches of earth 
into a twelve pot, in which plant three 
cuttings, taken from as many vigorous 
bearing branches ; water plentifully ; 
place a sheet *>f glass over the top of 
the pot, the sides of which will shade 
the cuttings until they are rooted ; 
plunge in a hot-bed ; and in less than a 
fortnight the plants will be established. 
The vines thus raised are not so succu- 
lent as those raised from seed, and con- 
sequently they are less liable to damp, 
or to suffer in other ways during win- 
ter. — Trans. Lond. Hort. Soc. 

Hot Water Beds. — If hot water be the 
source of heat, the following sketch of 
the bed and frame employed by Mr. 
Mitchell, at Worsley, is about the best 
that can be employed. The objects 
kept in view when it was constructed, 
were: — " 1st. A circulation of air with- 
out loss of heat. 2d. A supply of mois- 
ture at command proportionable to the 
temperature. 3d. A desirable amount 
of bottom heat. 4th. A supply of ex- 
ternal air (when necessary) without 
producing a cold draught. 

Fig. 31. 



fSi^ 



i*i 



" The method by which the first of 
these is accomplished, will be under- 
stood by referring to the section, in 
which a is the flow-pipes, bb b the re- 
turn pipes in the chamber a. It is 
evident that, as the air in the chamber 
becomes heated, it will escape upwards 
by the opening c, and the cold air from 
the passage b will rush in to supply its 
place ; but the ascending current of 
heated air coming in contact with the 
glass, is cooled, descends, and enter- 
ing the passage b, passes into the cham- 
ber a, where it is again heated ; and 
thus a constantcirculation is produced. 
In order to obtain the second object, I 
have to some extent combined the tank 
and pipe systems. 



cue 



174 

— ♦ — 



cue 



"The flow-pipe a is put half its di- 
ameter into the channel c, which when 
filled with water, (or so far as is neces- 
sary,) gives off a vapour, exactly pro- 
portionable to the heat of the pipe and 
pit. 

" The third requisition is produced 
by the surrounding atmosphere and heat- 
ing materials. 

" The fourth is accomplished simply 
by lowering the upper sash ; the cold 
air thus entering at the top only, falls 
directly into the passage b, and passes 
through the hot chamber before coming 
in contact with the plants. In order to 
test the circulation, I fixed a piece of 
paper near the front of the pit, and 
found the current to be so strong as to 
bend it backwards and give it a tremu- 
lous motion. When the heat in the 
chamber is 95°, in the open space over 
the bed it is 71° ; in the bottom of the 
passage only 60° ; and in the mould in 
the bed it is 80°. 

' ; The amount of vapour is regulated 
with the greatest facility, even from the 
smallest quantity to the greatest den- 
sity." — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Latter, one of the most success- 
ful of cucumber growers, employs hot 
water, and he gives me these leading 
points in his culture. He sows in the 
first week of September, and the vines 
from this sowing will be in bearing and 
very strong before February. The 
seedlings are first shifted into sixty 
sized pots, secondly into twenty-fours, 
and lastly into the largest size. If to be 
trained on a trellis, the runner must 
not be stopped until it has, trained to a 
stick, grown through the trellis. The 
temperature in the pit or frame is kept 
as nearly 65° as possible during the 
night, and from 75° to 85° during the 
day ; air being admitted night and day, 
little or much, according to the state of 
the weather. The bottom heat (Mr. 
Latter is the champion of the hot-water 
system) is kept as near as can be to 70°, 
although he finds that 85° does not 
hurt the plants. He waters them with 
soft water until February, and then 
employs liquid manure, taking care that 
the temperature of the liquid is always 
from 75° to 80°. The earth over the 
hot water tank or pipes ought not to be 
less than fifteen inches deep. During 
severe frosts it is an excellent plan to 
keep a small floating light burning with- 
in the frame every night. 



Training. — There is no doubt that 
training near the glass of the frames 
upon a trellis, makes the cucumber vine 
more prolific, and more enduring. In- 
deed, if trained with proper care, the 
same vine may be made to bear through- 
out the year. 

Hand Glass Crops. — The first sow- 
ings for these crops must be in the last 
two weeks ofMarch ; to be repeated in 
the middle of April and May. The seed 
may be inserted in a moderate hot-bed 
under hand-glasses, or in the upper side 
of one of the frames already in produc- 
tion, either in pots as directed for the 
frame crops, or in the mould of the bed, 
to be pricked into similar situation 
when of four or five days' growth, in- 
serting only two plants, however, in 
each pot. They must remain in the 
hot-bed until of about a month's growth, 
or until they have attained four rough 
leaves ; being then stopped as before 
directed they are fit for ridging out 
finally. 

The ridges may be founded on the 
surface, or in trenches a foot and a half 
deep, in either case forming them of 
well prepared hot dung, three or four 
feet wide and two and a half high ; the 
length being governed by the number of 
hand-glasses, between each of which 
three feet and a half must be allowed. 
The earth is to be laid on eight inches 
thick ; when this becomes warm the 
plants may be inserted two, or at most 
three, under each glass. 

Watering, airing, covering, &c.,must 
be conducted with the precautions di- 
rected to be practised for the frame 
crops. The glasses should be kept on 
as long as possible without detriment to 
the plants ; to prolong the time the run- 
ners must be made to grow perpendicu- 
larly ; and still further to protract their 
continuance, if the season is inclement, 
the glasses may be raised on bricks. 
When no longer capable of confine- 
ment, the runners must be pegged down 
regularly, advantage being taken of a 
cool cloudy day to perform it in ; but 
the glasses, even now, may be con- 
tinued over the centre of the plants 
until the close of May or early June, 
with considerable advantage. Weeds 
must be carefully removed. Waterings 
should be performed as often as appears 
necessary. 

If there be a scarcity of dung in the 
last week in April, or during May, cir- 



cue 



175 

— • — 



CUR 



cular holes may be dug, two feet in 
diameter, one deep, and four apart. 
These being filled with hot dung, trod 
in moderately firm, and earthed over 
about eight inches, are ready for either 
seeds or plants. With the shelter of 
the hand-glasses they will be scarcely 
later in production than the regular 
ridges. 
CUCUMIS. Twenty species, and 



many varieties. Hardy or half-hardy 
trailing annuals. Seeds. Good rich 
soil. See Cucumber. 

CUCURBITA. Gourds and Pom- 
pions. Ten species and varieties. — 
Hardy trailing annuals. Seeds. Good 
rich soil. 

CULCITIUM salicinum. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. — 
Common soil. 



Fig. 32. 




" CULTIVATOR FOR THE HAND 
(Fig. 32) Is made of iron, and is capable 
of being expanded at will ; it is of great 
utility in clearing out between rows of 
vegetables, loosening the soil, and at 
once performing the work of four ordi- 
nary hoes." — Rural Reg. 

CULTIVATORS, OR HOE-HAR- 
ROWS. " These are now considered in- 
dispensable in cultivatingcorn, potatoes, 
and all other crops planted in hills or 
drills — doing the work as effectually 
as if hoed, and much more expe- 
ditiously. The form is varied by the 
different makers, especially in the 
teeth or hoes. They are made to ex- 
pand or contract, so as to accommo- 
date in the distance between the 
rows." — Rural Reg. 

CULLUMBINE or COLUMBINE. 
Aquilegia. 

CUMIN. See Cuminum. 

CUMIN. See Lagoecia. 

CUMINUM. Cyminum. Hardy 
annual. Seeds. Common soil. 

CUMMINGIA. Four species. Half- 
hardy bulbous perennials. OfFsetts. 
Loam and peat. 



CUNNINGHAMIA sinensis. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Cuttings or 
seeds. Peat and loam. 

CUNONIA capensis. Green-house 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

CUPANIA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen trees or shrubs. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

CUPHEA. Fourteen species. — 
Green-house or stove annuals ; and 
stove biennial, herbaceous perennial 
or evergreen shrubs. The stove spe- 
cies grow best in sandy loam, and in- 
crease from cuttings. The annuals- 
seeds. Common soil. 

CUP I A. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

CUPRESSUS. Seven species, and 
some varieties. Hardy or green-house 
evergreen trees. Seeds or cuttings. 
Good rich loamy soil. 

CURATELLA. Two species. — 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
Sandy loam. . 

CURCULIGO. Six species, and 
variety. Stove or green-house herba- 



CUR 

Offsets. 



176 

♦ ■ 



CUR 



Loam and 



ceous perennials, 
peat. 

CURCULIO. This genus of Beetle, 
popularly known as Weevils, are de- 
structive to fruit, as nuts, nectarines, 
and peaches, as well as to peas, &c. 
There are many species. 

C. betuleti. Vine Weevil. Colour, 
steel-blue. Attacks the leaf, rolling it 
up as a nest for its eggs. The pear 



whole neighbourhood. Our own ob- 
servation inclines us to the belief that 
this insect emigrates just in proportion 
as it finds in more or less abundance 
the tender fruit for depositing its eggs. 
Verv rarely do we see more than one 
puncture in a plum, and, if the insects 
are abundant, the trees of a single spot 
will not afford a sufficient number for 
the purpose ; then there is little doubt 



liable to its attacks also. Appears in ! (as we have seen them flying through 



June and July 

The species of Curculio, which is 
more fatal in its attack than any other, 
is popularly known as the Plum- 
Weevil. We copy the following article 
on the subject, from the Fruits and 
Fruit Trees of America : — 

"The Curculio, or Plum-Weevil, 
{Rhynchainus Nenuphar,) is the uncom 



the air,) that the insect flies farther in 
search of a larger supply. But usually, 
we think it remains nearly in the same 
neighbourhood, or migrates but slowly. 
" About a week or two after the 
blossoms have fallen from the trees, if 
we examine the fruit of the plum in a 
district where this insect abounds, we 
hall find the small, newly formed fruit, 



promising foe of all smooth-stone fruits, beginning to be punctured by the pro- 
The cultivator of the Plum, the Nec- 
tarine, and the Apricot, in many parts 
of the country, after a flattering pro- 
fusion of snowy blossoms and an abun- 
dant promise in the thickly set young 
crops of fruit, has the frequent mortifi- 
cation of seeing nearly all, or indeed, 
often the whole crop, fall from the 
trees when half or two-thirds grown. 

"If he examines these falling fruits, 
he will perceive on the surface of each, 
not far from the stalk, a small semi- 
circular scar. This star is the crescent- 
shaped insignia of that little Turk, the 
Curculio; an insect so small, as per- 
haps, to have escaped his observation 
for years, unless particularly drawn to 
it, but which nevertheless appropriates 
to himself the whole product of a tree, 
or an orchard of a thousand trees. 

" The habits of this Curculio, or 
Plum- Weevil, are not yet fully and en- 
tirely ascertained. But careful ob- 
servation has resulted in establishing 
the following points in its history. 

" The Plum-Weevil is a small, dark 
brown beetle, with spots of white, 
yellow, and black. Its length is 
scarcely one-fifth of an inch. On its 
back are two black humps, and it is 
furnished with a pretty long, curved 
throat and snout, which, when it is at 
rest, is bent between the forelegs. It 
is also provided with two wings with 
which it flies through the air. How far 
this insect flies is yet a disputed point, 
some cultivators affirming that it scarce 



boscis of the Plum-Weevil. The insect 
is so small and shy, that unless we 
watch closely it is very likely to escape 
our notice. But if we strike or shake 
the tree suddenly, it will fall in con- 
siderable numbers on the ground, 
drawn up as if dead, and resembling a 
small raisin, or, perhaps more nearly, 
a ripe hemp seed. From the first of 
April until August, this insect may be 
found, though we think its depreda- 
tions on fruit, and indeed its appear- 
ance in any quantity, is confined to the 
month of May in this climate. In 
places where it is very abundant, it 
also attacks to some extent the cherry, 
the peach, and even the apple. 

" Early in July the punctured plums 
begin to fall rapidly from the tree. 
The egg deposited in each, at first in- 
visible, has become a white grub or 
larva, which slowly eats its way to- 
wards the stone or pit. As soon as it 
reaches this point, the fruit falls to the 
ground. Here, if left undisturbed, the 
grub soon finds its way into the soil. 

" There, according to most culti- 
vators of fruit, and to our own observa- 
tions, the grubs or larvae remain till the 
ensuing spring, when in their perfect 
form they again emerge as beetles and 
renew their ravages on the fruit. It is 
true that Harris, and some other natu- 
ralists, have proved that the insect does 
sometimes undergo its final transforma- 
tion and emerge from the ground in 
twenty days, but we are inclined to tl: 



ly goes farther than a single tree, and | opinion that this only takes place with 
others believing that it flies over a | a small portion of the brood, which, 



CUR 



177 



CUR 



perhaps, have penetrated but a very 
short distance below the surface of the 
soil. These making their appearance 
in midsummer, and finding no young 
fruit, deposit their eggs in the young 
branches of trees, etc. But it is unde- 
niable that the season of the Plum- 
Weevil is early spring, and that most 
of the larvae which produce this annual 
swarm, remain in the soil during the 
whole period intervening since the fall 
of the previous year's fruit. 

" There are several modes of de- 
stroying this troublesome insect. Be- 
fore detailing them, we will again 
allude to the fact, that we have never 
known an instance of its being trouble- 
some in a heavy soil. Almost always 
the complaint comes from portions of 
country where the soil is light and 
sandy. The explanation of this would, 
seem to be that the compact nature of 
a clayey soil is not favourable to the 
passage or life of this insect, while the 
warm and easily permeable surface of 
sandy land nurses every insect through 
its tender larva? state. Plum trees 
growing in hard trodden court-yards, 
usually bear plentiful crops. Follow- 
ing these hints some persons have de- 
terred the Plum-Weevil by paving be- 
neath the trees ; and we have lately 
seen a most successful experiment 
which consisted in spreading beneath 
the tree as far as the branches ex- 
tended a mortar made of stiff clay 
about the thickness of two or three 
inches — which completely prevented 
the descent of the insect into the earth. 
This is quickly and easily applied, and 
may therefore be renewed every season 
until it is no longer found necessary. 

" The other modes of destroying 
the Plum-Weevil are the following : — 

1 . " Shaking the tree and killing the 
beetles. Watch the young fruit, and you 
will perceive when the insect makes its 
appearance, by its punctures upon them . 
Spread some sheets under the tree, and 
strike the trunk pretty sharply several 
times with a wooden mallet. The in- 
sects will quickly fall, and should be 
killed immediately. This should be 
repeated daily for a week, or so long 
as the insects continue to make their 
appearance. Repeated trials have 
proved, beyond question, that this 
rather tedious mode is a very effectual 
one, if persisted in. Coops of chickens 
placed about under the trees at this 
12 



season will assist in destroying the in- 
sects. 

2. Gathering the fruit and destroying 
the larvcB. As the insect, in its larva? 
or grub form, is yet within the plums 
when they fall prematurely from the 
tree, it is a very obvious mode of ex- 
terminating the next year's brood to 
gather these fallen fruits, daily, and 
feed them to swine, boil, or otherwise 
destroy them. In our own garden, 
where several years ago we suffered by 
the Plum-Weevil, we have found that 
this practice, pursued for a couple of 
seasons, has been pretty effectual. 
Others have reported less favourably of 
it; but this, we think, arose from their 
trying it too short a time, in a soil and 
neighbourhood where the insect is very 
abundant, and where it consequently 
had sought extensively other kinds of 
fruit besides the plum. 

" A more simple and easy way of 
covering the difficulty, where there is 
a plum orchard or enclosure, is that of 
turning in swine and fowls during the 
whole season, when the stung plums 
are dropping to the ground. The fruit, 
and the insects contained in it, will 
thus be devoured together. This is an 
excellent expedient for the farmer, who 
bestows his time grudgingly on the cares 
of the garden. 

3. " The use of salt. A good deal of 
attention has lately been drawn to the 
use of common salt, as a remedy for 
the Curculio. Trials have been made 
with this substance in various parts of 
the country, where scarcely a ripe 
plum was formerly obtained, with the 
most complete success. On the other 
hand, some persons, after testing it, 
have pronounced it of no value. Our 
own experience is greatly in favour of 
its use. We believe that, properly 
applied, it is an effectual remedy 
against the Curculio, while it also pro- 
motes the growth of the tree, and keeps 
the soil in that state most congenial to 
its productiveness. The failures that 
have arisen in its use, have, doubtless, 
grown out of an imperfect application, 
either in regard to the quantity or the 
time of applying it. 

" In the directions usually given, it 
seems only considered necessary to 
apply salt, pretty plentifully, at any 
season. If the soil be thoroughly satu- 
rated with salt, it is probable that it 
would destroy insects therein, in any 



CUR 



178 

— ♦ — 



CUR 



stage of their growth. But, though the 
plum tree seems fond of saline matter, 
(and one of the most successful experi- 
menters applied strong fish brine, at 
the rate of three or four pails full to a 
tree of moderate size,) it must be con- 
fessed this is a somewhat dangerous 
mode, as the roots are forced to re- 
ceive a large supply of so powerful an 
agent at once. 

" The best method of applying salt 
against the Plum-Weevil is that of 
strewing it pretty thickly over the sur- 
face, when the punctured plums com- 
mence dropping. The surface of the 
ground should be made smooth and 
hard, and fine packing salt may then be 
evenly spread over it, as far as the 
branches extend, and about a fourth of 
an inch in depth. Should the weather 
be fine, this coat will last until the fruit 
infected has all fallen ; should it be dis- 
solved or carried off by showers, it 
must be replaced directly. The larvae 
or grubs of the Weevil, in this most 
tender state, emerging from the plum 
to enter the ground, will fall a prey to 
the effect of the salt before they are 
able to reach the soil. If this is care- 
fully and generally practised, we have 
little doubt of its finally ridding the 
cultivator of this troublesome enemy, 
even in the worst districts and soils." 

C. cupreus. Copper-coloured Weevil. 
Attacks the leaves and young shoots of 
the plum and apricot, as well as their 
fruit. June and July. 

C.bacchus. Purple or Apple Weevil. 
Pierces the fruit of the apple, deposit- 
ing within it its eggs. June and July. 

" C. sulcatus. Colour, dull black. 
Attacks the shoots and leaves of vines 
in hot-houses in January, and those on 
walls at the end of May or June. It 
will also eat the leaves and fruit of the 
peach. It deposits its eggs just below 
the surface of the soil, and these not 
only injure the roots of the vine, but 
those of the sedum, saxifrage, trollius, 
auricula, and primrose, detaching the 
roots from the crowns." — Gard. Chron. 
See a fuller description of this insect 
under its modern name of Otyorhincus . 

C. alliarice. Stem-boring Weevil. 
Steel-green colour. Bores the shoots 
and grafts of young fruit trees. Ap- 
pears in June and July. 

C. pomorum. Apple Weevil. Colour, 
dark brown. Attacks the blossom of 
the apple, and often destroys the whole 



crop. More rarely it attacks the pear 
blossom. Appears in March and April. 

C.pyri. Pear Weevil. Dark brown, 
very like the apple weevil. April. 

C.oblongus. Oblong Weevil. Red- 
dish-brown colour. Feeds on the young 
leaves of the peach, apricot, plum, pear, 
and apple. Appears in May. 

C. pleurostigma. See Ambury. 

C. lineatus. Striped Pea Weevil. 
Ochreous colour, and striped. Appears 
in March and April. 

C.macularius. Spotted Weevil. Gray 
colour. April. Also destroys the pea. 
Soot or lime sprinkled over peas early 
in the morning before the dew is oil' 
from them, and so thickly as to cover 
the soil about them, would probably 
save them. To mitigate the attack of 
the weevils upon trees, the only mode 
is to spread a sheet beneath them, to 
shake each branch, and to destroy those 
beetles which fall. They usually feed 
at night. 

C. nucum. Nut Weevil, of which the 
maggot is so frequent in our filberts. 
Mr. Curtis thus describes it : — " The 
insect is brown, with darker bands ; is 
about a quarter of an inch long, and has 
a long horny beak, about the middle of 
which are placed antennas. When the 
nut is in a young state the female weevil 
deposits a single egg. The maggot is 
hatched in about a fortnight, and con- 
tinues feeding in the interior of the nut 
till it is full grown. The nut falls when 
the maggot has no legs, nor, indeed, 
has it any use for them, being hatched 
in the midst of its food ; and when the 
nut remains on the. tree, it forces itself 
out of the hole it eats in the nut, and 
falls almost immediately to the ground. 
The only remedy we are aware of is, 
in the course of the summer to fre- 
quently shake the trees, which will 
cause all the eaten nuts to fall to the 
ground, when they must be collected 
and burned."— Gard. Chron. 

C. picipes is a dull black, and is very 
injurious in the vinery. 

C. tenebricosus infests the apricot. 
Mr. Curtis says, that " every crevice in 
old garden-walls often swarms with 
these weevils ; and nothing would prove 
a greater check to their increase than 
stopping all crevices or holes in walls 
with mortar, plaster of Paris, or Roman 
cement, and the interior of hot-houses 
should be annually washed with lime ; 
the old bark of the vines under which 



CUR 



J 79 



CUR 



they lurk, should be stripped off early 
in the spring, and the roots examined 
in October, when they exhibit any un- 
healthy symptoms from the attacks of 
the maggots of C. sulcatus. 

" When the larvae are ascertained to 
reside at the base of the wall, salt might 
be freely sprinkled, which will kill 
them as readily as it will the maggots 
in nuts ; strong infusions of tobacco- 
water, aloes, and quassia, are also re- 
commended." — Gard. Chron. 

CURCUMA. Twenty-one species. 
Stove herbaceous perennials. From C. 
longa turmeric is obtained. Offsets. 
Rich light soil. 

CURL. A disease of the potato. 
" Any one can ensure the occurrence 
of this disease by keeping the sets in a 
situation favourable to their vegetation, 
as in a warm damp outhouse, and then 
rubbing off repeatedly the long shoots 
they have thrown out. Sets that have 
been so treated I have invariably found 
produce curled plants. Is not the rea- 
son very apparent ? The vital energy 
had been weakened by the repeated 
efforts to vegetate ; so that when planted 
in the soil, their energy was unequal to 
the perfect development of the parts ; 
for the curl is nothing more or less than 
a distorted or incomplete formation of 
the foliage, preceded by an imperfect 
production of the fibrous roots. 

u The variety employed was the Early 
Shaw. An equal number of whole mo- 
derately-sized potatoes, that had been 
treated in three different modes, were 
planted the last week of March. 

" No. 1. Twenty sets that had been 
carefully kept cold and dry throughout 
the winter, firm, unshrivelied, and with 
scarcely any symptoms of vegetation. 

" No. 2. Twenty sets that had been 
kept warm and moist, and from which 
the shoots, after attaining a length of 
six inches, had been thrice removed. 

« No. 3. Twenty sets that had been 
kept warm and moist for about half the 
time that No. 2 had, and from which 
the shoots, three inches in length, had 
been removed only twice. 

" All the sets were planted the same 
morning, each exactly six inches below 
the surface, and each with an unsprout- 
ed eye upwards. The spring was ge- 
nial. 

" Of No. 1, nineteen plants came up. 
The twentieth seemed to have been re- 
moved by an accident. Of the nineteen 



not one was curled. The produce, a 
full average crop. 

" Of No. 2 all came up, but from ten 
to fourteen days later than those of 
No. 1, and three of the plants sixteen 
days later. Fourteen of the plants were 
curled. 

" Of No. 3 all came up, but from ten 
to fourteen days later than those of No. 
1. Four plants were as severely curled 
as those in No. 2, eight were less so, 
and the remainder not at all ; but of 
these the produce was below an ave- 
rage, and a full fortnight later in ripening. 

" Dickson, Crichton, Knight, and 
others, have found that tubers taken up 
before they are fully ripened, produce 
plants not so liable to the curl as those 
that have remained in the ground until 
completely perfected ; and I believe 
under ordinary treatment this to be the 
fact, for it is rational. The process of 
ripening proceeds in the potato, as in 
the apple, after it has been gathered ; 
and until that is perfected it is accumu- 
lating vigour, shows no appetency to 
vegetate, consequently is not exhaust- 
ing its vitality, which is a great point, 
considering the careless mode usually 
adopted to store them through the win- 
ter; for this energy commences its de- 
cline from the moment it begins to de- 
velope the parts of the future plant. 
Tubers taken from the soil before per- 
fectly ripe, never are so early in showing 
symptoms of vegetation. Crichton, Hun- 
ter, and Young, in some of the works 
before referred to, have also agreed, 
that exposing the sets to light and air, 
allowing them to become dry and shri- 
velled/also induces the curl in the plants 
arising from them. This result of ex- 
perience also confirms my conclusion, 
that the disease arises from deficient 
vital energy ; for no process, more than 
this drying one of exposure to the light 
and air, tends to take away from a tuber 
the power of vegetating altogether. 

" Every one acquainted with the cul- 
tivation of the potato, is aware of the 
great difference existing in the varieties; 
as to their early and rapid vegetation, 
those that excel in this quality are of 
course the most easily excitable. A 
consequence of this is, that they are 
always planted earliest in the spring, 
before their vital power has become 
very active ; and of all crops, practice 
demonstrates that these early ones are 
least liable to the curl. But what is 



CUR 



180 

— ♦ — 



CUR 



the consequence, on the contrary, if an 
early variety is planted for a main crop 
later in the spring, when extraordinary 
pains in keeping them cold and dry 
have not been employed to check their 
vegetation, and consequent decrease of 
vital energy ? Such crop, then, is more 
than any other liable to the disease, 
and a good preventive has been sug- 
gested by Dr. Lindley, namely, that of 
planting the tubers in autumn, imme- 
diately after they have ripened. The 
results of my view of the disease, sus- 
tained by numerous experiments, are, 
that it will never occur if the following 
points are attended to: — First, that the 
sets are from tubers that exhibit scarcely 
any symptoms of incipient vegetation ; 
to effect which they ought, throughout 
the winter, to be preserved as cool and 
as much excluded from the air as pos- 
sible. Secondly, that the tubers should 
be perfectly ripened. Thirdly, that they 
should be planted immediately after 
they are cut. Fourthly, that the ma- 
nure applied should be spread regular- 
ly, and mixed with the soil, and not 
along a trench in immediate contact 
with the sets. Fifthly, that the crop is 
not raised for several successive years 
on the same area." — Principles of Gar- 
dening. 

CURRANT. (Ribes.) 

Black Currant. (R. nigrum.) 

1. Black Grape. 

2. Black Naples, largest and best. 

3. Common Black. 

4. Russian Green. 

Red Currant. (R. rubrum.) 

1. Common Red. 

2. Red Dutch, large and good. 

3. Knight's Large Red, largest. 

4. Knight's Sweet Red, large, and not 

so acid as other red varieties. 

5. Knight's Early Red. 

6. Champagne. 

7. Striped-fruited — berries marked with 

red and white stripes. 

8. Striped-leaved. 

9. Rock Currant. 

White Currant. (R. album.) 

1. Common White. 

2. White Dutch, largest and best. 

3. Pearl White. 

4. Speary's White. 

Soil. — Any fertile garden soil suits 
them. 

Propagation. — By Cuttings. — The 
best shoots for propagating from are 
those that are fully ripened, and not too 



strong. They are first to be deprived 
of about two <or three inches of the 
point, and cut into lengths often inches 
or a foot, according to the size and 
strength of the shoots. 

Then, with a sharp knife, divest each 
shoot of the whole of its buds, except- 
ing three or four nearest the top of the 
cutting, which must be left to form the 
branches of the future plant. 

Rubbing off the buds is not sufficient; 
they require to be picked out, or pared 
very close, to prevent them from throw- 
ing up suckers, which materially affect 
the growth of the plants, and rob the 
fruiting branches of most of their nou- 
rishment, when not displaced in proper 
time. The small buds towards the base 
of the cutting are always the most trou- 
blesome in this respect, and great care 
should be taken to remove them effect- 
ually before the cutting is inserted in 
the ground. 

Immediately underneath the part 
which the lowest bud occupied make a 
clean horizontal cut, without displacing 
any portion of the bark, and the cutting 
is then complete. 

A small spot is next to be dug and 
got ready for them, and if it can be 
obtained in a situation that is rather 
shaded than otherwise, so much the 
better. 

The cuttings are then to be inserted 
in rows a foot apart, six or eight inches 
asunder, and two or three inches deep, 
and the earth firmly pressed around 
them, either with the hand, or by plac- 
ing one foot on each side of the row, and 
treading it from one end to the other. — 
Gard. Chron. 

Observe, those designed for common 
standards should be trained up to a 
twelve or fifteen inch stem, then en- 
courage them to branch out all round 
at that height to form a full head, for if 
suffered to branch away immediately 
from the bottom, they overspread the 
ground, that no crops can grow near 
them, as well as appear unsightly, and 
render it inconvenient to do the neces- 
sary work — thin the branches to mode- 
rate distances. 

By Suckers. — All the sorts are too 
apt to send up suckers from the roots ; 
each sucker forming a proper plant is 
the most expeditious mode of propa- 
gating. They may be taken up in 
autumn, winter, or spring, with roots, 
or even such as are without fibres will 






CUR 



181 

— ♦— 



CUR 



succeed ; planting them either in nur- 
sery-rows for a year or two, or such as 
are tall and strong may be planted at 
once, where they are-to remain, observ- 
ing to train the whole for the purposes 
intended, as directed for the cuttings, 
and they will form bearing plants after 
one or two years' growth. 

The propagating by suckers is by 
some objected to, alleging they incline 
to run greatly to suckers again : there 
is, however, but little foundation in 
this, for it is peculiar to these shrubs, 
let them be raised either by seeds, 
cuttings, or any other method. 

By Layers. — The young branches 
being laid in autumn, winter, or spring, 
will readily strike root, and next autumn 
be fit to transplant. 

In the general propagation of these 
shrubs we would observe, that as they 
naturally throw out many suckers from 
the root, so as often to become trouble- 
some, it is proper, previous to planting 
the cuttings and suckers, &c, to rub off 
close all the buds or prominent eyes 
from the lower part, as far as they are 
to be put into the ground, which will in 
some measure diminish their tendency 
in the production of suckers ; likewise, 
when transplanting the young plants, if 
they discover any tendency to the pro- 
duction of suckers, let all such parts 
be also carefully rubbed oft* close. — 
Abercrombie. 

Grafting. — An anonymous writer in 
the Gardener's Chronicle observes, that 
" standard currants have a pretty ap- 
pearance, and this is increased if they 
are grafted with opposite colours, such 
as black and white, and red, or red and 
white. Allow the stock to reach four 
feet in height, then let it be stopped so 
as to make a bushy compact head. 

" For standards or espaliers, train 
either horizontally or by the fan method, 
about six shoots or more, according to 
the space you wish to cover on either 
side, leaving one for the centre to be 
grafted. Train the same number of 
shoots of the worked variety. Each 
leading shoot, if kept and spurred in, 
will bear abundantly, and the fruit will 
also be of finer quality, and of a sweeter 
flavour, by being fully exposed to the 
sun and air, which is better attained by 
this method than if the plants were 
grown in the usual way. 

Training as Espaliers. — Mr. Snow, 
gardener at Swinton Gardens, for this 



purpose gives the following directions : 
" Procure stakes four feet in length, 
and three or three and a half inches in 
circumference. To these, disposed after 
this manner, XXXXX, train the trees 
in the fan method, and tie the shoots to 
the stakes with matting. Independent 
of being secure from the wind, there 
are other advantages to be gained by 
this mode of training ; the space taken 
up is less, the pruning is more easily 
performed, and the whole surface is 
regularly exposed to the action of the 
sun and air. The wood is also equally 
and properly ripened, and better crops 
of well-flavoured fruit ensue. 

"By this means the late kinds are 
likewise much more easily and more 
securely protected from the depredation 
of birds and wasps, and from injury by 
frost or wet. 

"A single mat thrown over the bushes 
is sufficient to preserve the fruit until 
Christmas, or later. And moreover, by 
this system the trees in matting up are 
not disfigured or crushed, the wet is 
more effectually kept off, as it does not 
fall on the mat and soak through to the 
fruit; but from no flat surface being 
presented the rain runs off the mat as it 
falls ; the fruit is kept perfectly dry, and 
there is little or no injury done to the 
mat. The stakes never want renewing, 
as the bushes, when once in a regular 
shape, support themselves." — Gard. 
Chron. 

After ^Culture. — "Never allow the 
branches to be too crowded, or to in- 
terfere with one another. The shoots 
which spring up in the centre are to be 
cut away very close, as well as the small 
shoots on the main branches, leaving 
only the external one, which must be 
shortened for about a third of its length. 
If this is done, the bush will have the 
form of a cup, with the branches ranged 
regularly round the stem. Red and 
white currants require the same treat- 
ment, as they produce their fruit on 
spurs. The black currant must be 
managed differently, as it bears chiefly 
on the shoots of the preceding year. 
Instead, therefore, of spurring and 
otherwise shortening the branches, all 
that is necessary is to thin them, and 
keep the bushes compact." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Forcing. — Red and white currants ■ 
may be in our desserts during nine 
months of the twelve. Pot some three- 



CUR 



182 

— ♦ — 



CUT 



year-old plants during the first week of | favourable to the developement ot 
January, and place half of them in the | roots. 

peach-house, and the other moiety on | Those plants which vegetate rapidly, 
the upper shelf of the green-house, and delight in either a moist or rich 
The first will come into bearing early ' soil, are those which are propagated 



in April, and the remainder at the end 
of May. The open ground crop is fit 



most readily by this mode, and such 
plants are the willow, gooseberry and 



for gathering before June closes, and I pelargonium ; a budded section of these 
some of these, if matted over at the end j can hardly be thrust into the ground 



of July, may be kept good until Decem- 
ber terminates. 

CURRANT SPHINX. See Sphinx. 

CURTOGYNE. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings, put for a few days in the sun. 
Sandy loam. 

CUSSONIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

CUSTARD APPLE. Anona. 

CUTTING is a part of a plant capa- 
ble of emitting roots, and of becoming 
an individual similar to its parent. The 
circumstances requisite to effect this 
are a suitable temperature and degree 
of moisture. 

Cuttings in general may be taken 
either from the stem, branch, or root ; 
and are, in fact, grafts, which by being 
placed in the earth, a medium favour- 
able to the production of roots these 
emit, instead of aiding the stock to 
effect that development of vessels neces- 
sary for their union to it, had they been 
grafted. A due degree of moisture in 
the soil is absolutely required from it by 
cuttings, for these will often produce 
roots if placed in water only. The 
time for taking off cuttings from the 
parent plant for propagation, is when 
the sap is in full activity; the vital 
energy in all its parts is then most po- 
tent for the development of the new 
organs their altered circumstances re- 
quire. Well-matured buds are found to 
emit roots most successfully, and appa- 
rently for the same reason that they are 
least liable to failure, when employed 



without its rooting. 

Cuttings of those plants which grow 
tardily, or in other words form new parts 
slowly, are those which are most liable 
to fail. These are strikingly instanced 
in the heaths, the orange, and cera- 
tonia. 

A rooted cutting is not a new plant, 
it is only an extension of the parent, 
gifted with precisely the same habits, 
and delighting most in exactly the same 
degree of heat, light and moisture, and 
in the same food. 

A cutting produces roots, either from 
a bud or eye, or from a callus resem- 
bling a protuberant lip, which forms 
from the alburnum between the wood 
and the bark round the face of the cut 
which divided the slip from the parent 
stem. If the atmospheric temperature 
is so high that moisture is emitted from 
the leaves faster than it is supplied, they 
droop or flag, and the growth of the 
plant is suspended. If a cutting be 
placed in water, it imbibes at first more 
rapidly than a rooted plant of the same 
size, though this power rapidly de- 
creases; but if planted in the earth, it 
at no time imbibes so fast as the rooted 
plant, provided the soil is similarly moist; 
and this evidently because it has not such 
an extensive imbibing surface as is pos- 
sessed by the rooted plant; consequent- 
ly, the soil in which a cutting is placed 
should be much more moist than is 
beneficial to a rooted plant of the same 
species, and evaporation from the leaves 
should be checked by covering the cut- 
tings with a bell-glass, or a Wardian 



for budding, viz., that being less easily j case would be still better. The tem- 
excitable, they do not begin to develop j perature to which the leaves are ex- 



until the cutting has the power to afford 
a due supply of sap. Therefore, in 
taking a cutting, it is advisable to re- 
move a portion of the wood having on 
it a bud, or joint, as it is popularly call- 
ed, of the previous year's production. 
Many plants can be multiplied by cut- 
tings with the greatest difficulty, and 
after Qvery care has been taken to se- 
cure to the cutting every circumstance 



posed should be approaching the lowest 
the plant will endure. The warmer the 
soil within the range of temperature 
most suitable to the plant, the more 
active are the roots, and the more ener- 
getically are carried on all the processes 
of the vessels buried beneath the sur- 
face of the soil ; 50° for the atmosphere,, 
and between 65° and 75° for the bottom 
heat, are the most effectual temperatures 



CUT 



183 

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CUT 



for the generality of plants. The cutting 
should be as short as possible consist- 
ently with the object in view. Three 
or four leaves, or even two, if the cut- 
ting be very short, are abundant. They 
elaborate the sap quite as fast as re- 
quired, and are not liable to exhaust the 
cutting by super-exhalation of moisture. 

Cuttings taken from the upper branch- 
es of a plant, flower and bear fruit the 
earliest, but those taken from near the 
soil are said to root most freely. Cut- 
tings which reluctantly emit roots may 
be aided by ringing. The ring should 
be cut round the branch a few weeks 
before the cutting has to be removed ; 
the bark should be completely removed 
down to the wood, and the section di- 
viding the cutting from the parent be 
made between the ring and the parent 
stem, as soon as a callus appears round 
the upper edge of the ring. 

The soil is an important considera- 
tion. The cuttings of orange trees and 
others which strike with difficulty if in- 
serted in the middle of the earth of a 
pot, do so readily if placed in contact 
with its side. The same effect is pro- 
duced by the end of the cutting touch- 
ing an under drainage of gravel or 
broken pots. Why is this? My obser- 
vations justify me in concluding that it 
is because in these situations, the side 
and the open drainage of the pot, the 
atmospheric air gains a salutary access. 
A light porous soil, or even sand, which 
admits air the most readily, is the best 
for cuttings; and so is a shallow pan 
rather than a flower pot, and apparently 
for the same reason. I have no doubt 
that numerous perforations in the bot- 
tom of the cutting pan would be found 
advantageous for cuttings which root 
slowly. 

Some plants may be successfully 
propagated by means of the leaves, and 
among those whose numbers are thus 
most commonly increased, are the Cac 



been considered totally incapable of 
such extension. Thus M. Neumann 
has succeeded with the Theophrasta 
latifolici; and going a step further, he 
has even bisected a leaf, and raised a 
leaf from each half. 

Mr. Knight has also recorded in the 
Horticultural Transactions of 1822, 
that leaves of the peppermint (Mentha 
piperita), without any portion of the 
stem upon which they had grown, lived 
for more than twelve months, increased 
in size, nearly assumed the character 
of evergreen trees, and emitted a mass 
of roots. That leaves may be made 
almost universally to emit roots there 
appears little reason to doubt ; for the 
same great physiologist had long before 
proved that the roots of trees are gene- 
rated from vessels passing from the 
leaves through the bark ; and that they 
never in any instance spring from the 
alburnum. But the question arises, 
will they produce buds ? and at pre- 
sent the answer derived from practice 
is in the negative ; orange leaves, rose 
leaves, leaves of Statice arborea, have 
been made to root abundantly ; but 
like blind cabbage plants, they obsti- 
nately refused to produce buds. 

Dr. Lindley thinks that a more abund- 
ant supply of richer food, and exposure 
to a greater intensity of light, would 
have removed this deficiency; and I 
see every reason for concurring with so 
excellent an authority ; for buds seem 
to spring from the central vessels of 
plants, and these vessels are never ab- 
sent from a leaf. If an abundant sup- 
ply of food were given to a well-rooted 
leaf, and it were cut down close to the 
callus, from whence the roots are emit- 
ted, I think buds would be produced, 
for the very roots themselves have the 
same power. 

In general, the young wood strikes 
most readily. Those of the Semecarpus 
mahogani, Swietenia mahogani, Eu- 



ti, Gesnerae, Gloxinia?, and other fleshy Iphorbia litchi, and others, must have 



leaved plants. Lately the suggestion 
has been revived, — a suggestion first 
made by Agricola at the commence- 
ment of the last century. He states 
that M. Manderola had raised a lemon- 
tree in this mode ; and thence con- 
cludes, rather too rashly, that all exotic 
leaves may at any time be converted 
into trees. Since that was written, in 
1721, it is certain that plants have been 



the wood quite soft, and must be in- 
serted in the soil under bell-glasses the 
moment they are cut. On the contrary, 
cuttings of milky, gummy or resinous 
plants, such as Araucaria, Euphorbia, 
and Vahea gummifera, require to be 
buried in damp sand for twenty-four 
hours, with the wound exposed, and 
then to be planted, after having the 
exuded matterwashed off with a sponge. 



raised from leaves that previously had j Herbaceous plants having a partial de- 



C YA 



184 

— ♦ — 



CYC 



velopmentof wood, as the Pelargonium, 
Calceolaria, and Cineraria, will strike 
in any place shaded from the meridian 
sun. Cuttings of fleshy-leaved plants, 
as the Cacti, and many others, root 
better after being allowed to remain for 
forty-eight hours, after division from 
the parent plant, before they are plant- 
ed. Diosmas, fuchsias, heaths, camel- 
lias, &c, require for their cuttings the 
gentle heat of a nearly exhausted hot- 
bed, and a close atmosphere, with but 
little light admitted night and morning. 
The bell-glasses employed should be 
proportioned to the size of the cutting. 
A small cutting should not be placed 
under a large glass. Blue and violet- 
coloured glass is found most favourable 
for the purpose, and this is accounted 
for by the fact, that glass of this colour 
admits very few luminous or leaf- 
stimulating rays of light; but nearly all 
the chemical rays of the spectrum, 
which assist in the decomposition of 
bodies. M. Neumann has succeeded 
in striking cuttings of monocotyle- 
donous plants, such as Draycena,Frey- 
cenettia, and Vanilla. The cuttings 
may be from branches of any age be- 
tween less than one and six years old. 
They require to have the leaves cut 
away at the bottom of the cutting, the 
whole length of the portion to be buried. 
Jt is not necessary to use the extremi- 
ties of branches, pieces from their mid- 
dles answer as well. M. Neumann also 
thinks that all dicotyledonous plants 
may be multiplied by cuttings of their 
roots, or even by detached leaves. 
Dais cotinifolia is increased from cut- 
tings of the roots, and so is Paulownia 
imperialis. Pieces two inches long, 
and half an inch in diameter, and cut in 
March, root well. Maclaura aurantiaca 
succeeds similarly even in the open air, 
the upper wound of the cutting being 
placed nearly level with the surface. 
He has also multiplied Araucaria Cun- 
ninghami, and all the Coniferee, by root 
cuttings. 

Soil. — The soil most generally appli- 
cable, is that which is rich and light. 
Some cuttings, as those of the Tamarix 
elegans and T. germanica, require a 
little saltpetre in the soil. 

CYAMOPSIS psoraloides. Hardy 
annual. Seeds. Common soil. 

CYANELLA. Five species. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
Sandy loam and peat. 



CYANOTIS. Three species. Green- 
house biennials. Seeds. Rich mould. 
C. barbata is a hardy herbaceous peren- 
nial. Increased by division. 

CYATHEA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen ferns. Division or seeds. 
Peat and loam. 

CYATHODES. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Peat and loam. 

CYCAS. Five species. Stove her- 
baceous perennials. Suckers. Rich 
loam. 

CYCLAMEN. Ten species, and 
many varieties. Hardy or green-house 
tuberous-rooted perennials. Seeds. 
Sandy loam and vegetable mould. Spe- 
cies most worthy of culture are — 

C. Coum. Round-leaved, spring- 
flowering sowbread. Reddish purple. 
January to March. 

C. Europaum. Round-leaved, sum- 
mer-flowering sowbread. Reddish 
purple. Fragrant. July to September. 

C. vernum. Round-leaved winter- 
flowering sowbread. Like preceding. 
November to January. 

C. Persicum. Persian sowbread. 
Various colours. February to May. 

C. Neapolitanum. Neapolitan sow- 
bread. Rosy. August to September. 

C. hederczfolium. Ivy-leaved sow- 
bread. White and pink. Fragrant. 
March to May. 

Mr. G. Gordon, of the Chiswick Gar- 
dens, gives the following excellent 
directions for their culture : — 

" The Cyclamen is increased by cut- 
ting the largest roots in pieces, which 
is a bad practice, as they are very liable 
to rot during the first season after cut- 
ting, or while in a dormant state, un- 
less the parts are kept very dry, a 
thing very injurious to the early flower- 
ing kinds. 

"By Seeds, which should be sown 
when ripe, whether it be autumn or 
spring, in pans or pots well drained, 
and filled with a mixture of equal parts 
of sandy loam and leaf-mould, to which 
should be added a small portion of well- 
rotted dung. Then place the pans or 
pots in a cold frame or pit, kept close, 
if sown in the spring ; but if sown in 
the autumn, they should be placed on 
the back shelf of the green-house, and 
kept rather dry during the winter, and 
gradually watered more as the spring 
advances. 

" The autumn-sown plants will be fit 



CYC 



185 

— ♦ — 



C YP 



for transplanting about the end of May, 
or beginning of June following, if pro- 
perly treated ; whilst those sown in the 
spring should not be removed from the 
seed-pans before the following spring ; 
they will by that time have formed roots 
about the size of a hazel-nut. Prepare 
then some large pots or pans, well 
drain, and fill them with the same kind 
of soil as that in which these seeds were 
sown, and transplant the young roots 
from the seed pans into these, placing 
them about three or four inches apart 
according to the size of the roots. 
Return them to the cold pit or frame, 
and keep them close until they begin 
to grow ; afterwards admit air freely 
by day, but keep the pit close at night, 
till the beginning of July, when the pots 
or pans should be plunged, and the 
plants fully exposed, both day and 
night; taking care, however, that the 
soil in the pots does not get sodden with 
too much rain, or become too dry. 
They will require no more trouble, 
except keeping free from weeds and 
slugs, till the middle of September, 
when they should be potted singly into 
small forty-eight sized or sixty pots, 
(according to the size of the roots,) 
filled with the same kind of soil as that 
previously used. 

" In potting, the bulbs should never 
be entirely covered with the soil, but 
about one-third left exposed. When 
potted, they should be placed on the 
back shelf of the green-house, or in a 
cold pit, where they can be kept dry 
and free from frost, until they begin to 
grow. If they are the early flowering 
kinds, a few may be placed in the win- 
dow of the sitting-room, and but spar- 
ingly watered until they commence 
growing, when they should have a more 
liberal supply. 

" The roots will begin to bloom the 
second season, and may be placed on 
the shelves of the green-house ; or if 
they are of those hardy kinds which 
flower in summer or autumn, the pots 
may be plunged in the open border. 
When done flowering they should be 
returned to the cold pit or frame, where 
the lights must be kept on during the 
night, in cold or wet weather; but 
where they can have plenty of air at all 
times, observing as they cease growing, 
that water should be withheld, and 
finally, the roots gradually dried. The 
roots, when dry, should be allowed to 



remain in the pots, and not be shaken 
out, as is frequently done; for when 
taken out of the soil they are almost 
sure to get too much dried before they 
are again potted. This is particularly 
the case with the early flowering sorts. 

" The proper time of the year for 
resting the flowering roots, entirely de- 
pends on the sorts. C. Persicum will 
be at rest when the C. Europceum and 
C. Neapolitanum will be in full bloom, 
and vice versa. The roots should be 
shaken from the soil, and repotted 
directly the least sign of vegetation is 
observable. But the early spring- 
flowering kinds may be forced earlier 
into bloom by potting a few of the 
strongest roots sooner, and placing 
them in a warm dry place. They must 
not be excited too rapidly, or watered 
freely; for if they are, the leaves are 
almost sure to damp off during the dull 
winter months, and particularly those 
of the beautiful C. Persicum and its 
varieties." — Gard. Chron. 

CYCLANTHUS plumieri. Curious 
stove herbaceous perennial. Suckers. 
Loam and peat. 

CYCLOBOTHRA. Five species. 
Hardy, half-hardy, or green-house bul- 
bous perennials. Bulbs. Peat, loam 
and sand. 

CYDONIA. Three species, and four 
varieties. Hardy deciduous fruit trees 
or shrubs. Suckers. Any soil suits 
them. C. vulgaris, the quince. 

CYLINDROSPORIUM concentricum. 
A parasitical fungus often attacking the 
cabbage, forming a blight or mildew. 
Repeated syringing with water in which 
three ounces per gallon of salt have 
been dissolved, will remove it. 

CYLISTA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

CYMBIDIUM. Seventeen species. 
Stove orchids. Division. The terres- 
trial kinds, loam and peat. The epi- 
phytal, wood. 

CYMBOPOGON Schananthus. A 
stove species of grass. Seeds. Loam 
and peat. 

CYNOCHE pentadactylum. Stove 
epiphyte. Offsets. Fibrous peat. 

CYNOGLOSSUM. Twenty-two spe- 
cies. Hardy annuals, biennials, or 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

CYPELLA. Two species. Green- 



C YP 



186 

— ♦— 



D AH 



ouse bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
Sandy peat. 

CYPHIA. Five species. Green- 
house annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
C. phyteuma is a tuberous-rooted, and 
C. cardamines a stove herbaceous pe- 
rennial. Young shoots. Peat, loam 
and sand. 

CYPRESS. Cupressus. 

CYNARA. (See Cardoon and Arti- 
choke.) Eight species. Chiefly hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Seeds." Good 
rich soil. 

CYNIPS. Gall-fly. The species of 
this genus chiefly confine their attacks 
to the oak and other timber trees. The 
species chiefly noticeable by the garden- 
er is the C. rosce, which causes the hairy 
galls occasionally observed upon rose 
trees. 

CYPRIPEDIUM. Lady's slipper. 
Twelve species, and variety. Chiefly 
hardy terrestrial orchids. Division. 
Sandy peat. 

An anonymous writer gives the fol- 
lowing correct directions for their culti- 
vation : — 

" The sorts in general cultivation 
are, Cypripedium venustum (purple and 
green) ; purpuratum (purple) ; insigne 
(green and purple) ; humile (purple and 
white) ; guttatum (yellow) ; ventricosum 
(dark purple); and our own pretty na- 
tive species, Calceolus (yellow). 

" Of these the three first are from 
warm latitudes, and consequently re- 
quire the temperature of a stove ; the 
remaining sorts come principally from 
North America, and are either hardy, 
or require but a moderate protection 
during the winter and spring. 

K The stove kinds are found to suc- 
ceed tolerably well by being potted in 
soil composed of rotten wood, moss, 
and a little silver sand; while the 
hardier kinds thrive best when planted 
in a shady situation in sandy peat. 

" The American varieties require a 
protection of straw, or some other ma- 
terial, to preserve them from the effects 
of severe frosts, and to throw off the 
rain in wet seasons. 

" At Messrs. Rollison's, of Tooting, 
they succeed remarkably well in a peat 
border adjoining the back wall of a 
heath house, being covered during the 
winter and spring months with sphag- 
num to the depth of two or three inches. 
Another successful method of treating 
them, is to pot them in good sized pots, 



in a mixture of sandy peat and rotten 
saw-dust, keeping them in a cool 
green-house or frame. 

" They are difficult of increase. They 
may sometimes be propagated by divi- 
sion of the roots ; this, however, occurs 
but rarely. Occasionally, in favourable 
situations, they will perfect seeds ; espe- 
cially, if care is taken, when the flowers 
are in a proper state, to apply the pollen 
to the stigma with a camel hair pencil. 

"As they are plants which thrive 
only in shady situations, where the 
rays of the sun do not penetrate with 
sufficient power to cause a spedy eva- 
poration, but little moisture will be ne- 
cessary even during the summer, parti- 
cularly if the soil be protected with a 
covering of moss; and during their pe- 
riod of rest in the autumnal and winter 
months, water maybe entirely dispensed 
with." — Gard. Chron. 

CYRILLA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

CYRTANTHUS. Nine species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Turfy loam, sand and peat. 

CYRTOCHILUM. Four species. 
Stove orchids. Division. Wood, with 
moss on the roots. 

CYRTOPERA Woodfordii. Stove 
orchid. Division. Wood. 

CYRTOPODIUM. Three species. 
Stove orchids. Division. Wood. 

CYTISUS. Forty-one species, and 
some varieties. Chiefly hardy decidu- 
ous shrubs and trees, with a few green- 
house evergreens. Seeds, layers, grafts, 
or buds. Any soil suits them. 

CZACHIA liliastrum. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennial. Seeds or division. 
Good rich loam. 

DACRYDIUM. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

DACTYLICAPUOS thalicitrifolia. 
Half-hardy evergreen climber. Seeds. 
Sandy soil. 

DJEMIA. Four species. Stove ever- 
green twiners. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

DAFFODIL. Narcissus pseudo-nar- 
cissus. 

DAHLIA. Seven species. Tuberous 
perennials. Cuttings, division, and seed. 
Rich sandy loam. The two species 
giving birth to the numerous lovely va- 
rieties of our gardens are D. superfiua 
and D.frustanea. 



D AH 



187 



DAH 



Varieties. — These are numerous; so 
much so as in many instances to baffle 
the eye, in the attempt to discriminate 
between those which bear distinct 
names.. The following, selected from 
the catalogue of D. Landreth & Fulton, 
Philadelphia, are admitted to be among 
the most desirable varieties. 

Admiral Stopford, Trentfield, dark 
maroon, fine form. 

Albion, Cook, bronzy salmon. 

Alexander the Great, Schmitz, dark 
crimson. 

Antagonist, Bragg, pure white, 
finely cupped. 

Apollo, Schmitz, golden yellow, 
cupped petals. 

Arethusa, Brown, violet purple. 

Argo, Widnall, bright yellow, good 
form. 

Argus, Schmitz, primrose yellow, 
tipped with rose. 

Asmodeus, dark puce. 

Beauty of Chelmsford, white and la- 
vender. 

Beauty of Philadelphia, Schmitz, yel- 
low tipped with rose, fine form. 

Bedford Surprise, rosy crimson, very 
fine. 

Beeswing, JDrummond, crimson. 

Bermondsey Bee, purple, fine form. 

Bloomsbury, Lee, bright crimson, su- 
perb form. 

Bridal Ring, white and lavender. 

Burnham Hero, Church, crimson, fine 
form. 

Caleb Cope, Schmitz, mottled rose. 

Cheltenham Queen, blush white. 

Cleopatra, Atwell, light yellow. 

Colonel Baker, claret, finely cupped. 

Competitor, Hodge, dark rose. 

Constantia, white, edge pink. 

Conqueror, Schmitz, dark maroon, 
finely cupped. 

Dazzle, dark scarlet. 

Defiance, Horwood, rosy crimson. 

Desdemona, Schmitz, primrose, beau- 
tifully cupped. 

Dowager Lady Cooper, peach blos- 
som, cupped. 

Duchess of Richmond, orange and 
pink, fine. 

Duke of York, Keynes, fine scarlet. 

Emily, Schmitz, white edged with 
rose. 

Enterprise, Dodd, clear buff. 

Essex Triumph, Turville, dark ma- 
roon, fine form. 

Eugenia, yellow, edge violet. 

Evecque de Bayeaux, Oudin, maroon. 



Exemia, Girling, bright rose, very 
showy flower. 

Exquisite, white rosy edge. 

Fire Ball, Squibb, vivid crimson, 
finely quiiled. 

Fire King, Schmitz, bright scarlet, 
very large. 

Glory of Plymouth, Rendle, white 
tipped with purple. 

Golden Souvenir, Schmitz, bright 
yellow, finely cupped. 

Grandis, Marshal, fine rose. 

Grand Bazaar, Schmitz, crimson and 
lilac. 

Granta, Widnall, claret colour, fine. 

Great Mogul, Atwell, shaded crim- 
son, fine. 

Henry Clay, Schmitz, dark claret, 
cupped, fine. 

Hero of Stonehenge, Whales, dark 
claret, very fine. 

Hero of Tippecanoe, Hancock, superb 
rose, finely cupped. 

Hero of the West, Schmitz, rosy car- 
mine, very large. 

Hon. Miss Abbott, delicate lilac. 

Hope, Neville, light rose, fine flower. 

Horace Binney, Schmitz, shaded ma- 
roon, extra fine. 

Indispensable, white, the best out. 

Indian Chief, Schmitz, salmon. 

Juliette, Widnall, rosy purple. 

Juno, Buist, bronzy lilac. 

King of Lilacs, very fine lilac. 

King of Yellows, Hislop, light yel- 
low, very fine. 

Lady Antrobus, white, purple edge. 

Lady Ashburton, Russell, blush white, 
edged with lilac. 

Lady Bathurst, white laced with rose. 

Lady St. Maur, white tipped with pur- 
ple, superb flower. 

Lady Sale, Smith, yellow edge rose. 

La Tour de Auvergne, orange scar- 
let, finely cupped. 

Le Grand Baudin, shaded crimson, 
fine form. 

Lord Morpeth, puce, cupped. 

Maid of Bath, Davis, white, purple 
edge. 

Majestic, Widnall, shaded rose, pro- 
fuse. 

Marchioness of Exeter, blush, superb 
form, extra fine. 

Marchioness of Ormonde, white tip- 
ped with purple, superb. 

Mary Ann, Schmitz, pure white, 
finely cupped. 

Marshal Soult, lilac and red. 

Middlesex rival, dark rose. 



D AH 



188 



D AH 



Miranda, Brown, blush white, tipped 
with rose. 

Miss Carpentier, Schmitz, mottled 



Miss Percival, Schmitz, pure white. 

Mrs. Hibbert, Schmitz, blush 
cupped petals. 

Mrs. Jones, Buist, dove colour. 

Mrs. Rushton, Buist, white tipped 
with rose, fine. 

Mrs. Shelly, Mitchell, rose and lilac, 
beautiful flower. 

Negro, Schmitz, dark maroon. 

Ne Plus Ultra, Widnall, rich dark 
purple, cupped. 

Nigra et Alba, Girling, white edged 
with purple. 

Northern Beauty, Robinson, white 
tipped with rose, superb. 

Nymph, Schmitz, yellow tipped with 
rose. 

Ophir, Edwards, rich yellow, fine 
flower. 

Orange Superb, orange,finely cupped. 

Orb, Widnall, scarlet crimson, superb. 

Pandora, Bowman, crimson, cupped 
petals. 

Pickwick, purple, finely cupped. 

Pocahontas, Schmitz, vermilion, large 
and fine. 

Pontiac, Schmitz, orange edged with 
red, superb. 

Prince Albert, Adams, light brown, 
cupped petals. 

Princess Royale, Hudson, amber 
tipped with rose, fine. 

Punch, Dodd, purple. 

Queen, Widnall, peach blossom. 

Queen of Beauty, Garth, rich lilac, 
neat flower. 

Queen of Roses, superb rosy lilac. 

Queen of Trumps, white, lilac edge. 

Quilled Perfection, very fine rose. 

Reine des Fees, Girling, crimson and 
white. 

Reliance, Widnall. 

Rienzi, Widnall, crimson and puce. 

Rising Sun, Widnall, dark crimson. 

Roderick, Schmitz, rosy crimson. 

Royal Standard, Whales, rosy purple, 
finely cupped. 

Simon Snyder, Schmitz, large crimson. 

Sir E. Antrobus, Keynes, fiery crim- 
son. 

Sir F. Johnston, Hillier, rosy crim- 
son, superb flower. 

Springfield Major, Gaines, dark crim- 
son, cupped. 

Standard of Perfection, Keynes, pur- 
ple. 



Striata Formosissima, white striped 
with rose. 

Sunbury Hero, Wilmer, yellow tipped 
with red. 

Sylph, Widnall, white edged with 
rose, | rose. 

Thomas Clarkson, Smith, rosy pur- 
ple. 

Triumphant, Schmitz, white edged 
with lilac, fine. 

Ultimatum, bright red. 

Unique, Ansell, yellow tipped with 
red. 

Victor, Widnall, yellow, tipped crim- 
son. 

Violet Perfection, Keynes, dark pur- 
ple, fine flower. 

Washington Irving, Schmitz, light 
purple. 

Westbury Rival, Hall, deep crimson. 

White Defiance, Schmitz, white, 
cupped petals. 

Yellow Victory, Schmitz, fine yellow. 



FANCY, OR VARIEGATED DAHLIAS. 

Alba-purpurea Superba, Bates, pur- 
ple tipped with white. 

Beauty of England, Girling, purple 
tipped with white. 

Charles XII., Miller, purple tipped 
with white. 

Cinderella, Dubras, cherry tipped 
with white. 

Donna Antoni, Deelius, rose tipped 
with white. 

Eleame de Beaucour, Girling, white, 
purple edge. 

Evecque de Tournay, purple tipped 
with white. 

Fairy Queen, Keynes, fawn tipped 
with red. 

Harlequin, Dodd, white tipped with 
bright scarlet, splendid flower. 

Illuminator, Keynes, scarlet edged 
with white, fine fancy variety. 

Le Lione, creamy white, edged with 
scarlet, fine. 

Madam Chauvere, light rose tipped 
with white. 

Madame Rignou, crimson, edged with 
white. 

Madame de Schaunenfeld, Girling, 
dark rose tipped with white. 

Madame Walner, Girling, maroon 
tipped with white. 

Miss Funnel, purple tipped with 
white. 

Nihil, red tipped with white. 

Painted Lady, crimson tipped with 
white. 



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189 

— ♦ — 



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Silvio, Dubras, cherry red tipped 
with white. 

Surprise, Oakley, purple, distinctly 
tipped with white. 

Village Maid, purple, tipped with 
white. 

Viscount Ressigueur, Dubras, purple 
tipped with white, large, full, superb 
flower. 

"The dahlia is very variable, sporting 
from its true colours, but as often re- 
turning to them. Knowing this, let the 
following facts, with regard to new 
kinds of dahlias, be borne in mind be- 
fore condemning them the second 
year : — 

" I. That the seedling plant is much 
debilitated by propagation ; and there- 
fore the flowers are rarely as good the 
second season as they are the first and 
subsequent to the second. 

" 2. That the best flowers are ob- 
tained from those plants struck from 
the first cuttings produced by the mo- 
ther-plant, notwithstanding that they 
are seldom as strong as the cuttings 
that are afterwards produced. 

". 3. The exciting the roots by means 
of a strong heat early in the spring, and 
striking the young plants in a strong 
dung-bed, tend to weaken the plants 
so treated to such a degree that they 
frequently require two or three seasons 
to recover and regain their original cha- 
racter. Thus it is found that good 
flowers are obtained with the least trou- 
ble from those plants kept in pots the 
first season after striking, (termed by 
the trade pot-roots,) planted out the 
following season, and allowed to start 
of their own accord. 

" 4. That in wet seasons manure is 
frequently very injurious from its caus- 
ing the plant to grow too luxuriantly, 
and thus to produce but few flowers ; 
while in very dry seasons it is equally 
injurious. Much more depends on a 
change of soil than on its composition 
and quality. 

" 5. That water is a point which can- 
not be too much attended to. A great 
difference exists between hard and soft 
water, but still more depends on the 
manner in which it is applied ; for one 
or two good waterings are much better 
than a small quantity given three or 
four times a week. 

"6. That taking up the roots imme- 
diately after a frost has destroyed the 
top, is the principal cause of so many 



roots dying during the winter season." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Propagation by Division. — " A good 
criterion for planting this root," says 
a writer in the Gard. Mag., " is about 
the time of planting early potatoes for 
a first crop, but no sooner. They grow 
well in a rich light soil of almost any 
kind. In dividing the root, it is ad- 
visable to leave at least two eyes to 
each plant, cutting through the neck or 
crown. The spring is the most pre- 
ferable time for dividing them, al- 
though some do it on taking them up 
in the autumn. 

" Those who possess a hot-house 
should put each plant into a pot of six 
or eight inches in diameter, with some 
good rich mould, so as the crown may 
just appear at the top of the pot ; then 
place them in the green-house, where 
they will soon make good plants : and 
when all danger from frost is over, they 
may be turned out into holes prepared 
for them. In this manner, after being 
so long confined, they will grow most 
luxuriantly. 

" A common cucumber-frame may 
be successfully used in this way." — 
Gard. Mag. 

By Grafting.— This is performed in 
the months of August, September, and 
October ; and it is an excellent practice 
to avoid the chance of losing a seed- 
ling, or new or scarce varieties. 

Fig. 33. 




D AH 



190 



D AH 



" It is, moreover, particularly appli- 
cable to those kinds which are horny- 
rooted and difficult to break ; or such as 
( Taylor's Sultana,' with long stringy 
tubers, which seldom live through the 
winter ; and to others which break late. 
To all such this mode is recommended 
with the greatest confidence of success. 
The operation is exceedingly simple, 
(see figure 33), and may be performed 
at any time from January to December, 
(provided you have a good growing 
heat,) not only with young green shoots, 
but with others more advanced, if not 
hollow or pithy. The usual manner is 
to take a scion with six or eight leaves, 
cut it smooth below the joint, take off 
one of the lower leaves without injuring 
the eye, and then cut away a portion 
(half or three-quarters of an inch) of the 
skin or fleshy part of the wood between 
each of the lower eyes. 

" Have ready a good sound piece of 
tuber of the last or present season (if 
ripe), in which make a slanting longi- 
tudinal incision of one or two inches, 
according to circumstances, and about 
half an inch wide at top, gradually 
tapering off to the bottom, and fix the 
scion firmly into it. The root should 
then be planted in a pot, with the 
grafted part just below the mould, and 
placed under a bell-glass, or in a warm 
close frame ; but the former is best. 

" In eight or ten days the union will 
be complete, and air may be gradually 
given. After a short time you will be 
able to head it down, either for cuttings, 
if in spring, or grafts for summer and 
autumn. It is advisable to leave at all 
times four eyes, to ensure a vigorous 
growth; and also to shift the plant into a 
larger pot occasionally." — Gard. Chron. 

By Seed. — Mr. Sabine gives the fol- 
lowing directions : — 

" Collect the seed in September from 
dwarf plants and from semi-double 
flowers, when double varieties are 
chiefly desired. Perhaps seeds obtain- 
ed from those particular florets of the 
disc which have altered their form, may 
have a greater tendency than others to 
produce plants with double flowers. 
Sow in March, heat of 55° or 65° ; 
prick out, if necessary, in pots, and 
keep in a moderate temperature, say 
50 or 55°, till the end of April. Plant 
ou to remain, covering each plant at 
night with an empty pot for some weeks, 
to avoid injury from spring frosts to 



themselves. Plant in rows three feet ; 
two feet if in the flower-border. Plant 
in the back rows. They require to be 
staked. Seedlings thus treated will 
blow in July, and continue in perfection 
till the autumn." — Hort. Transac. 

By cuttings. — " The shoots are al- 
lowed to grow until they have three 
pair of leaves, and they are cut off" just 
under the second pair and above the 
lowest pair. Where one cutting is 
taken off plenty of others follow, and 
these are to be served the same way. 
There must be care used that the cut- 
tings taken off are from three to four 
inches long, and that you leave a pair 
of leaves below ; for at every leaf there 
is an embryo bud which will form a 
shoot, which shoot will in turn yield a 
cutting, and in two other embryo buds." 
— Glenny: Gard. and Pr act. Flor. 

" The cuttings, when taken off, may 
be struck the same as shoots ? but they 
do not take root so rapidly. It must 
depend on the room you have whether 
you will plant a dozen cuttings round a 
forty-eight-sized pot, or put one cutting 
each into twelve small ones. In one 
case but little room is taken up while 
they are striking, and this is often of 
importance. When they have struck 
root they must be potted singly into 
sixty-sized pots, or thumb-pots, kept in 
heat a few days to establish them, and 
then be replaced under some kind of 
protection till planting them." — Ibid. 

Propagation by eyes. — " In N cases," 
adds Mr. Glenny, " where it is of great 
importance to increase a plant, they 
may be propagated by eyes, which will 
double the increase. In this case there 
may be half a dozen or more plants 
made out of one shoot, or seedling, 
taken off properly. Suppose there be 
three parts of leaves besides the end 
joint, the end joint, which will have two 
leaves, and the heart may be cut off 
close to the under leaves, which may 
be carefully removed ; and thus forms 
a cutting. The stem left is to be split 
up, each half having the two or three 
leaves. These are to be cut close under 
each leaf. Half the portion of split 
stem, and the whole of the leaf, still 
remain, and these must be put an inch 
into the soil, each forty-eight-sized pot 
holding six, planted against the sides. 
The bud at the base of each leaf will 
make a plantif placed in a hot-bed : and 
I when they have become well rooted 



D AH 



191 



D AH 



they may be placed in separate pots, j 
and kept growing in heat until they are 
six or eight inches high, when they may 
be taken into a cooler frame." — Gard. 
and Pract. Flor. 

Propagation from summer shoots. — 
" The most important operation in 
dahlia-growing," concludes Mr. Glen- 
ny, " is that of securing an increase 
from the shoots, which can be taken 
off after the plants have begun to grow 
in the open ground. These should be 
struck in the same way as other cut- 
tings ; but they must be selected care- 
fully, cut as others are cut, close up to 
the under side of a pair of leaves, and 
be struck in a hot-bed in full perfection 
of heat." — Ibid. 

" The soil," says Mr. Glenny and 
other first-rate authorities, " cannot be 
too fresh ; and of all soils that which 
produces good grass, as the top spade- 
full of a meadow, is the best. It should 
have a retentive yet well-drained sub- 
soil, and be kept well supplied with 
moisture, not only by watering, but 
frequent hoeing. 

" When the ground is poor, and has 
to be made more fertile, there is no 
addition equal to the soil formed by 
rotten turfs cut tolerably thick, which 
may be estimated at one-half loam and 
half vegetable mould; but this should 
be laid on in abundance, and will be 
farbetterthan dung of any kind. Among 
the results of planting the dahlia in soil 
that is too rich, the principal one is that 
of remarkably vigorous growth, with 
little bloom, and that little bad." — Ibid. 

" Holes in the situations where dah- 
lias are to be planted," says Mr. Fin- 
tellmann, " are made fifteen inches in 
diameter and fifteen inches in depth, 
and filled with this soil ; and in these 
holes, so filled, the young plants are 
turned out, or the old roots inserted. 
To retain the moisture, and protect the 
root from excessive heat, the surface is 
covered with moss. 

" Liquid manure is applied two or 
three times in the course of the sum- 
mer." — Gard. Mag. 

After-culture.— -This comprises chief- 
ly staking, hoeing, protection, and 
slight pruning. 

" Dahlias should never be pruned 
until the bloom buds show, and then 
but few branches should be cut out, 
and only such as are growing across 
others. The buds should be thinned, 



for it is by these that the strength of 
the plant gets exhausted. By removing 
all that are too near one to be bloomed, 
and all those that show imperfections 
enough to prevent them being useful, 
much strength will be gained by the 
future flowers. So, also, by pulling off 
the blooms themselves, the moment 
they are past perfection, instead of let- 
ting them seed." — Glenny: Gard. and 
Pract. Flor. 

« Winds and sun," adds an anony- 
mous but correct writer, " are both 
detrimental ; and the practice of fixing 
the blooms in the centre of a flat board, 
and covering them with glass or flower- 
pots as they may want light or shade, 
is becoming general. The more easy 
way is to use a paper-shade for any 
particular fine bloom; for however the 
flowers may be coaxed and nursed un- 
der cover, a stand of blooms grown 
finely and merely shaded from the hot- 
test sun, will beat all others in bril- 
liancy, and in standing carriage, and 
keeping. It is right to go round the 
plants, and, wherever there is a pro- 
mising bud or bloom, to take away all 
the leaves and shoots that threaten to 
touch it as they grow ; take off also the 
adjoining buds ; and if the weather be 
windy make it fast to a stick or one of 
the stakes, that it may not be bruised 
or frayed ; shade it from the broiling 
sun ; and it will so profit by the air and 
night-dews, as compared with the bloom 
under pots and glasses, that if the 
growth be equal, the blooming will be 
superior. Nevertheless people will 
cover ; and where there is a disposition 
to a hard eye, it will hardly come out 
perfect unless it is covered. As the 
end of September approaches, or as 
soon as you have done with the bloom, 
earth up the plants, that when the frost 
comes it may not reach the crown." — 
Gard. and Pract. Florist. 

Preserving the Roots. — " The plants 
maybe raised without injury," says Dr. 
Lindley, "immediately after the blooms 
are cut off by the frost, provided that 
they are hung up in a dry and ordina- 
rily protected situation, with the roots 
uppermost, if care is taken to leave six 
or seven inches of the stem attached to 
each tuber ; this may be done without 
the slightest fear of their withering 
from having been lifted in a green state. 
As the winter advances, and the tubers 
become matured and firm, the ordinary 



D AH 



192 



DAM 



modes of protection against frost may 
be resorted to." — Gard. Chron. 

Protector. — The best devised shelter 
from the sun for the Dahlia is drawn 
and thus described in the Gard. Chron. 

" This protector is made of wicker- 
work, and consists of an inverted shal- 
low basket ; to which is attached a tube 
made of the same material, through 
which the dahlia stick is passed ; and a 
peg being inserted between the stick 
and the tube, it is firmly secured at any 
height required. It measures twelve 
inches in diameter, in the widest part, 
and is three and a half in depth. From 
its being made of so light a material, 
and from its simplicity of construction, 
it is not easily displaced or put out of 
order, and the flower not being confined 
within anything, is less liable to be 
damaged by coming in contact with any 
substance that would injure the petals. 
It requires to be painted to preserve it 
from decay, and if the outside be made 
green, and the inside white, the appear- 
ance of them would not be disagree- 
able, and the insects lurking inside 
would be easily perceived." 

Forcing. — " The Dahlia may be ad- 
vantageously forced by potting the roots 
in February, and letting them remain 
in frames till June ; when they will be- 
gin to flower, and may be turned out 
into the open border." — Gard. Mag. 

"To grow Dahlias in pots," says Dr. 
Lindley, " you must select the dwarfer 
and more freely flowering kinds, the 
taller ones being totally unsuited for 
that purpose. After they are started, 
and when the shoots are about three or 
four inches long, pot them singly into 
small sixties in any light rich soil ; wa- 
ter them freely, and place them in a 
hot-bed, keeping them close for a day 
or two, and shading them during sun- 
shine. They will, if properly attended to, 
be rooted in about ten days, and should 
then be removed to a much cooler place, 
and have plenty of air. When establish- 
ed, shift them into larger pots, and final- 
ly, before placing them out of doors, 
repot them, either into twelves or eights, 
according to the size of your plants. 

" Top the leading shoots to make 
them bushy; and when the danger of 
frost is over, they may be plunged in 
the open border, which saves much la- 
bour in watering ; but even then they 
must be watered copiously in dry wea- 
ther. They will flower freely all the 



summer and autumn, although the 
blooms will not be so fine upon plants 
grown in pots as upon those in the open 
border. After flowering, cut the tops 
off, and place the pots containing the 
roots in a dry cellar, or other place, 
where they will be secure from frost 
during the winter. Young plants struck 
from cuttings flower much better in 
pots than the old roots." — Gard. Chron. 

Exhibiting Stand. — Dr. Lindley says, 
" The dimensions of a Dahlia stand for 
twelve blooms should be twenty-two 
inches long by sixteen and a half wide, 
four in depth, and five and a quarter 
from tube to tube : sixteen and a half 
by eleven and a quarter will be the 
proportion for a stand of six. The sur- 
face of stands is generally painted a 
light green ; a colour which shows the 
flowers off to the greatest advantage." 
— Gard. Chron. 

DAISY, {Bellis perennis.) There are 
many double varieties of this hardy pe- 
rennial ; some white, others crimson, 
and many variegated. A more curious 
variety is the proliferous or Hen and 
Chicken Daisy. They all will flourish 
in any moist soil, and almost in any 
situation. They bloom from April to 
June. Propagated by slips, the smallest 
fragment of root, almost, enables them 
to grow. To keep them double and 
fine, they require moving occasionally. 
Planted as an edging round the Ranun- 
culus bed, their roots tempt the Wire- 
worm from those of the choicer flower. 

DALBERGIA. Nineteen species. 
Stove evergreen trees and climbers. 
Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

DALEA. Fifteen species, including 
hardy, stove, and green-house annuals 
and perennials. The latter by cuttings, 
and the annuals by seed, in a frame, to 
transplant to borders. Loam and peat. 

DALECHAMPIA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

D ALIB ARDA violceoides. Half-hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common light 
soil. 

DAMASCENE or DAMSON. See 
Plum. 

DAMASONIUM. Two species. Ten- 
der aquatics. Division. 

DAMMARA. Dammar pine tree. 
Two species. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

DAMPIERA. Two species. Green- 
house herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 



DAN 



193 



DEC 



DAMPING OFF is a name applied 
by gardeners to an ulceration of the 
stems of seedlings, and other ten- 
der plants. This ulceration arises 
from the soil and air in which they are 
vegetating being kept too moist or 
damp. Flower seedlings are especially 
liable to be thus affected; and, to pre- 
vent this, one-third of the depth of the 
pot should be filled with small pebbles, 
and the soil employed, instead of being 
sifted, allowed to retain all moderately 
sized stones. The seeds should be 
sown very thinly, pressed down, and a 
little earth scattered over them. Mr. 
Ayres has well suggested that a little 
white sand be sprinkled over the sur- 
face, because this is not easily disturbed 
by watering, and is not a medium that 
retains moisture to the neck of the 
seedlings, where dampness most affects 
them. He adds, that a pot of sand 
should be kept hot upon a flue, and 
whenever symptoms of the disease ap- 
pear, a little, whilst hot, sprinkled on 
the soil. 

DANvEA alata. Stove fern. Divi- 
sion. Peat and loam. 

DANCING-GIRLS. Mantisia sana- 
toria. 

DAPHNE. Twenty-four species. 
Chiefly hardy or green-house evergreen 
shrubs, except D. tinifolia, which is a 
stove evergreen. Grafts on the Spurge 
Laurel. (D. laureola.) Peat. 

DARLINGTONIA. Two species. 
Half-hardy herbaceous. Division or 
cuttings. Peat and sand. 

DATE-PALM. Phaznix. 

DATE-PLUM. Biospyros. 

DATISCA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

DATURA. Nine species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

DAUBENTONIA. Two species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

DAUBENYA. Two species. Green- 
house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

DAUCUS. See Carrot. 

DAVALLIA. Seven species. Green- 
house ferns. Division or seed. Peat 
and loam. 

DAVIESIA. Eighteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

DAY LILY. Hemerocallis. 

DECEMBER is a month in which the 
gardener is preparing chiefly for future 
13 



events — storing his edible roots — pro- 
tecting his tender plants, and wheeling 
on stable manure to vacant ground. 

The following work requires attend- 
ing to : 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Artichokes, dress. — Asparagus beds, 
dress, b. ; plant to force ; attend that 
in forcing. — Carrots, dig up and store, 
b. — Cauliflowers, in frame, &c, attend 
to. — Composts, prepare and turn over. 
— Dung, prepare for hot-beds. — Earth- 
ing-up, attend to. — Hot-beds, attend to. 
— Kidney Beans, force, e. — Leaves, 
fallen, remove. — Lettuces, plant in hot- 
beds ; attend to those advancing. — 
Mint, force. — Mushroom-beds, make ; 
attend those in production. — Parsnips, 
dig up and store, b. — Radishes, sow, b. 
— Small Salading, sow in frames, &c. 
— Spinach, clear of weeds. — Tansy, 
force. — Tarragon, force. — Trench, 
drain, &c, vacant ground. 

ORCHARD. 

Apples, prune ; plant. — Apricots, 
prune; plant. — Cherries, prune; plant. 
— Composts and fresh earth apply to 
poor or old borders. — Currants, prune ; 
plant. — Figs, plant ; protect from frost. 
— Fork over and dress the compart- 
ments generally. — Gooseberries, prune ; 
plant. — Mulch round the roots and 
stems of trees newly planted, to ex- 
clude frost. — Nectarines, prune; plant. 
— Pears, prune ; plant. — Peaches, 
prune; plant. — Plant all kinds of trees 
in mild weather. — Plums, prune ; plant. 
— Pruning may be continued generally. 
(See November.) — Raspberries, prune ; 
plant. — Trench and manure ground for 
planting. — Stake firmly trees newly 
planted. — Standards, prune generally. 
— Suckers, clear away ; plant for stocks. 
— Vines, prune ; but last month is to be 
preferred for this operation, if the foli- 
age had completely decayed. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Anemones, defend in bad weather; 
plant if mild. — Auriculas, defend in in- 
clement weather. — Bulbs omitted may 
be planted if the weather be mild. 
(See November.) — Carnations, defend 
in inclement weather. — Composts, pre- 
pare. — Dig over borders and dress all 
quarters generally. — Edgings, plant. — 
Fibrous-rooted Perennials and Biennials 
divide and plant. — Flowers (choice), 
defend generally from inclement wea- 
ther. — Grass, roll occasionally, if 



DEC 



194 

— ♦— 



DEF 



winter be mild. — Gravel, roll and 
keep orderly. — Hedges, plant and plash. 
— Hyacinths, defend in inclement wea- 
ther. — Leaves, collect for composts. 
— Mulch round the roots and stems of 
shrubs newly planted. — Plant shrubs of 
all kinds. — Potted Plants, protect in 
deep frames, &c. ; place in hot-house 
for forcing. — Prune all shrubs requiring 
regulation. — Ranunculuses, defend in 
bad weather; plant if mild. — Seedlings 
of all kinds require protection. — Stake 
shrubs newly planted, and any others 
requiring support. — Suckers may be 
planted as removed during the winter 
dressing. — Tulips, defend in bad wea- 
ther. — Turfs may be laid in open wea- 
ther. — Water in glasses, change week- 
ly; add a few grains of salt or five 
drops of spirits of hartshorn. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely as the season will 
admit. — Bark-beds, keep in operation. 
— Bulbs, in pots, introduce. — Cucum- 
bers, sow in pots, and plunge in bark- 
bed. — Flowering Plants, as Pinks, &c, 
introduce in pots. — Glasses must now 
all be put in, for forcing commences in 
earnest ; cover during severe frost. — 
Kidney Beans (Dwarf), sown in boxes, 
&c, introduce. — Peaches, day temp. 
55o ; keep air moist. — Pines, water oc- 
casionally; attend strictly to the bot- 
tom heat. — Roses in pots, introduce. — 
Strawberries in pots, introduce. — Tem- 
perature, may decline 15° or 20° at 
night ; day temp, for flowering plants 
60°. — Vines in pots may be introduced ; 
or planted in Hot-house; stems out- 
side bind round thickly with hay-bands, 
&c. — Water is required in small quan- 
tities; keep it in the house. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, admit as freely as possible; 
cause the best draught you can. — Com- 
post, prepare. — Earth of pots, stir when 
crusted. — Foggy air exclude, for damp 
renders cold injurious. — Glass, cover 



DECIDUOUS PLANTS are those 
which shed all their leaves at one time 
annually. In this country the fall of 
the leaf is during the autumn. In the 
East Indies it is during the hottest and 
driest months. 

DECODONS verticillatus. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

DECU MARIA. Three species. 
Hardy deciduous twiners. Layers and 
cuttings. Common soil. 

DEFORMITY. The leaves of plants 
frequently assume an unnatural form on 
account of their being wounded by in- 
sects. Keith, in his Physiology of 
Plants, thus enumerates some of the 
most customary : — 

" The leaves of the apricot, peach 
and nectarine are extremely liable to 
be thus affected in the months of June 
and July. The leaf that has been punc- 
tured soon begins to assume a rough 
and wrinkled figure, and a reddish and 
scrofulous appearance, particularly on 
the upper surface ; the margins roll 
inwards on the under side, and inclose 
the eggs, which are scattered irregu- 
larly on the surface, giving it a blackish 
and granular appearance, but without 
materially injuring its health. 

" In the vine the substance deposited 
on the leaf is whitish, giving the under 
surface a sort of frosted appearance, but 
not occasioning the red and scrofulous 
aspect of the upper surface of the leaf 
of the nectarine. 

" In the poplar the eggs, when first 
deposited, resemble a number of small 
and hoary vesicles, containing a sort of 
clear and colourless fluid. The leaf 
then becomes reflected and condupli- 
cate, inclosing the eggs, with a few 
reddish protuberances on the upper sur- 
face. The embryo is nourished by this 
fluid, and the hoariness is converted 
into a fine cottony down, which for 
some time envelops the young fly. 

" The leaf of the lime-tree, in par- 
ticular, is liable to attacks from insects 
when fully expanded ; and hence the 
with mats, &c, during severe frost. — \ gnawed appearance it so often exhibits. 



Leaves, clean ; remove decayed. — Peat 
Soil, collect. — Temperature, sustain as 
required by lighting fires ; day maxi- 
mum, 45o ; night minimum, 35o. — Wa- 
ter sparingly. 

DECEMBER MOTH. See Pcecil- 
ocampa. 

DECIDUOUS CYPRESS. 
distichum. 



The injury seems to be occasioned by 
some species of puceron depositing its 
eggs in the parenchyma, generally 
about the angles that branch off from 
the midrib. A sort of down is pro- 
duced, at first green and afterwards 
hoary, sometimes in patches, and some- 
Taxodium ■, times pervading the whole leaf, as in 
I the case of the vine. Under this cover- 



DEG 



195 

— ♦ — 



DES 



ing the egg is hatched ; and then the 
young insect gnaws and injures the 
leaf, leaving a hole or scar of a burnt or 
singed appearance. 

" Sometimes the upper surface of the 
leaf is covered with clusters of wart- 
like substances. They seem to be oc- 
casioned by means of a puncture made 
on the under surface, in which a num- 
ber of openings are discoverable, pene- 
trating into the warts, which are hollow 
and villous within." 

For these the only remedy is to re- 
move the insects with the least possible 
delay; and, if the injury is extensive, 
adding water and liquid manure to the 
roots rather more freely, to promote a 
fresh and larger development of the 
leaves. 

Deformities of the stems of trees and 
shrubs arise from another cause — from 
the extension of the woody fibre being 
greater and longer continued on one 
side, it frequently becomes contorted. 
Gardeners usually endeavour to remedy 
this by making an incision on the inner 
side of the curvature, and then employ- 
ing force to restore it to a rectilinear 
form, causing a gaping wound, and 
mostly failing to attain the object. If 
the incision be made on the outer side 
of the curve, thus dividing the woody 
fibres that continue to elongate most 
rapidly, the branch or stem, with but 
slight assistance, will recover its due 
form, and there will be no open wound. 

" From the fact that there is invari- 
ably more woody matter deposited on 
the side of a stem or branch which is 
most exposed to the air and light, gar- 
deners have explained to them why 
those sides of their trained trees which 
are nearest the wall ripen, as they term 
it, most slowly, and are benefitted by 
being loosened from the wall so soon as 
they are relieved from their fruit. 

" If they require any demonstration 
that this explanation is correct, they 
need only examine the trees in clumps 
and avenues : their external sides will 
be found to enlarge much more rapidly 
than their internal or most shaded 
sides." — Principles of Gard. 

DEGENERATE. A plant is said to 
have degenerated, or to be not of true 
6tock, when it arises from seed without 
the good characteristics of the parent. 
Ill cultivation may render a plant of 
altered stature, and its produce of defi- 
cient flavour; but this is not degene- 



racy. A species never degenerates ; its 
seed may be hybridized ; but the seed- 
lings are not degenerate — they are 
varieties. But varieties do degenerate: 
Brussels sprouts grown at Malines give 
birth to seeds that yield seedlings quite 
degenerated ; but those seedlings, re- 
turned to the neighbourhood of Brussels, 
yield, after two or three generations, 
plants that are true Brussels sprouts. 

Many varieties of wheat, excellent 
when cultivated in one locality, yield 
seed that produces a different and in- 
ferior sample in another locality, differ- 
ing in soil and annual meteorological 
phenomena. 

DELIMA. Two species. Stove ever- 
green climbers. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

DELPHINIUM. Larkspur. Fifty- 
three species, and many varieties. — 
Hardy perennials and annuals. Divi- 
sion or seed. Common soil. 

DENDROBIUM. Fifty-seven species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Turfy peat. 

DENDROMECON rigidum. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrub. Seed. Com- 
mon soil. 

DENTARIA. Thirteen species. 
Hardy tubers. Division or seed. Sandy 
moist shaded soil. 

DESIGN. " Consult the genius of 
the place" before you determine upon 
your design, is sound advice; for in 
gardening, as in all the fine arts, nothing 
is pleasing that is inappropriate. Mr. 
Whateley, our best authority on such 
subjects, truly says, — 

" A plain simple field, unadorned 
but with the common rural appendages, 
is an agreeable opening; but if it is 
extremely small, neither a haystack, nor 
a cottage, nor a stile, nor a path, nor 
much less all of them together, will 
give it an air of reality. A harbour, on 
an artificial lake, is but a conceit; it 
raises no idea of refuge or security, for 
the lake does not suggest an idea of 
danger: it is detached from the large 
body.of water, and yet is in itself but a 
poor inconsiderable basin, vainly affect- 
ing to mimic the majesty of the sea. 

" When imitative characters in gar- 
dening are egregiously defective in any 
material circumstance, the truth of the 
others exposes and aggravates the fail- 
ure. But the art of gardening aspires 
to more than imitation ; it can create 
original characters, and give expres- 
sions to the several scenes superior to 



DES 



196 



DIB 



any they can receive from illusions. 
Certain properties, and certain disposi- 
tions of the objects of nature, are adapt- 
ed to excite particular ideas and sen- 
sations. Many of them have been occa- 
sionally mentioned, and all are very 
well known : they require no discern- 
ment, examination, or discussion, but 
are obvious at a glance, and instanta- 
neously distinguished by our feelings. 
Beauty alone is not so engaging as this 
species of character ; the impressions 
it makes are more transient and less in- 
teresting ; for it aims only at delighting 
the eye, but the other affects our sensi- 
bility. An assemblage of the most ele- 
gant forms, in the happiest situations, 
is to a degree indiscriminate, if they 
have not been selected and arranged 
with a design to produce certain ex- 
pressions; an air of magnificence or of 
simplicity, of cheerfulness, tranquillity, 
or some other general character, ought 
to pervade the whole ; and objects 
pleasing in themselves, if they contra- 
dict that character, should therefore be 
excluded. Those which are only in- 
different must sometimes make room 
for such as are more significant — may 
occasionally be recommended by it. 
Barrenness itself may be an acceptable 
circumstance in a spot dedicated to soli- 
tude and melancholy. 

" The power of such characters is 
not confined to the ideas which the ob- 
jects immediately suggest; for these 
are connected with others which in- 
sensibly lead to subjects far distant 
perhaps from the original thought, and 
related to it only by a similitude in the 
sensations they excite. In a prospect 
enriched and enlivened with inhabit- 
ants and cultivation, the attention is 
caught at first by the circumstances 
which are gayest in their season — the 
bloom of an orchard, the festivity of a 
hay-field, and the carols of harvest- 
home; but the cheerfulness which these 
infuse into the mind expands afterwards 
to other objects than those immediately 
presented to the eye ; and we are there- 
by disposed to receive, and delighted 
to pursue, a variety of pleasing ideas, 
and every benevolent feeling. At the 
sight of a ruin, reflections on the 
change, the decay, and the desolation 
before us naturally occur; and they 
introduce a long succession of others, 
ail tinctured with that melancholy 
which these have inspired. Or. if the 



monument revives the memory of for- 
mer times, we do not stop at the sim- 
ple fact which it records, but recol- 
lect many more coeval circumstances, 
which we see, not perhaps as they 
were, but as they have come down to 
us — venerable with age, and magnified 
by fame. Even without the assistance 
of buildings, or other adventitious cir- 
cumstances, nature alone furnishes 
materials for scenes which may be 
adapted to almost every kind of ex- 
pression ; their operation is general, 
and their consequences infinite. The 
mind is elevated, depressed, or com- 
posed, as gaiety, gloom, or tranquillity 
prevail in the scene; and we soon lose 
sight of the means by which the cha- 
racter is formed. We forget the par- 
ticular objects it presents ; and giving 
way to their effects without recurring 
to the cause, we follow the track they 
have begun to any extent which the 
disposition they accord with will al- 
low." — Whateley. 

DESMANTHUS. Five species. — 
Stove aquatics and evergreens. The 
former by seeds in water ; the latter by 
cuttings in peat and loam. 

DESMOCHCETA. Eight species. — 
Stove and green-house evergreens, and 
herbaceous. Seeds, division or cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

DESMODIUM. Thirty-two species. 
Chiefly stove evergreens, but a few- 
hardy and herbaceous. Cuttings. — 
Sandy loam and peat. 

DESMONCHUS. Four species* 
Stove palms. Seed. Sandy peat. 

DEUTZIA scabra. Hardy decidu- 
ous shrub. Layers and cuttings. Com- 
mon soil. D. corymbosa is a hardy 
evergreen shrub, similarly propagated. 

DEVONSHIRING. See Paring and 
Burning. 

DEWBERRY. Rubus casius. 

DIANELLA. Nine species. Green- 
house tubers. Division and seed. — 
Loam and peat. 

DIANTHUS. One hundred species, 
and very many varieties. Chiefly 
hardy herbaceous. Seed and pipings. 
Rich light loam. See Carnation and 
Pink. 

DIAPENSIA lapponica. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division and seed. Peat, 

DIBBER, or DIBBLE. This instru- 
ment for making holes in which to in- 
sert seeds or plants, is usually very 
simple in its construction, being at the 



DIC 



197 

— ♦— 



DIG 



best the head of an old spade-handle* 
To secure uniformity of depth in plant- 
ing beans, &c, by this instrument, it is 
useful to have it perforated with holes 
to receive an iron peg, at two and three 
inches from the point, as in the follow- 
ing outline. Fig. 34. It should be 

Fig. 34. 




shod with iron ; for if this be kept 
bright it will make holes into which 
the soil will not crumble from the sides. 
The crumbling is induced by the soil's 
adhesion to the dibble. For planting 
potatoes, a dibble with a head three 
inches diameter at the point, six inches 
long up to the foot-rest, and with a 
handle four feet long, is to be prefer- 
red. For the insertion of seed a dib- 
ble that delivers the seed has been in- 
vented by a Mr. Smith. 

DICERMA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

DICHILUS lebeckioides. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. — 
Sandy loam and peat. 

DICHORIZANDRA. Five species. 
Stove herbaceous. Division or seed. 
Common soil. 

DICHOSMA bifida. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
sand. 

DICKSONIA. Seven species. Stove 
ferns. Division and seed. Loam and 
peat. 

DICLIPTERA. 
Chiefly stove 

two are annuals. The latter are raised 
from seed ; the others from cuttings. 
Light soil, with a little peat. 

DICRYPTA. Four species. Stove 
epiphytes. Offsets. Peat and pot- 
sherds. 

DICTAMNUS. Three species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Common 
soil. 

DIDYMOCHL^ENA pulcherrima.— 



Eleven species. — 
evergreen shrubs, but 



Stove fern. Seed and division. Sandy 
loam and leaf-mould. 

DIELYTRA. Nine species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division or seed. Rich 
light loam. 

DIERVILLA lutea. Hardy decidu- 
ous shrub. Suckers. Common soil. 

DIETES. Three species. Half- 
hardy herbaceous. Suckers or seed. 
Light loam. 

DIGGING is an operation performed 
with the spade or fork, having for its 
object a loosening of the soil so as to 
render it more fit for the reception of 
seeds or plants. For its correct per- 
formance Mawe and Abercrombie give 
these directions: — 

" Begin at one end of the piece of 
ground, and with your spade open a 
trench quite across, one good spade 
wide and one deep, carrying the earth 
to the end or place where you finish ; 
then, keeping your face to the opening, 
proceed to dig, one spade deep, regular- 
ly from one side of the piece to the 
other, turning the spits neatly into the 
trench, and the next course against 
these; and so keep digging straight 
back, spit and spit, still preserving an 
open trench, a good spade width and 
depth, between the dug and undug 
ground, that you may have full room to 
give every spit a clean turn, takingall 
the spits perpendicularly, and not taking 
too much before the spade, especially 
in stiff land, or where the surface is full 
of weeds, or is much dunged; so giving 
every spit a clean turn, the top to the 
bottom and the bottom to the top, that 
the weeds or dung on the surface may be 
buried a due depth, and that the clean 
fresh earth may be turned up. 

" As you proceed break all large 
clods, and preserve an even surface, 
carrying both sides and middle on 
equally, unless one side shall be hollow; 
then carry on the hollow side first in a 
kind of gradual sweep, inclining the 
spits of earth rather that way, which 
will gradually raise that side and reduce 
the high one, observing the same if both 
sides are high and the middle hollow, 
or both sides hollow and the middle 
high, always keeping the lower ground 
advancing gradually before the higher ; 
by which you will always maintain a 
uniform level, whether horizontal or 
declining. 

" The same should also be observed 
in beginning to dig any piece of ground^ 



DIG 



19S 



DIG 



that if one corner is much lower than | 
another, carry on the lower part some- j 
what first, in a kind of easy sweep or! 
slanting direction, as far as necessary. \ 
Likewise, in finishing any pieces of dig- ; 
ging, gradually round upon the lower; 
side so as to finish at the highest corner; 
and having digged to the end, or that; 
part of any piece of ground where you ] 
intend to finish, then use the earth dig- 
ged out of the first trench to make good . 
the last opening equal with the other! 
ground. In plain digging dunged 
ground, if the dung is quite rotten, you i 
may dig clean through, giving each spit! 
a clean turn to bury the dung in the i 
bottom of the trench ; but if you cannot' 
readily do this, trim the dung a spade's j 
width at a time into the furrow or open j 
trench, and so dig the ground upon it, j 
which is rather the most effectual 
method, whether rotten or long fresh 
dung. 

" In the course of digging all weeds 
that are perennial should be carefully 
picked out, particularly couch-grass and 
bear-bind ; for the least bit of either 
will grow. But annual weeds, ground- 
sel, and the like, should be turned down 
to the bottom of the trench, where they 
will rot. 

" A man will dig by plain digging of 
light free-working clean ground, eight, 
ten, or twelve rods a day, from six to six, 
though in some of the light clean ground 
about London, I have known a man turn 
up fifteen or twenty rods a day, from 
five to seven ; on the other hand, in stiff 
stubborn soils, a man may work hard 
for six or eight rods in a day of twelve 
hours; and that digging by trenches, or 
trenching, if only one spade deep with- 
out the crumbs or shovelling at bottom, 
a man will dig almost as much as by 
plain digging ; or two spades' depth, 
from four to six rods a day may be good 
work, though in harsh working ground 
digging three or four rods per day may 
be hard work." Most garden soils dig 
best the day after a fall of rain ; and if 
the soil has in its composition a larger 
proportion than usual of clay, the opera- 
tion will be faciliated by dipping occa- 
sionally the spade into water. Most 
gardeners object to digging while snow 
is upon the ground, and, as Dr. Lindley 
justly observes, the objection is not 
mere prejudice, for experience proves 
the bad result of the practice. The evil 
is owing to the great quantity of heat 



required to reduce ice or snow from the 
solid to the fluid state. A pound of 
snow newly fallen requires an equal 
weight of water, heated to 172°, to melt 
it, and then the dissolved mixture is only 
of the temperature of 32°. Ice requires 
the water to be a few degrees warmer, 
to produce the same result. When ice 
or snow is allowed to remain on the 
surface, the quantity of heat necessary 
to reduce it to a fluid state is obtained 
chiefly from the atmosphere ; but when 
buried so that the atmospheric heat can- 
not act directly upon it, the thawing 
must be very slowly effected, by the 
abstraction of heat from the soil by 
which the frozen mass is surrounded. 
Instances have occurred of frozen soil 
not being completely thawed at mid- 
summer ; when so, the air, which fills 
the interstices of the soil, will be con- 
tinually undergoing condensation as it 
comes in contact with the cold portions; 
and, accordingly, the latter will be in a 
very saturated condition even after they 
have become thawed. — Gard. Chron. 

Very few people ever consider in de- 
tail the expenditure of labour required 
from the gardener when. digging. It is 
a labour above all others calling into 
exercise the muscles of the human 
frame, and how great is the amount of 
this exercise may be estimated from the 
following facts: — 

In digging a square perch of ground 
in spits of the usual dimensions (seven 
inches by eight inches) the spade has to 
be thrust in 700 times ; and as each 
spadeful of earth, if the spade pene- 
trates nine inches, as it ought to do, 
will weigh on the average full seventeen 
pounds, 11,900 pounds of earth have to 
be lifted, and the customary pay for 
doing this is two-pence half-penny. As 
there are 100 perches or rods in an acre, 
in digging the latter measure of ground 
the garden labourer has to cut out 1 12,- 
000 spadesful of earth, weighing in the 
aggregate 17,000 cwt., or 850 tons, 
and during the work he moves over a 
distance of fourteen miles. As the 
spade weighs between eight and nine 
pounds, he has to lift, in fact, during the 
work, half as much more weight than 
that above specified, or 1,278 tons. An 
able-bodied labourer can dig ten square 
{ perches a day. A four-pronged fork, 
j with the prongs twelve inches long, and 
I the whole together forming a head eight 
I inches wide, is a more efficient tool for 



DIG 



199 



DIS 



digging than the common spade. It 
requires the exertion of less power ; 
breaks up the soil more effectually; and 
does not clog even when the soil is moist 
wet. It is less costly than the spade, 
and when worn can be relaid at a less 
expense. 

DIGITALIS. Twenty-six species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Common 
soil. 

DILATRIS. Three species. Green- 
house herbaceous. Division or seed. 
Sandy peat. 

DILL. {Anethum graveolens.) 

Use. — Its leaves and umbels are used 
in pickling, and the former in soups and 
sauces. 

Soil and Situation. — It may be culti- 
vated in any open compartment ; but if 
for seed, a sheltered situation, and a 
soil rather dry than damp, is to be allot- 
ted for it. 

Time of Sowing. — It is best sown im- 
mediately that it is ripe, for if kept out 
of the ground until the spring it often is 
incapable of germinating. If neglected 
until the spring, it may be sown from 
the close of February until the com- 
mencementof May, in drills a foot apart. 
The plants are to remain where sown, 
as they will not bear removing. When 
of three or four weeks' growth they 
must be thinned to about ten inches 
apart; for if not allowed room they 
spindle, their leaves decay, no lateral 
branches are thrown out, and their seed 
is not so good ; in every stage of growth 
they require to be kept clear of weeds. 
The leaves are fit for gathering as 
wanted, and the umbels about July and 
August. In September their seed ripens, 
when it must be immediately cut, and 
spread on a cloth to dry, as it is very 
apt to scatter. 

DILLENIA speciosa. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

DILLWYNIA. Fifteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

DINEMA polybulbon. Stove epi- 
phyte. Offsets. Peat and postsherds. 

DINETUS paniculata and racemosa. 
The first a stove perennial ; the second 
a hardy annual twiner. The first by 
cuttings; the second by seed. Rich 
sandy soil. 

DIODIA. Four species. Stove ever- 
green trailers, except D. virginica, 
which is hardy and deciduous. Cut- 
tings. Light soil. 



DIOMEDEA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Rich light loam. 

DIOSCOREA. Yam. Five species. 
Stove tubers. Division. Light rich 
soil. 

DIOSMA. Twenty-three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Peat and sand. 

DIOSPYROS. Twenty-three species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen trees, but a few 
are hardy. Cuttings. Light loam. 

DIPHYLLEIA cymosa. Hardy herb- 
aceous. Division. Light rich soil. 

DIPHACA cochinchinensis. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

DIPHYSA carthaginensis. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

DIPLACUS. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
sandy loam. 

DIPLAZIUM. Nine species. Stove 
ferns. Division or seed. Loam and peat. 

DIPLOCOMA villosa. Hardy herba- 
ceous. Seed and division. Common 
soil. 

DIPLOLjENA dampieri. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

DIPLOPAPPUS incanus. Half-hardy 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

DIPLOPELTIS hugelii. Green-house 
herbaceous. Young cuttings. Common 
soil. 

DIPLOPHYLLUM veronica forme. 
Hardy annual trailer. Seed. Common 
soil. 

DIPLOTHEMIUM. Two species. 
Stove palms. Seed. Rich light loam. 

mVOVWJM. punctatum. Stove orchid. 
Division. Sandy loam and peat. 

DIPSACUS. Six species. Hardy 
biennials. Seed. Common soil. 

DIPTERIX odorata. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam. 

DIRCA palustris. Hardy deciduous 
shrub. Layers or seeds. Sandy loam. 

DISA. Twelve species. Green-house 
orchids. Division. Peat, loam, and 
sand. 

DISANDRA prostrata. Green-house 
evergreen trailer. Division or cuttings. 
Rich light soil. 

DISBUDDING is the removal, soon 
after they have burst into leaves, 01 
such buds as, if allowed to grow into 
shoots, would be misplaced. Thus, 



DIS 



200 



DOU 



buds protruded directly in the front of 
branches trained against walls, or fore- 
right shoots, as they are correctly term- 
ed, and buds that would produce shoots 



DISEMMA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

DISPERIS. Three species. Green- 



in places already sufficiently filled with j house orchids. Division. Peat, loam 



branches, may be removed, or disbud- 
ded. The object is to strengthen the 
desirably-placed buds by thus confining 
the expenditure of sap upon them. 
There is no better mode of aiding a 
weakly plant to a more vigorous and 
robust growth than judicious disbud- 
ding ; but an over-robust and super- 
luxuriant tree had better be allowed to 
exhaust itself by a profuse development 
of leaf buds. 

DISCHIDIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trailers. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

DISEASES. Dr. Good, the distin- 
guished medical writer, has remarked, 
that the morbid affections to which the 
vegetable part of the creation is liable, 
are almost as numerous as those which 
render decrepid and destroy the animal 
tribes. It would be difficult, perhaps, 
whatever system of nosology is follow- 
ed, to place a finger upon a class of 
animal physical diseases of which a pa- 
rallel example could not be pointed out 
among plants. The smut which ravages 
our corn crops; the mildew which de- 
stroys our peas ; the curl that is annually 
infecting more destructively our pota- 
toes ; the ambury, or club-root, to which j 
our turnips and other species of brassica 
are liable; the shanking, or ulceration, 
which attacks the stalks of our grapes, 
are only a few of the most commonly 
observed diseases to which the plants 
we cultivate are liable. 

Disease is the negation of health ; 
and as the health of a plant is the cor- 
rect performance of its functions, dis- 
ease may be defined to be an incorrect 
performance of the functions. Such 
incorrectness arises from four causes — 
vital energy declining from old ag 



and sand. 

DISPORUM. Two species. Half- 
hardy herbaceous. Division and seed. 
Peat and loam. 

DISSOLENA verticillata. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich 
light soil. 

DITTANY. Origanum dictamnus. 

DIURIS. Eight species. Green- 
house orchids. Division. Peat, loam, 
and sand. 

DODECATHEON. Two species, and 
several varieties. Hardy herbaceous. 
Division. Light loam. See American 
Cowslip. 

DOG-WOOD. Cornus. 

DOLICHOS. Sixteen species. The 
two green-house twiners, D. jacquinii 
and lignosus, are the only two worth 
cultivating. Cuttings. Rich sandy loam. 

DOLIOCARPUS calinea. Stove ever- 
green climber. Cuttings. Turfy loam 
and peat. 

DOMBEYA. Six species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

DONDIA epipactris. Hardy herba- 
ceous. Seed or division. Loam and 
peat. 

DOODIA. Four species. Green- 
house ferns. Division and seed. Loam 
and peat. 

DORONICUM. Nine species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

DORTMANNA. Two species. Har- 
dy herbaceous. Division. Peat. 

DORYCNIUM. Eight species. Har- 
dy annual, herbaceous and evergreen. 
Seed. Sandy loam. 

DOUBLE FLOWERS. Hybridizing, 
aided by cultivation, gives birth to these 
objects of the gardener's care generally 
designated double flowers, which are 
parasites — improper food, either in qua- such beauteous ornaments of our bor- 
lity or quantity — and inauspicious tern- ders and parterres. To the uninitiated 
perature. If these could be all avoided, I it seems incredible that the double moss 



a plant might enjoy a vigorous imi 



rose should be a legitimate descendant 



tality. Such, however, is not the lot of: from the briar; neither do the flowers 
any organized being, and in proportion ; of the Fair Maid of France appear less 
to the debilitating circumstances are j impossible derivatives from those of the 
the nature, the intensity, and final con- j Ranunculus platanifolius ; nor bache- 
sequences of the disease induced. The lors' buttons from the common butter- 
little known relative to the diseases cup; yet so they are. Double flowers, 



which infest the gardeners' crops, will 
be found under their respective titles. 



as they are popularly called, are more 
correctly discriminated as the full flow- 



DOU 



201 

— ♦— 



DOU 



er, the multiplicate flower, and the pro- 
liferous flower. 

The full flower is a flower with its 
petals augmented in number by the to- 
tal transformation into them of its sta- 
mens and its pistils. One-petalled 
flowers rarely undergo this metamor- 
phosis, but it is very common in those 
having many petals, as in the carnation, 
ranunculus, rose, and poppy. But this 
is not the only mode in which a flower 
becomes full, for in the columbine (Aqui- 
legia) it is effected in three different 
ways, viz., by the multiplication of pe- 
tals to the exclusion of the nectaries; 
by the multiplication of the nectaries 
to the exclusion of the petals ; and by 
the multiplication of the nectaries, 
whilst the usual petals remain. 

Radiated flowers, such as the sun- 
flower, dahlia, anthemis, and others, 
become full by the multiplication of the 
florets of their rays to the exclusion of 
the florets of their disk. On the con- 
trary, various species of the daisy, ma- 
tricaria, &c, become full by the mul- 
plication of the florets of the disk. 

The multiplicate flower has its petals 
increased by the conversion of a portion 
of its stamens, or of its calyx, in those 
forms. It occurs most frequently in 
polypetalous flowers. Linnaeus gives 
the only instances I know of the con- 
version of the calyx into petals, and 
these are to be observed in the pink 
(Dianthus caryophyllus), and a few of 
the Alpine grasses. 

A proliferous flower has another 
flower or a shoot produced from it, as 
in the variety of the daisy popularly 
known as the hen-and-chickens. It 
occurs also more rarely in the ranuncu- 
lus, pink, marigold, and hawkweed. A 
leafy shoot often appears in the bosom 
of the double-blossomed cherry, ane- 
mone, and rose. 

A due supply of moisture, but rather 
less than the plant most delights in, 
when the production of seed is the de- 
sired object, a superabundant supply of 
decomposing organic matter to its roots, 
and an exposure to the greatest possible 
degree of sun-light, are the means suc- 
cessfully employed to promote that ex- 
cessive development of the petals which 
characterize double flowers. 

By these means a greater quantity of 
sap is supplied to the flower than the 
natural extent of the petal can elabo- 
rate ; and following the laws of nature 



specified elsewhere, those parts re- 
quired for the extra elaboration, are 
developed at the expense of those not 
demanded for the purpose. 

The chief office of the petals is this 
preparation of nourishment for the sta- 
mens, and for the most part they fade 
together, usually enduring until im- 
pregnation has been effected, or has 
altogether failed. In double flowers, 
too, as was observed by the late Sir J. 
E. Smith, the corolla is much more 
durable than in single ones of the same 
species, as anemones and poppies, be- 
cause as he conceived, in such double 
flowers the natural function not being 
performed, the vital principle of their 
corolla is not so soon exhausted. Ad- 
vantage may be taken of this to prolong 
the duration of flowers by cutting away 
the pistils or stamens, whichever are 
least conspicuous, with a sharp pair of 
pointed scissors. 

Although an abundant supply of nou- 
rishment is absolutely necessary for the 
production of double flowers, it is quite 
as certain that such supply will not of 
a certainty cause their appearance ; 
there must be some tendency in the pa- 
rent thus to sport, otherwise the super- 
fluity of food will not have the desired 
influence. That abundance of nourish- 
ment is necessary, appears from the fact 
that if the double daisy or the double 
narcissus be grown in a poor soil, they 
speedily produce none but single flow- 
ers ; yet if they again be restored to a 
rich soil, they may with care be made to 
produce an unnatural profusion of petals. 
Mr. D. Beaton's estimate of a double 
flower is original. He says that cultiva- 
tion having enlarged all the parts of a 
plant, the constitutional vigour thus ob- 
tained is transferred to the next genera- 
tion, and to some of the seedlings, in a 
measure even greater than that possessed 
by the parent. Extraordinary supplies 
of nourishment under favourable cir- 
cumstances, invigorate still further the 
improved race, and so on through many 
generations. During this time cultiva- 
tion produces the very opposite of dou- 
ble flowers, and Mr. Beaton thinks it 
would continue to do so, if it were pos- 
sible to keep up every member of each 
generation to the same degree of health 
and vigour 5 but accidents and diseases 
overtake some of the plants, and double 
flowers are the produce from the decre- 
pits. Cultivation, according to this idea, 



DOU 



202 

— ♦ — 



DRI 



is only indirectly the cause of double 
flowers, and these a retrograde step 
from a high state of development. 

Whether my own opinion or Mr. 
Beaton's be correct, it is quite certain 
that in practice the plants from which 
double-flowered varieties are sought, 
must be kept in the highest state of de- 
velopment by supplying them abundant- 
ly with all the assistance to vigorous 
growth ; and when the seed vessels are 
formed, they should be reduced in num- 
ber in order to make the seed in those 
remaining as large and perfect as pos- 
sible. In the course of a few generations, 
seedlings appear, having flowers with an 
excess of petals, and seeds being ob- 
tained from these, or from other flowers 
impregnated by their stamens, and the 
same high cultivation continued, the 
excess of petals increases and becomes 
a permanent habit. 

DOUCIN STOCK. See Stock. 

DOUGLASIA nivalis. Hardy herba- 
ceous. Seed. Peat and sand. 

DRABA. Forty-one species. Hardy 
herbaceous chiefly, and a few annuals. 
Seed. Loam and peat. 

DRACCENA. Twenty-two species. 
Stove evergreen trees and shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. 

DRACOCEPHALUM. Twenty spe- 
cies. Chiefly hardy herbaceous. Divi- 
sion or seed. Common soil. 

DRACOPHYLLUM. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy peat. 

DRAGON'S-HEAD. Dracocephalum. 

DRAGON TREE. Dracama draco. 

DRAINING. There is scarcely a gar- 
den existing that would not be benefited 
by under-draining. Every gardener 
knows the absolute necessity for a good 
drainage under his wall-trees and vines, 
but few gardeners ever think for a mo- 
ment, whether there is any escape and 
out-fall for the water he has drained from 
immediate contact with the roots of the 
above-named favoured trees. Every 
garden should have drains cut, varying 
in depth from two to three feet, accord- 
ing to the depth of the soil, with an in- 
terval of twenty-four feet between the 
drains ; twelve feet will not be too near 
in clayey soils. At the bottom of the 
drains should be placed one-inch pipes; 
these should be well puddled over, six 
inches deep with clay, and then the 
earth returned. They should have an 
outfall into a ditch, at the least elevated 



side of the garden. By having the 
pipes with a bore no larger than an 
inch, moles cannot creep in, and that 
bore is large enough to carry off all the 
water, after even the heaviest rains. 
Draining farm-lands has been performed 
to a great extent in England, and with 
most advantageous results : at Lord 
Hatherton's residence, Teddesley Hay, 
in Staffordshire, four hundred and sixty- 
seven acres, formerly letting for an 
average rental of 12s. per acre, were 
all drained for an outlay of 31. 4s. Id. 
per acre, and their rental now averages 
more than 31s. per acre. 

To plants in pots, good drainage is not 
less essential than to those in our borders. 

DREPANOCARPUS Imiatus. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam. 

DRILLING. No crop in the garden 
should be sown broadcast, for drilling 
saves seed and labour; and although in 
some cases it takes more time to insert 
the seed in drills, yet this is more than 
compensated by the time saved during 
the after-culture, for the thinning and 
hoeing are greatly facilitated. 

The distance apart appropriate for 
the drills for particular crops, will be 
found under their respective titles ; they 
are usually made with a hoe and line ; 
but for mustard, cress, and other small 
seeds, the drill-rake is often used. The 
teeth are set six inches apart, and are 
broad and coulter formed. When the 
drills are required to be less than six 
inches apart, the implement can be 
worked diagonally. 

DRILL BARROWS, or SEED SOW- 
ERS. " Various have been the con- 
trivances for sowing seeds, many having 
the mere merit of ingenuity, without 
practical utility ; because when used 
with adhesive seeds, or those of rough 
form, they clog, and, in consequence, 
sow irregularly. Those now offered, 
obviate all such objections, being suited 
alike for Turnips, Beets, Onions, Car- 
rots, Parsnips, &c. By the use of a 
good Drill, the farmer or gardener can 
save one-half of his seed, (that is, none 
are needlessly sown,) and do the work 
at much less expense, as well as with 
greater rapidity than by the ordinary 
mode of sowing ; as the Drill opens the 
furrow, drops the seed, covers and rolls 
it down." — Rural Register. 

A very simple and low-priced Drill 
is formed by a tin tube, or hollow cane, 
surmounted by a funnel-like mouth- 



DRI 



203 

— ♦— 



DUN 



piece, to receive the seeds. The ope- 
rator holds it in his left hand, diracting 
the lower extremity to the line where 
he desires the seed to fall, and with the 
fingers of his right hand dropping the 



seeds into the funnel at the required 
rapidity — a little practice enables the 
sower to pass over the ground with 
speed, and perform the work with re- 
gularity. 



Fig. 35. 




DRIMIA. Thirteen species. Green- 
house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

DROSERA. Nine species. Hardy 
and green-house aquatics. Seeds. Peat 
and water. 

DRUMMONDIA mitelloides. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Peat. 

DRYANDRA. Nineteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Turfy sandy loam and peat. 

DRYAS. Four species. Hardy ever- 
green trees. Seed and cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

DRYMONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Rich 
sandy loam. 

DRYPETES crocea. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

DRYPIS spinosa. Hardy evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings and seed. Sandy peat 
and loam. 

DRY-STOVE is a hot-house devoted 
to the culture of such plants as require 
a high degree of heat, but a drier at- 
mosphere than the tenants of the bark- 
stove. Consequently, fermenting mate- 
rials and open tanks of hot-water are 
inadmissible; but the sources of heat 
are either steam or hot-water pipes, or 
flues. See Stove. 

DUMASIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
Peat and sandy loam. 

DUMB-CANE Caladium sequinum. 

DUMERILIA paniculata. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Common 
soil. 



-••l•.lll^•liM^••"»■•-""" > "■*^ 

DUNG. Under this title our atten- 
tion must be confined to the faeces and 
urines of animals, and that one most 
common compound, stable dung. 

Night-soil is the richest of the ma- 
nures to be arranged under this head. 
It is composed of human faeces and 
urine, of which the constituents are as 
follows : — 

F-2ECES. 

Water 73.3 

Vegetable and animal remains 7 

Bile 0.9 

Albumen 0.9 

Peculiar and extractive matter 1.2 
Salts (carbonate of soda, 

common salt, sulphate of I 

soda, ammonia-phosphate > 2 

of magnesia, and ph( 

phate of lime) 
Insoluble residue . . . \ 14.0 

URINE. 

Urate of ammonia . . . 0.298 
Sal-ammoniac . • . . 0.459 
Sulphate of potash . . . 2.112 
Chloride of potassium . . 3.674 

sodium (com-) 1KriCfk 

monsalt) } 15 ' 060 

Phosphate of soda . . . 4.267 

lime . . . 0.209 

Acetate of soda .... 2.770 
Urea and colouring matter 23.640 
Water and lactic acid . . 47.511 

After stating the above analyses in 
his excellent work, "On Fertilizers," 
Mr. Cuthbert Johnson proceeds to ob- 
serve that, " The very chemical compo- 



DUN 



204 

— • — 



DUN 



sition, therefore, of this compost would 
indicate the powerful fertilizing effects 
which it is proved to produce. The 
mass of easily soluble and decomposa- 
ble animal matters and salts of ammo- 
nia with which it abounds, its phosphate 
of lime, its carbonate of «oda, are all, 
by themselves, excellent fertilizers, and 
must afford a copious supply of food to 
plants. 

" The disagreeable smell may be de- 
stroyed by mixing it with quicklime; and 
if exposed to the atmosphere in thin lay- 
ers in fine weather, and mixed with 
quicklime, it speedily dries, is easily 
pulverized, and in this state may be used 
in the same manner as rape cake, and 
delivered into the furrow with the 
seed." 



mon salt, phosphate of lime, and sul 
phatQ of soda. 

cow URINE. 

Water 66 

Phosphate of lime . . . 
Chloride of potassium, and ) 
sal-ammoniac ... 5 
Sulphate of potash . 
Carbonate of potash . 
ammonia 



Urea 



:} 



" One thousand parts of dry wheat 
straw being burnt, yielded M. Saussure 
forty-eight parts of ashes ; the same 
quantity of the dry straw of barley 
yielded forty-two parts of ashes. The 
portion dissipated by the fire would be 

From the experiments of M. Schubler | P 1 " 1 "^ 11 ^ carbon > (charcoal,) carbu- 

1 retted hydrogen, gas, and water; one 
hundred parts of these ashes are com- 
posed of — 



lue of night- 



and others, the relative 
soil is as follows: — 

" If a given quantity of the land sown 
without manure yields three times the 
seed employed, then the same quantity 
of land will produce five times the 
quantity sown when manured with old 
herbage, putrid grass or leaves, garden 
stuff, &c. ; seven times with cow-dung ; 
nine times with pigeon's dung ; ten 
times with horse-dung ; twelve times 
with human urine ; twelve times with 
goat's dung ; twelve times with sheep's 
dung ; and fourteen times with human 
manure, or bullock's blood. But if the 
land be of such quality as to produce 
without manure five times the sown 
quantity, then the horse-dung manure 
will yield fourteen, and human manure 
nineteen and two-thirds the sown quan- 
tity." — Johnson's Fertilizers. 

Fowl Dung, if composed partly of that 
of the duck, which is a gross feeder, is 
nearly equal to guano. This, and that 
of the pigeon contain much ammonia, 
and all abound in phosphate of lime, 
mixed with decomposing organic mat- 
ters and uric acid, all highly valuable 
as fertilizers. 

Stable or Farm-yard Bung is usually 
composed of the following matters: — 

HORSE URINE. 



ici-) 
sul-V 



22i 

6| 
1 



Various soluble salts, princi- 
pally carbonate and sul 
phate of potash 
Phosphate of lime (earthy) 
salt of bones) . . . . $ 
Chalk (carbonate of lime) . , 

Silica (flint) 6l| 

Metallic oxide (principally) - 

iron) J , 

Loss 7f 

" The straw of barley contains the 
same ingredients, only in rather differ- 
ent proportions. 

" The solid excrements of a horse 
fed on hay, oats, and straw, contain, 
according to the analysis of M. Zierl, 
in 1000 parts : — 



Water 

Picromel and salts . . . . 
Bilious and extractive mat-) 

ter $ 

Green matter, albumen,) 

mucus, &c J 

Vegetable fibre, and re-) 

mains of food ... ( 



698 
20 

17 
63 

202 



" These, when burnt, yielded to the 
same chemist sixty parts by weight of 



Water and mucus .... 9.4 | ashes, which were composed of— 



Carbonate of lime .... 1.1 

soda .... 0.9 

Hippurate of soda .... 2.4 
Chloride of potassium . . . 0.9 

Urea 0.7 

But besides the above, it contains corn- 



Carbonate, sulphate, and) 5 
muriate of soda ... J 

Carbonate and phosphate) Q 
oflime J 

Silica 46" 

-Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc, Vol. I. p. 489. 



DUN 



205 



DUN 



Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, after giving 
these analyses in his work already 
quoted, observes further, that, " the 
faeces of cattle fed principally on tur- 
nips have been analysed by M. Einhof ; 
100 parts evaporated to dryness yielded 
28^ parts of solid matter; the 7H parts 
lost in drying would consist principally 
of water and some ammoniacal salts. 
In half a pound, or 3,840 grains, he 
found 45 grains of sand ; and by diffu- 
sing it through water, he obtained 
about 600 grains of a yellow fibrous 
matter, resembling that of plants, 
mixed with a very considerable quan- 
tity of slimy matter. By evaporating 
faeces to dryness, and then burning 
them, he obtained an ash, which con- 
tained, besides the sand, the following 
substances: — 



Lime 

Phosphate of lime . . . 

Magnesia 2. 

Iron 5. 

Alumina, with some manga-) ... 

nese \ 

Silica 52. 

Muriate and sulphate of) . „ 



12. 
12.5 



potash 



" The ingredients of which the urine 
and feeces of cattle are composed, will 
of course differ slightly in different 
animals of the same kind, and accord- 
ing to the different food upon which 
they are fed ; but this difference will 
not in any case be found very material. 

" The excrements of the sheep have 
been examined by Block ; according 
to him, every 100 lbs. of rye-straw 
given as fodder to sheep yield 40 lbs. 
of excrements (fluid and solid) ; from 
100 lbs. of hay, 42 lbs.; from 100 lbs. 
of potatoes, 13 lbs. ; from 100 lbs. of 
green clover, 8£ lbs. ; and from 100 lbs. 
of oafs, 49 lbs. of dry excrement. The 
solid excrements of sheep fed on hay, 
were examined by Zierl ; 1,000 parts 
by weight being burned, yielded 96 
parts of ashes, which were found to 
consist of — 



Carbonate, sulphate, and', 



16 



muriate of soda 
Carbonate and phosphate of^ 9n 



lime 
Silica 



60 



" One hundred parts of the urine of 
sheep kept at grass, contained — 



Water 96. 

Urea, albumen, &c. . . . 2.8 
Salt of potash, soda, lime,) . 2 „ 
and magnesia, &c. . . 3 
— Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. 

There have been many arguments 
and much difference of opinion among 
cultivators with regard to the advan- 
tage of employing dung in a fresh or 
in a putrid state, and as is too often the 
case, both parties have run into ex- 
tremes, the one side contending for 
the propriety of employing it quite 
fresh from the farm-yard, the other 
contending that it cannot well be too 
rotten. 

The mode employed by Lord Leices- 
ter, is the medium between these equal- 
ly erroneous extremes. He found that 
the employment of the fresh dung cer- 
tainly made the dung go much farther ; 
but then a multitude of the seeds of 
various weeds were carried on to the 
land along with the manure. He has 
therefore since used his compost when 
only in a half putrefied state, (called 
short dung by farmers,) and hence the 
seeds are destroyed by the effects of 
the putrefaction, and the dung still ex- 
tends much farther than if suffered to 
remain until quite putrefied. Putrefac- 
tion cannot go on without the presence 
of moisture. Where water is entirely 
absent, there can be no putrefaction ; 
and hence many farmers have adopted 
the practice of pumping the drainage of 
their farm-yards over their dung heaps ; 
others invariably place them in a low 
damp situation. This liquid portion 
cannot be too highly valued by the 
cultivator. The soil where a dunghill 
has lain in a field is always distin- 
guished by a rank luxuriance in the 
succeeding crop, even if the earth be- 
neath, to the depth of six inches, is 
removed and spread with the dunghill. 

The controversy, too, which once so 
keenly existed, as to the state of fer- 
mentation in which dung should be 
used on the land, has now pretty well 
subsided. There is no doubt but that 
it cannot be applied more advan- 
tageously than in as fresh a state as 
possible, consistent with the attain- 
ment of a tolerably clean husbandry, 
and the destruction of the seeds of 
weeds, grubs, &c, which are always 
more or less present in farm-yard dung. 
These are the only evils to be appre- 



DUN 



206 



DUN 



bended from the desirable employment 
of this manure in the freshest state ; 
for otherwise the loss of its most valu- 
able constituents commences as soon as 
fermentation begins. This was long 
since demonstrated by Davy, whose 
experiments I have often seen repeated 
and varied. He says, " I filled a large 
retort capable of containing three pints 
of water with some hot fermenting 
manure, consisting principally of the 
litter and dung of cattle. I adapted a 
small receiver to the retort, and con- 
nected the whole with a mercurial 
pneumatic apparatus, so as to collect 
the condensible and elastic fluids which 
might arise from the dung. The re- 
ceiver soon became lined with dew, 
and drops began in a few hours to 
trickle down the sides of it. Elastic 
fluid likewise was generated ; in three 
days thirty-five cubical inches had been 
formed, which when analyzed were 
found to contain twenty-one cubical 
inches of carbonic acid ; the remainder 
was hydro-carburet, mixed with some 
azote, probably no more than existed 
in the common air in the receiver. 
The fluid matter collected in the re- 
ceiver at the same time amounted to 
nearly half an ounce. It had a saline 
taste and a disagreeable smell, and con- 
tained some acetate and carbonate of 
ammonia. Finding such products given 
off from fermenting litter, I introduced 
the beak of another retort filled with 
similar dung very hot at the time, in the 
soil amongst the roots of some grass in 
the border of a garden. In less than a 
week a very discernible effect was pro- 
duced on the grass, upon the spot ex- 
posed to the influence of the matter 
disengaged in fermentation ; it grew 
with much more luxuriance than the 
grass in any other part of the gar- 
den." — Lectures. 

Nothing, indeed, appears at first sight 
so simple as the manufacture and col- 
lection of farm yard dung, and yet there 
are endless sources of error into which 
the cultivator is sure to fall, if he is not 
ever vigilant in their management. The 
late Mr. Francis Blake, in his valuable 
tract upon the management of farm- 
yard manure, dwells upon several of 
these; he particularly condemns the 
practice of keeping the dung arising 
from different descriptions of animals 
in separate heaps or departments, and 
applying them to the land without inter- 



mixture. " It is customary," he adds, 
" to keep the fattening neat cattle in 
yards by themselves, and the manure 
thus produced is of good quality, be- 
cause the excrement of such cattle is 
richer than that of lean ones. Fattening 
cattle are fed with oil cake, corn, 
Swedish turnips, or some other food, 
and the refuse and waste of such food 
thrown about the yard increases the 
value; it also attracts the pigs to the 
yard. These rout the straw and dung 
about in search of grains of corn, bits of 
Swedish turnips, and other food ; by 
which means the manure in the yard 
becomes more intimately mixed, and is 
proportionally increased in value. The 
feeding troughs and cribs in the yard 
should for obvious reasons be shifted 
frequently. 

" The horse-dung," continues Blake, 
" is usually thrown out at the stable 
doors, and there accumulates in large 
heaps. It is sometimes spread a little 
about, but more generally not at all, 
unless where necessary for the conve- 
nience of ingress and egress, or perhaps 
to allow the water to drain away from 
the stable door. Horse-dung lying in 
heaps very soon ferments and heats to 
an excess, the centre of the heap is 
charred or burned to a dry white sub- 
stance, provincially termed fire-fanged. 
Dung in this state loses from fifty to 
seventy-five per cent, of its value. The 
diligent and attentive farmer will guard 
against such profligate waste of property 
by never allowing the dung to accumu- 
late in any considerable quantity at the 
stable doors. The dung from the feed- 
ing hog-sties should also be carted and 
spread about the store cattle yard in 
the same manner as the horse-dung. 

" The heat produced by the ferment- 
ation of the dung of different animals 
has been made the subject of repeated 
experiment. When the temperature of 
the air was 40°, that of common farm- 
yard dung was 70°; a mixture of lime, 
dung, and earth, 55° ; swine and fowl's 
dung, 85°. " — Farmer's Magazine, 
Johnson's Fertilizers. 

" The quality of farm-yard compost 
naturally varies with the food of the 
animals by which it is made ; that from 
the cattle of the straw-yard is decidedly 
the poorest, that from those fed on oil- 
cake, corn, or Swedes, the richest. Of 
stable dung, that from corn-fed horses 
is most powerful, from those subsisting 



DUR 



207 

— • — 



ECH 



on straw and hay the poorest ; the 
difference between the fertilizing effects 
of the richest and the inferior farm-yard 
dung is much greater than is commonly 
believed ; in many instances the dis- 
parity exceeds one-half; thus that pro- 
duced by cattle fed upon oil-cake is 
fully equal in value to double the 
quantity fed upon turnips. Hence the 
superior richness of the manure of 
fattening swine to that of pigs in a lean 
state, and the far superior strength of 
night-soil to any manure produced from 
merely vegetable food. Chemical ex- 
aminations are hardly necessary to 
prove these facts. Every farmer who 
has had stall-fed cattle will testify to 
their truth ; every cultivator will readily 
acknowledge the superiority of ' town- 
made,' that is, corn-produced stable 
dung, to that from horses fed only on 
hay and straw, and that night-soil is far 
superior in strength to either. The 
relative quantities employed by the 
cultivator betray the same fact, for on 
the soils where he applies twenty loads 
of good farm-yard compost per acre, he 
spreads not half that quantity of night- 
soil. The drainage from all manures 
should be scrupulously preserved, for 
the liquid or soluble portion constitutes 
their richest portion. The escape of 
their gaseous products during decom- 
position should also be checked as 
much as possible, for they contain 
ammonia, carbonic acid, &c, all 
abounding in constituents valuable as 

fertilizers." — Johnson's Farmer's En- 
cyclop. 

DURANTA. Seven species. Stove 

evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 

peat. 

DUVALIA. Twelve species. Stove 

evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 

loam and lime rubbish. 

DUVAUA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 

Common soil. 

DWARF FAN-PALM. Chamcerops 

humilis. 

DWARF MOLY. Allium chamce- 

moly. 

DWARF STANDARD is a fruit tree 

on a very short stem, with its branches 

unshortened and untrained. 

DYCKIA rariflora. Green-house 

herbaceous. Suckers. Sandy peat and 

loam. 

EARTHS. Every cultivated soil is 

mainly composed of four earths in vari- 



ous proportions : — Silica, or pure flint ; 
Alumina, or pure clay ; Lime, combined 
with carbonic acid in the state of chalk 5 
and Magnesia. See Soil. 

EARTHING-UP, or drawing the soil 
in a ridge to the stems of plants, is 
beneficial to fibrous-rooted plants, by 
reducing the distance from the surface 
of the extremities of the plant's roots ; 
by inducing the production of rootlets 
from the stem ; and sheltering the 
winter standing crops, for the closer 
the foliage of these are to the earth the 
less is the reduction of heat from the 
latter, either by radiation or contact 
with the colder air. 

But to tuberous-rooted plants, as the 
potato, it is detrimental. In my experi- 
ments it reduced the produce one- 
fourth. Many farmers who cultivate 
the potato extensively, do so with the 
horse-hoe alone, no longer using the 
plough to earth-up, as was formerly the 
universal practice, and is now with 
those who never profit by experience. 

EARWIG. Forficula auricularis. 
This destroyer of the peach, apricot, 
plum, dahlia, pink and carnation, com- 
mits its ravages only at night, retiring 
during the day to any convenient 
shelter in the vicinity of its prey. Ad- 
vantage must be taken of this habit, 
and if small garden pots with a little 
moss within be inverted upon a stick, 
and pieces of the dry hollow stem of 
the sunflower, or Jerusalem artichoke, 
be placed in the neighbourhood of the 
fruits and flowers enumerated, many of 
the insects will resort thither, and may 
be shaken out and destroyed. As ear- 
wigs are winged insects, it is useless to 
guard the stems of plants in any mode. 

EBENUS. Two species. Green- 
house evergreens. Seed. Peat and 
loam. 

ECASTAPHYLLUM. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
loam. 

ECCREMOCARPUS longiflora. 
Green-house evergreen climber. Cut- 
tings. Sand, loam, and peat. 

ECHEVERIA. Seven species. 
Green-house and stove succulents. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

ECHINACEA. Six species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Light rich loam. 

ECHINOCACTUS. Sixty-one 
species. Stove evergreen. Offsets. 
Sandy peat, and a little calcareous rub- 
bish. 



ECH 



208 



END 



ECHINOPS. Sixteen species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

ECHITES. Twenty-one species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen twiners. Cut- 
ings. Loam and peat. 

ECHIUM. Fifty-eight species. 
Hardy and green-house shrubs and an- 
nuals. Layers and cuttings, or seeds. 
Loam and peat. 

EDGING. This for the kitchen-garden 
and all other places where neatness, not 
ornament, is the object, may consist of 
useful herbs, the strawberry &c. As an 
ornamental edging nothing can compare 
with the dwarf Box, especially in light 
soils. On heavy low lands it suffers 
during winter and may, perhaps, be 
totally destroyed; in such situations 
grass may be used, though it is trouble- 
some to keep in order. 

Fig. 36. 




EDGING KNIFE. This too], fitted 
to a straight handle, is used for paring ; 
the edges of grass bordering walkB, I 
&c, and cutting the outlines of sods, 
which may be then readily raised by 
the spade. — Rural Reg. 

EDWARDSIA. Six species. Half- 
hardy shurbs. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 

EGG-BEARER. Solanum origenum. 

EGG-SHELLS. See Animal Matters. 

EGLANTINE. See Sweet Briar. 

EGYPTIAN LOTUS. Nymphcea 
lotus. 

EGYPTIAN THORN. Acacia vera. 

EHRETIA. Eleven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs and trees. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

EKEBERGIA capensis. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

ELiEAGNUS. Seven species. Hardy 
or green-house trees and shrubs, except 
E. latifolia, which is a stove shrub. 
Layers or cuttings. Light soil. 

ELAIS. Four species. Stove palms. 
Suckers. Rich sandy loam. 

EL^OCARPUS. Five species. 
Stove or green-house trees or shrubs. 
Cuttings. Loam and peat. 



ELiEODENDRON. Five species. 
Green-house and stove evergreen 
shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

ELAPHRIUM glabrum. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

ELATE sylvestris. A stove palm. 
Suckers. Rich loam. 

ELATER. See Wire-worm. 

ELDER (Sambucus). Common black 
elder (S. nigra), of which there are 
several varieties, viz., black-berried, 
white-berried, green-berried, parsley- 
leaved, gold-striped, silver-striped, and 
silver-dusted. 

ELEVATION. See Altitude. 

ELICHRYSUM. Forty-five species. 
Chiefly green-house evergreen shrubs 
and deciduous perennials. Cuttings. 
Peat and sandy loam. 

ELLIOTTIA racemosa. Half-hardy 
evergreen shrub. Layers. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

ELLEBOCARPUS oleraceus. Stove 
fern. Division. Loam. 

ELISENA longipetala. Stove bulb. 
Offsets. Sandy loam and leaf-mould. 

ELM (Ulmus). 

ELM BEETLE. See Scolytus. 

EMBLICA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
sand. 

EMBOTHRIUM strobilinum. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

ENCELIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam. 

ENDIVE (Cichorium endivia). 

Varieties. — The green-curled, the 
only one cultivated for the main crops, 
as it best endures wet and cold ; the 
white-curled, chiefly grown for summer 
and autumn ; the broad-leaved, or Bata- 
vian, is preferred for soups and stews, 
but is seldom used for salads. 

Soil and situation. — Endive delights 
in a light, dry, but rich soil, dug deep, 
as well for the free admission of its tap- 
root as to serve as a drain for any super- 
abundant moisture. This should be 
especially attended to for the winter 
standing crops, for which, likewise, if 
the soil or substratum is retentive, it is 
best to form an artificial bed by laying 
a foot in depth of mould on a bed of 
brickbats, stones, &c, as excessive 
moisture, in conjunction with excessive 
cold, is in general fatal to this plant. 
The situation should be open, and free 
from the influence of trees. 



END 



END 



Time and mode of sowing. — For a 
first crop about the middle of April, to 
be repeated in May, but only in small 
portions, as those which are raised be- 
fore June, soon advance to seed. To- 
wards the middle of this month the first 
main crop may be inserted ; to be con- 
tinued in the course of July, and lastly 
early in August ; and in this month the 
main plantation is made. The seed 
is 'sown then in drills twelve inches 
apart, and about half an inch below the 
surface. The plants speedily make 
their appearance. When an inch in 
height they should be thinned to three 
or four inches apart : those taken away 
are too small to be of any service if 
pricked out. The bed must be kept 
clear of weeds from the first appearance 
of the plants until they are removed. 
To promote their arrival at a fit size for 
performing this operation, water should 
be given occasionally in dry weather. 

When the larger seedlings have been 
transplanted, the smaller ones which 
remain may be cleared of weeds and 
have a gentle watering ; by which treat- 
ment, in twelve or fourteen days, they 
will have attained a sufficient size to 
afford a second successional crop; and, 
by a repetition of this management, in 
general a third. The plants are gene- 
rally fit for transplanting when of a 
month's growth in the seed-bed ; but 
a more certain criterion is, that when 
of five or six inches' height they are of 
the most favourable size. 

Planting. — They must be set in rows 
twelve or fifteen inches apart each way : 
the Batavian requires the greatest space. 
Some gardeners recommend them to be 
set in trenches or drills three or four 
inches deep. This mode is not detri- 
mental in summer and dry weather ; 
but in winter, when every precaution 
is to be adopted for the prevention of 
decay, it is always injurious. 

Water must be given moderately 
every evening uutil the plants are esta- 
blished, after which it is not at all re- 
quisite, except in excessive and pro- 
tracted drought. Those which are left 
in the seed-bed, if the soil is at all fa- 
vourable, in general attain a finer 
growth than those that have been 
moved. In November some plants that 
have attained nearly their full size may 
be removed to the south side of a slop- 
ing bank of dry light earth, raised one 
or two feet behind : to be protected by 
14 



frames, mats, or thick coverings of lit- 
ter, during severe and very wet wea- 
ther ; but to be carefully uncovered 
during mild dry days. The plants, in 
this instance, are not required to be 
further apart than six or eight inches. 
This plan may be followed in open days 
during December and January, by which 
means a constant supply may be ob- 
tained. Instead of being planted in the 
above manner on a terrace, it is some- 
times practised to take the plants on a 
dry day, and, the leaves being tied to- 
gether, to lay them horizontally in the 
earth down to the tip of the leaves ; 
this accelerates the blanching, but 
otherwise is far more subject to failure. 

As the number necessary for a family 
is but small, but few should be planted 
at a time. 

Blanching. — About three months 
elapse between the time of sowing and 
the fitness of the plants for blanching. 
This operation, if conducted properly, 
will be completed in from ten to four- 
teen days in summer, or in three or 
four weeks in winter. To blanch the 
plants it is the most common practice 
to tie their leaves together, to place 
tiles or pieces of board upon them, or 
to cover them with garden-pots; whilst 
some recommend their leaves to be tied 
together, and then to be covered up to 
their tips with mould, making it rise to 
an apex, so as to throw off excessive 
rains. All these methods succeed in 
dry seasons ; but in wet ones the plants, 
treated according to any of them, are 
liable to decay. 

The one which succeeds best in all 
seasons is to fold the leaves round the 
heart as much as possible in their natu- 
ral position; and being tied together 
with a shred of bass-mat, covered up 
entirely with coal-ashes in the form of 
a cone, the surface being rendered firm 
and smooth with the trowel. Sand will 
do, but ashes are equally unretentive 
of moisture, whilst they are much supe- 
rior in absorbing heat, which is so be- 
neficial in the hastening of the process. 
If the simple mode of drawing the 
leaves together is adopted to effect this 
etiolation, they must be tied very close, 
and, in a week after the first tying, a 
second ligature must be passed round 
the middle of the plant to prevent the 
heart-leaves bursting out. A dry after- 
noon, when the plants are entirely free 
from moisture, should be selected, 



ENG 



this 



whichever mode is adopted for 
concluding operation. 

A very excellent mode is to spread 
over the surface of the bed about an 
inch in depth of pit-sand, and covering 
each plant with a small pot made of 
earthenware, painted both within and 
on the outside to exclude the wet— that 
worst hindrance of blanching. To avoid 
this, the pots should be taken off daily 
for a quarter of an hour, and their in- 
sides wiped dry. A common garden-pot 
will do if the hole be closely stopped; 
but a sea-kale pot in miniature, is to 
be preferred ; and if made of zinc or 
other metal, it would be better, because 
not porous and admissive of moisture. — 
Johnson's Gard. Almanack. 

To obtain Seed. — The finest and 
soundest plants should be selected of 
the last plantation, and which most agree 
with the characteristics of the respect- 
ive varieties. For a small family three 
or four plants of each variety will pro- 
duce sufficient. These should be taken 
in March, and planted beneath a south I 
fence, about a foot from it and eighteen 
inches apart. As the flower-stem ad- 
vances it should be fastened to a stake; 
or, if they are placed beneath palings, 
by a string, to be gathered 
as the seed upon it ripens : 
for if none are gathered 
until the whole plant is 
changing colour, the first 
ripened and best seed will 
have scattered and be lost, 
so wide is the difference 
of time between the seve- 
ral branches of the same 
plant ripening their seed. 
Each branch must be laid, 
as it is cut, upon a cloth in 
the sun ; and when per- 
fectly dry, the seed beaten 
out, cleansed, and stored. 

ENGINE. This name is 
applied to many contriv- 
ances for supplying water 
to plants. 

1. The pump-syringe, or 
syringe-engine, (Fig. 37), 
can be supplied with water 
from a common bucket, 
from which it sucks the 
water through a perforat- 
ed base. The handle is 
sometimes made to work 
like that of the common 
pump. 



210 

— ♦ — 



ENG 



2. The barrow watering-engine (Fig. 
38) is represented in the figure below. 
It will throw the jet of water to a dis- 
tance of forty or fifty feet, or somewhat 
less if a rose is upon the end of the de- 
livery-pipe. It holds from twenty to 
thirty gallons of water; but may be 
made, with a leather-hose attached, to 
communicate with a pond or other 
reservoir of water. 

Fig. 38. 




Fig. 37. 



3. The curved barrel-engine (Fig. 39) 
is excellent; for the barrel, piston-rods, 
&c, being so constructed as to be turned 
on a lathe, they are so accurate that 
there is the least possible loss of power, 
either from unnecessary friction or from 
an imperfect vacuum. 

Fig. 39. 




Another garden engine of still greater 
power, is illustrated by the annexed 
drawing (Fig. 40) ; it is somewhat more 
costly than those in general use, but 
may be used for a variety of purposes, 
and in some cases might be used to 



ENK 



211 

— ♦— 



ENT 



Fig. 40. 




protect property from fire. They are 
of various patterns and power. Some of 
them, worked by a single arm, cast the 
water fifty to sixty feet high. 

ENKIANTHUS. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings, Sandy loam and peat. 

ENTADA. Five species. Stove ever- 
green climbers. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

ENTELEA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and sandy peat. 

ENTRANCES. Upon these parts of 
a residence, which should give a first 
and appropriate impression, Mr. Whate- 
ley has these just remarks : 

"The road which leads up to the 
door of the mansion may go off from it 
in an equal angle, so that the two sides 
shall exactly correspond ; and certain 
ornaments, though detached, are yet 
rather within the province of architec- 
ture than of gardening; works of sculp- 
ture are not, like buildings, objects 
familiar in scenes of cultivated nature ; 
but vases, statues, and termini, are 
usual appendages to a considerable edi- 
fice : as such, they may attend the man- 
sion, and trespass a little upon the gar- 
den, provided they are not carried so 
far into it as to lose their connexion 
with the structure. The platform and 
the road are also appurtenances to the 
house ; all these may, therefore, be 
adapted to its form ; and the environs 
will thereby acquire a degree of regu- 



j larity ; but to give it to the objects of 
| nature, only on account of their prox- 
imity to others which are calculated to 
receive it, is, at the best, a refinement. 

" Upon the same principles regu- 
larity has been required in the approach; 
and an additional reason has been as- 
signed for it, that the idea of a seat is 
thereby extended to a distance ; but 
that may be by other means than by an 
avenue ; a private road is easily known; 
if carried through grounds, or a park, 
it is commonly very apparent; even in 
a lane, here and there a bench, a paint- 
ed gate, a small plantation, or any other 
little ornament, will sufficiently denote 
it. If the entrance only be marked, 
simple preservation will retain the im- 
pression along the whole progress ; or 
it may wind through several scenes dis- 
tinguished by objects, or by an extraor- 
dinary degree of cultivation : and then 
the length of the way, and the variety 
of improvements through which it is 
conducted, may extend the appearance 
of domain and the idea of a seat, beyond 
the reach of any direct avenue. A 
narrow vista, a mere line of perspective, 
be the extent what it may, will seldom 
compensate for the loss of that space 
which it divides, and of the parts which 
it conceals. 

"Regularity was, however, once 
thought essential to every garden and 
every approach ; and it yet remains in 
many. It is still a character denoting 
the neighbourhood of a gentleman's 



EPA 



212 



ERP 



habitation ; and an avenue, as an object 
in a view, gives to a house, otherwise 
inconsiderable, the air of a mansion. 
Buildings which answer one another at 
the entrance of an approach, or on the 
sides of an opening, have a similar 
effect ; they distinguish at once the 
precincts of a seat from the rest of the 
country. Some pieces of sculpture, I 
also, such as vases and termini, may I 
perhaps now and then be used to extend 
the appearance of a garden beyond its 
limits, and to raise the mead in which 
they are placed above the ordinary im- 
provements of cultivated nature. At 
other times they may be applied 'as 
ornaments to the most polished lawns ; 
the traditional ideas we have conceived 
of Arcadian scenes correspond with such 
decorations; and sometimes a solitary 
urn, inscribed to the memory of a per- 
son now no more, but who once fre- 
quented the shades where it stands, is 
an object equally elegant and interest- 
ing. 

" The occasions, however, on which 
we may with any propriety trespass 
beyond the limits of cultivated nature, 
are very rare ; the force of the charac- 
ter can alone excuse the artifice avowed 
in expressing it." — Whateley. 

EPACRIS. Eighteen species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
Sandy peat. 

EPIDENDRUM. Sixty-eight species. 
Stove epiphytes. Offsets. Peat and 
potsherds. 

E P I G (E A. Two species. Hardy 
evergreen trailers. Layers. Sandy peat 
and loam. 

EPILOBIUM. Seventeen species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed or division. 
Common soil. 

EPIMEDIUM. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Sandy peat. 

EPIPACTIS. Three species. Hardy 
orchids. Division. Sandy peat and 
loam. 

EPIPHYLLUM. Eleven species. 
Stove evergreen cactaceae. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

EPIPHYTES grow upon other plants, 
but, unlike parasites, do not extract 
from them nourishment. 

ERANTHEMUM. Eleven species. 
Stove and green-house evergreen 
shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 

ERANTHIS. Two species. Hardy 
tubers. Offsets. Sandy loam. 



EREMURUS spectabilis. Hardy her- 
baceous. Division. Common soil. 

ERIA. Twelve species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Peat and pot- 
sherds. 

ERICA, Heath. Four hundred and 
ninety-five species, besides very many 
varieties. Most of them green-house, 
but a large number are hardy, and are all 
evergreen. Cuttings or layers. Sandy 
peat. See Heath. 

ERIGERON. Forty species. Hardy 
herbaceous and annuals. Division or 
seed. Common soil. 

ERINUS. Five species. Green- 
house evergreens, and hardy herbace- 
ous. Division or seed. Sandy loam. 

ERIOBOTRYA. Two species. Half- 
hardy evergreen trees. Cuttings, seed, 
and grafting on the white-thorn. Leaf 
and peat mould. 

ERIOCEPHALUS. Five species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

ERIOCOMA. Two species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Common soil. 

ERIODENDRON. Four species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Seed. Rich 
loam and sandy peat. 

ERIOGONUM. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed. Loam and peat. 

ERIOL^NA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

ERIOPHYLLUM. Two species. 
Hardy. Division. Common soil. 

ERIOSOMA. A genus of insects 
nearly synonymous with Aphis. 

E. bursaria. Poplar Louse. 

E. lanigera. See American Blight. 

ERIOSPERNUM. Eight species. 
Green-house bulbs. Suckers. Sandy 
peat. 

ERIOSTEMON. Ten species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat and loam. 

ERISMA floribunda. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

ERITHALIS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich loam 
and peat. 

ERNODEA montana. Half-hardy 
evergreen trailer. Division. Gravelly 
soil. 

ERODIUM. Twenty-seven species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous. Division. 
Common soil. 

ERPETION. Two species. Half- 



ERY 



213 



ERY 



hardy evergreen creepers. Division. 
Sandy peat. 

ERYNGIUM. Thirty-four species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous. Division or 
seed. Common soil. 

ERYTHR^A. Eleven species. 
Chiefly hardy annuals. Seed or divi- 
sion accordingly, as they are annuals or 
perennials. Loam. 

ERYTHRINA. Thirty-five species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs and 
trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, and 
leaf-mould, in equal proportions. 

£. crista-galli. Coral Tree. Is one 
of the most beautiful of this genus, and 
its cultivation in the open air is thus 
detailed by that excellent gardener, 
Mr. W. P. Ayres: — 

" Cuttings of the young wood, taken 
off with a heel when about three inches 
long, and planted round the edge of a 
large pot, or singly in small ones, in 
sandy peat, and plunged in a brisk 
bottom heat, will root in the course of 
a few weeks. This is suitable for those 
cuttings which are taken from plants in 
heat, but cuttings from the open air 
will not bear such treatment. The 
transition to a close warm frame ap- 
pears too much for them, and they 
become paralyzed ; but if after being 
planted they are placed in a moderately 
warm frame until the cuttings are cica- 
trized, and then removed to a brisk 
bottom heat, they will root with great 
freedom. 

"After the cuttings are rooted, they 
must be repotted into rich light com- 
post, and encouraged to make robust 
growth. As it is indispensable that the 
plants should become strong before 
they are planted out, they must have at 
least one season's cultivation in pots; 
the flower-buds must also be removed 
as soon as they are perceptible, so that 
the whole organizable matter may be 
concentrated in the young plant. 

" In the spring of the second season, 
the ground may be prepared for the 
reception of the plants, and as the pre- 
servation in winter of the roots of all 
tender plants depends as much upon 
the dryness as upon the warmth of the 
soil, it will be advisable to give them 
an elevated but not an exposed situa- 
tion ; and where the subsoil is not 
porous, make it so artificially. There- 
fore, where it is necessary, excavate 
the natural soil to the depth of two 
feet, and in the bottom place a layer of 



brick rubbish at least six inches thick ; 
over that lay some small sticks, leaves, 
or moss, to prevent the soil from get- 
ting into the drainage, and infilling up, 
raise the bed six inches above the level 
of the surrounding soil — with a compost 
consisting of rich turfy loam, leaf- 
mould, and turfy peat, in the proportion 
of two parts of the former to one of 
each of the latter; to which sandstone 
or porous bricks, broken to the size of 
large eggs, may be added to the extent 
of one-eighth of the whole mass. This 
mixture will never become solid, on 
the contrary, it will always be perme- 
able to both air and moisture, without 
any risk of becoming saturated with the 
latter. The plants in the first season 
may be planted eighteen inches apart; 
but in the third year half of them may 
be taken out to form a new plantation, 
and in the fifth or sixth year each plant 
when in flower will acquire an area of 
sixteen or twenty square feet. When 
large specimens for immediate effect 
are desired, four or five may be placed 
in juxtaposition. 

" The best time to plant them out 
will be from the last week in May to 
the middle of June, as the ground will 
then be a little warm, and the plants 
will sustain no check. 

" Towards the end of October the 
plants should be cut down, and the 
crown of each covered with a box, or 
flower-pot, filled with dry leaves, the 
whole being spread over with dry peat, 
leaf-mould, or saw-dust, to the depth of 
a foot, and then turfed over neatly. 
The latter will be found advantageous, 
especially if the sides of the bed have a 
sharpish inclination, as it will throw off 
much of the rain that would otherwise 
soak into the mould, and impair its 
protecting properties. 

" In spring, when the covering is 
removed, the surface of the bed should 
be renewed to the depth of the roots 
with the above compost, the whole 
being afterwards covered two inches 
thick with sandy peat or leaf mould. 
This covering should be continued until 
the middle of June, or later if the 
weather requires it. Water during the 
growing season may be freely adminis- 
tered in dry weather, and if liquid 
manure is occasionally given it will add 
to the strength of the plants; but after 
they are in bloom the less water that 
falls on the bed the better it will be for 



ERY 



214 



ESP 



the preservation of the roots through 
the winter." — Gard. Chron. North of 
the Potomac it will be safer to remove 
the Erythrina c.-galli in autumn to 
some sheltered situation, where it may 
be kept in nearly a dry or dormant state 
until the spring, when it may again 
occupy its position in the open air. 

ERYTHROL^NA conspicua. Hardy 
biennial. Seed. Rich loam. 

ERYTHRONIUM. Four species. 
Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Common soil, 
with a little peat. 

ESCALLONIA. Seven species. 
Green-house and half-hardy evergreen 
ghrubs. Cuttings. Peat, sand, and 
loam. 

ESCHALLOT or SHALLOT. Al- 
lium ascalonicum. Of this there are 
the common, and the long-keeping, the 
last continuing good for two years. 
Both have a stronger taste than the 
onion, yet not leaving that odour on the 
palate which the latter is accustomed 
to do, it is often preferred and em- 
ployed in its stead, both in culinary 
preparations, and for eating in its natural 
state. 

Time and Mode of Propagation. — 
Each offset of the root will increase in 
a similar manner as its parent. The 
planting may be performed in October 
and November, or early in the spring, 
as February, March, or beginning of 
April. The first is the best season, 
especially if the soil lies dry, as the 
bulbs become finer. If the smallest 
offsets are employed for planting, they 
never become mouldy in the ground, 
and they are never injured by the most 
intense frosts. 

They are to be planted on the surface, 
six inches asunder each way, in beds 
not more than four feet wide, some very 
rich mould being placed beneath them, 
and a little raised on each side to sup- 
port them until they become firmly 
rooted, when it must be entirely re- 
moved by the hoe, and a strong current 
of water from the watering pot. The 
compost laid beneath the offsets may 
consist of a mixture of well-decayed 
hot-bed dung and soot, which is very 
favourable to their growth, and is a 
preservative from the maggot. 

Cultivation. — The only attention they 
subsequently require is to be kept clear 
of weeds. Some may be taken up as 
wanted in June, July, and August, but 
not entirely for storing until the leaves 



are withered, which takes place during 
the last-named month, when, being 
carefully dried and housed, they will 
keep until the following spring. Care 
must be taken that they are gradually 
dried in an airy situation, shaded from 
the meridian sun, which would cause 
them to wrinkle; as also to store them 
in dry weather. 

ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See Chryseis. 

ESPALIER, is a tree trained to a 
trellis instead of a wall, and though 
the fruit it bears is not quite equal to 
that borne by a tree of the same variety 
trained against the wall, yet it is far 
superior to that borne on either dwarf 
or full standards. Of this the causes 
obviously are, that the fruit and leaves 
are more fully supplied with sap, and 
more perfectly exposed to the light and 
warmth of the sun. Some gardeners 
object to their introduction into the 
kitchen garden on the plea that they 
deprive the under crops of air and light, 
but if confined to the borders of the 
main walks, the shelter they afford to 
those crops is more than commensurate 
to the slight interruption suggested. In 
addition, they are highly ornamental, 
and greatly improve the aspect of the 
kitchen garden. Espalier rails should 
run parallel with the walks, and at four 
feet distance from them ; not higher 
than five feet; neat, and if made of 
wood, tarred, and the ends which are 
fixed in the ground charred ; though 
blocks of stone sunk into the ground, 
with iron sockets or bases to receive 
those ends, are still better. 

Gooseberries and Currants are highly 
improved by being trained as espaliers, 
and may be so grown along borders 
near the side walks of the kitchen 
garden. For these the trellis must be 
not higher than three feet from the 
ground, and for the purpose* stakes 
about four inches in circumference, 
and thus arranged, are very suitable. 

Fig. 41. 




Various suggestions have been made for 
altering the form of espalier trellises, 
but let the gardener never adopt any 
that declines from the perpendicular. 



ETI 



215 

— • — 



EVE 



The smallest approach to the horizontal 
increases the radiation of heat from the 
trees, and increases, consequently, the 
cold they have to endure at night. It 
is not one of the least advantages of 
training gooseberries and currants as 
espaliers, that it facilitates the protect- 
ing them with mats. 

ETIOLATION. See Blanching. 

EUCALYPTUS. Fifty-three species. 
Green-house evergreen trees. Cuttings. 
Peat, loam, and sand. 

EUCHARIDIUM concinnum. Hardy 
annual. Seed. Common soil. 

EUCHILUS obcordatus. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

EUCHROMA. Two species. Har- 
dy; one perennial, the other annual. 
Seed. Common soil, with a little peat. 

EUCLEA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

EUCOMIS. Seven species. Green- 
house bulbs. Offsets. Rich loam. 

EUCROSIA bicolor. Green-house 
bulb. Offsets. Common light soil. 

EUGENIA. Twenty-eight species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

EULOPHIA. Eight species. Green- 
house and stove orchids. Division. 
Peat and loam. 

EUMERUS. A genus of predatory 
flies. 

E. ceneus, Brassy Onion Fly, is thus 
described by Mr. Curtis: — 

" The maggots are very rough, from 
a multitude of short spines or rigid 
bristles, which cover their skins, espe- 
cially towards the tail, ferruginous or 
brownish. The fly itself is of a reddish 
ochre colour, freckled with dark brown, 
and there are two spiny processes like 
short horns upon the thorax, in the fe- 
male at least. It is densely clothed 
with short hairs, thickly and distinctly 
punctured, and of an olive-green colour, 
with a brassy tinge ; the antennae are 
entirely black, the seta naked: the face 
is very hairy, simply convex and silvery 
white; eyes dark brown and slightly 
pubescent ; rostrum very short ; thorax 
with two whitish lines down the back. 
The maggots of this fly do not seem to 
be confined to the onion, for I bred one 
in the middle of May from cabbage 
roots, and specimens have been taken 
flying about hedges in June and July, 
in the neighbourhood of London and 



Bristol. As it often happens, the fe- 
male has not been observed depositing 
her eggs; the spot that she selects is 
therefore yet unknown. Drought does 
not suit them." — Gard. Chron. 

EUNOMIA oppositifolia. Half-hardy 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

EUONYMUS. Eighteen species. 
Chiefly hardy evergreen shrubs. Seed 
or cuttings. Common soil. 

EUPATORIUM. Fifty species, em- 
bracing hardy, green-house, and stove 
herbaceous, and perennial plants. Seed. 
Peat and loam. 

EUPHORBIA. One hundred and 
fifty-two species. Chiefly hardy, green- 
house and stove evergreens. Division 
or seed. Common, soil. 

" E. splendens is the most striking 
species. It is a stove evergreen shrub. 
It should be repotted early in spring, 
or even in the winter, if the pot is full 
of roots. Although it does not require 
so much water in winter, yet you must 
not keep it then quite dry, for it is al- 
ways growing." — Gard. Chron. 

E. jaquinceflora is also a very beau- 
tiful species, producing a profusion of 
deep orange coloured flowers in a 
wreath like form. 

EURYA. Two species. Green-house 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

EURYALE ferox. Stove aquatic. 
Seed. 

EURYCLES. Four species. Stove 
bulbs. Seed and offsets. Sandy loam 
and leaf-mould. 

EUSTEGIA hastata. Green-house 
evergreen trailer. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

EUSTOMA silenifolia. Hardy an- 
nual. Seed. Common soil. 

EUSTREPHUS. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen twiners. Cut- 
tings. Sandy peat. 

EUTAXIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

EUTHALES trinervis. Green-house 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

EUTHAMIA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

EUTOCA. Five species. Hardy 
annuals and biennials. Seeds. Sandy 
soil. 

EUXENIA grata. Green-house ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

EVENING FLOWER. Hesperus. 



EVE 



216 



EXT 



EVENING PRIMROSE. (Enothera. 

EVERGREENS are such plants as do 
not shed all their leaves at any one 
season of the year. 

EVERGREEN THORN. Cratagus 
pyracantha. 

EVERLASTING. Gnaphalium. 

EVERLASTING PEA. Lathyrus 
Jatifolius. 

EVODIA triphylla. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

EVOLVULUS. Eleven species. 
Chiefly stove annual trailers; two are 
hardy, and two evergreens. The last 
propagated by division ; others by seed. 
Common soil. 

EXCRESCENCE. « Independent of 
Galls, which are caused by the punc- 
tures of insects, and the swellings which 
always accompany Canker, the excres- 
cences which injure the gardener's 
crops are very few. That which ap- 
pears above the point of union between 
the scion and stock, is caused by the 
former being the freer grower of the 
two, and is a warning which should be 
remembered, for it curtails the longevity 
of the tree, the supply of sap gradually 
becoming inefficient. 

"The excrescences which occur upon 
the branches of some apples, as those 
of the codling and June-eating, cannot 
be looked upon as disease, for they 
arise from congeries of abortive buds, 
which readily protrude roots if buried 
in the soil, making those among the 
very few apples which can be propa- 
gated by cuttings. Of a similar nature 
are the huge excrescences so prevalent 
on aged oaks and elms. Bulbous ex- 
crescences are formed upon the roots of 
many plants if compelled to grow upon 
a soil drier than that which best suits 
them. This is the case especially with 
two grasses, Phleum pratense and Al- 
opecurus geniculates, and is evidently a 
wise provision of nature to secure the 
propagation of the species, for those 
bulbs will vegetate long after the re- 
mainder of the plant has been destroyed 
by the excessive dryness of the soil. 

"On the free performance of this 
function of plants their health is depend- 
ent in a very high degree : and I believe 
that half the epidemics to which they 
are subject arises from its derangement. 
That consequence of the clubbing of 
the roots of the brassica tribe, called 
fingers and toes, arises, I consider, 
entirely from it. In the drought of 



summer, when the moisture supplied to 
a club-rooted cabbage by its root does 
not nearly equal the exhalation of its 
foliage, to supply this deficiency the 
plant endeavours, by forming a kind of 
spurious bulbous root, to adapt itself to 
the contingency." — Princ. of Garden- 
ing. 

EXTRA VASATED SAP. "Under 
this general name, I purpose to include 
the consideration of gumming, bleeding, 
and other injurious affections under 
which plants occasionally labour, on 
account of their sap escaping from the 
properly containing vessels. The ex- 
travasation proceeds either from the al- 
burnum or from the inner bark and may 
arise from five causes. 

" 1. The acrid or alkaline state of 
the sap, which has been considered 
already, when treating of the canker. 

" 2. From plethora or excessive 
abundance of the sap. 

" 3. From the unnatural contraction 
of the circulatory vessels. 

" 4. From wounds. 

"5. Heat and dryness. 

" 1. With regard to the alkaline state 
of the sap, it may be observed, addition- 
ally, that the excessive alkaline quality 
of the sap, imparting to it the power of 
destroying the fibre of its containing 
vessels, is placed on the basis of chemi- 
cal experiment. A weak alkaline solu- 
tion dissolves woody fibre without 
alteration; and it may be thrown down 
again by means of an acid. By this 
property we are enabled to separate 
wood from most of the other vegetable 
principles, as few of them are soluble 
in weak alkaline leys. 

"It is true, that the vital principle 
may counteract powerfully this chemi- 
cal action; but it will not control the 
corrosive effect of an active agent in 
excess, if repeated for any length of 
time. The blood of the human system 
contains, when in a healthy state, a por- 
tion of common salt; yet, if this saline 
constituent is in excess, it induces in- 
flammation and organic derangement. 

" 2. Plethora is that state of a plant's 
excessive vigour in which the sap is 
formed more rapidly than the circulatory 
vessels can convey it away. When this 
occurs, rupture must take place, fiw the 
force with which it is propelled during 
circulation, and consequently, the force 
acting to burst the vessels during any 
check, is very much greater than could 



EXT 



217 

— ♦ — 



EXT 



have been expected, before Mr. Hales 
demonstrated it by experiment. 

'f Now, we know that a much less 
pressure than any of those above men- 
tioned would be capable of bursting the 
delicate membranes of any of their ex- 
terior descending sap vessels, and it is 
in such outer ducts that the injury first 
occurs. When one exterior vessel is 
ruptured, that next beneath it, having 
the supporting pressure removed, is 
enabled to follow the same course at 
the same locality; and in proportion to 
the length of the time that the sap con- 
tinues in excess, is the depth to which 
the mischief extends, and the quantity 
of sap extravasated. 

" If the extravasation proceeds from 
this cause, there is but one course of 
treatment to be pursued ; sever one of 
the main roots to afford the tree im- 
mediate relief, and reduce the staple of 
the soil, by removing some of it, and 
admixing less fertile earthy components, 
as sand or chalk. This must be done 
gradually, for the fibrous roots that are 
suited for the collection of food from a 
fertile soil are not at once adapted for 
the introsusception of that from a less 
abundant pasturage. Care must be 
taken not to apply the above remedies 
before it is clearly ascertained that the 
cause is not an unnatural contraction of 
the sap vessels, because, in such case, 
the treatment might be injurious rather 
than beneficial. I have always found it 
arising from an excessive production of 
sap, if the tree, when afflicted by extra- 
vasation, produces at the same time 
super-luxuriant shoots. 

" 3. Local contractions of the sap 
vessels. — If the extravasation arises 
from this cause, there is usually a swell- 
ing of the bark immediately above the 
place of discharge. 

"I had a cherry tree in my garden, 
in Essex, of which the stock grew very 
much less freely than the graft, conse- 
quently, just above the place of union, 
a swelling resembling a wen extended 
round the whole girth of the tree, from 
which swelling gum was continually 
exuding. In the stem below it, I never 
observed a single extravasation. In a 
case such as this, the cultivator's only 
resource is to reduce cautiously the 
amount of branches, if the bleeding 
threatens to be injuriously extensive, 
otherwise it is of but little consequence, 
acting like temporary discharges of 



blood from the human frame, as a re- 
lief to the system. 

" 4. The extravasation of the sap from 
a wound is usually the most exhausting, 
and as the wound, whether contused or 
not, is liable to be a lodgment for wa- 
ter and other foreign bodies opposed to 
the healing of the injured part, the dis- 
charge is often protracted. This is 
especially the case if the wound be 
made in the spring, before the leaves 
are developed, as in performing the 
winter pruning of the vine later than is 
proper. In such case, the vine always 
is weakened, and in some instances it 
has been destroyed. The quantity of 
sap which may be made to flow from 
some trees is astonishing, especially in 
tropical climates. Thus, from a cocoa- 
nut palm, from three to five pints of sap 
will flow during every day for four or 
five successive weeks. The best mode 
of checking such exudations, is by plac- 
ing a piece of sponge dipped in a solu- 
tion of sulphate of iron upon the dis- 
charging place, covering the sponge 
with a piece of sheet-lead, and binding 
it on firmly. The sulphate acts as a 
styptic, promoting the contraction of 
the mouths of the vessels; the sponge 
encourages cicatrization, and the lead 
excludes moisture. 

" 5. Heat attended by dryness of the 
soil, as during the drought of summer, 
is very liable to produce an unnatural 
exudation. This is especially notice- 
able upon the leaves of some plants, 
and is popularly known as honey-dew. 
It is somewhat analogous to that out- 
burst of blood, which in such seasons is 
apt to occur to man, and arises from 
the increased action of the secretory 
and circulatory system, to which it af- 
fords relief. There is this great and 
essential difference, that, in the case of 
the plants, the extravasation is upon the 
surface of the leaves, and consequently 
in proportion to the abundance of the 
extruded sap are their respiration and 
digestion impaired. 

" Azaleas sometimes, but rarely,have 
the impubescence on their leaves, espe- 
cially on their lower surface, beaded as 
it were with a resinous exudation. This 
can scarcely be called a disease. It is 
never found but upon plants that have 
been kept in a temperature too high, 
and in a soil too fertile. It is an effort 
to relieve the surcharged vessels, and 
occurs in various forms in other plants. 



EXT 



218 

— ♦ — 



EXT 



" The honey-dew was noticed by the 
ancients, and is mentioned by Pliny by 
the fanciful designation of the * sweat of 
the heavens,' and the e saliva of the 
stars,' though he questioned whether it 
is a deposition from the air, purging it 
from some contracted impurity. More 
modern philosophers have been quite 
as erroneous and discordant in their 
opinion relative to the disease's nature. 
Some, with the most unmitigable aspe- 
rity, declare that it is the excrement of 
aphides. Others as exclusively main- 
tain that it is an atmospheric deposit, 
and a third party consider that it arises 
from bleeding, consequent to the wounds 
of insects. That there may be a gluti- 
nous saccharine liquid found upon the 
leaves of plants arising from the first and 
third named causes is probable, or 
rather certain ; but this is by no means 
conclusive that there is not a similar 
liquid extravasated upon the surface of 
the leaves, owing to some unhealthy 
action of their vessels. It is with this 
description of honey-dew that we are 
here concerned. The error into which 
Writers on this subject appear to have 
fallen, consists in their having endea- 
voured to assign the origin of every kind 
of honey-dew to the same cause. Thus 
the Rev. Gilbert White seems (Natu- 
ralist's Calendar, 144) to have had a 
fanciful and comprehensive mode of ac- 
counting for the origin of honey-dew : 
he tells us, June 4th, 1783, vast honey- 
dews this week. The reason of this 
seems to be, that in hot days the efflu- 
via of flowers are drawn up by a brisk 
evaporation, and then in the night fall 
down with the dews with which they 
are entangled. The objection urged to 
this theory by Curtis (Trans. Linn. Soc. 
vi. 82) is conclusive. If it fell from the 
atmosphere, it would cover every thing 
on which it fell indiscriminately ; where- 
as we never find it, but on certain 
living plants and trees; we find it also 
on plants in stoves and green-houses 
with covered glass. 

" Curtis had convinced himself that 
the honey-dew was merely the excre- 
ment of the aphides, and he supported 
his theory with his usual ability, al- 
though he justly deemed it a little 
' wonderful extraordinary' that any in- 
sect should secrete as excrementitious 
matter, sugar; he even thought it pos- 
sible, if the ants, wasps, and flies, could 
be prevented from devouring the honey- 



dew, e almost as fast as it was deposit- 
ed,' to collect it in considerable quan- 
tities, and convert it into the choicest 
sugar and sugar-candy.' 

" The bees, however, he found to- 
tally disregarded the honey-dew which 
came under his observation. With the 
opinion of Mr. Curtis I do not agree, 
any more than does the Abbe Boissier 
de Sauvages, who, in a memoir read 
before the Society of Sciences at Mont- 
pellier, gives an account of ' a shower 
of honey-dew,' which he witnessed 
under a lime tree in the king's garden 
at Paris. 

" The various successful applications 
of liquids to plants, in order to prevent 
the occurrence of the honey-dew and 
similar diseases, would seem to indi- 
cate that a morbid state of the sap is 
the chief cause of the honey-dew, for 
otherwise it would be difficult to explain 
the reason why the use of a solution of 
common salt in water applied to the 
soil in which a plant is growing, can 
prevent a disease caused by insects. 
But if we admit that the irregular action 
of the sap is the cause of the disorder, 
then we can understand that a portion 
of salt introduced in the juices of the 
plant would naturally have a tendency 
to correct or vary any morbid tendency, 
either correcting the too rapid secretion 
of sap, stimulating it in promoting its 
regular formation, or preserving its flu- 
idity. And that by such a treatment 
the honey-dew may be entirely pre- 
vented, I have myself often witnessed 
in my own garden, when experiment- 
alizing with totally different objects. 
Thus I have seen plants of various 
kinds, which have been treated with 
a weak solution of common salt and 
water, totally escape the honey-dew, 
where trees of the same kind growing 
in the same plot of ground not so treat- 
ed, have been materially injured by its 
ravages. I think, however, that the 
solution which has been sometimes em- 
ployed for this purpose is much too 
strong for watering plants. I have al- 
ways preferred a weak liquid, and I am 
of opinion, that one ounce of salt (chlo- 
ride of sodium) to a gallon of water is 
quite powerful enough for the intended 
purpose. I am in doubt as to the cor- 
rectness of Knight's opinion, as to the 
mere water having any material influ- 
ence in the composition of such a re- 
medy, since I have noticed that standard 



EYE 



219 

— ♦ — 



F AL 



fruit trees, around which, at a distance 
of six or eight feet from the stem, I had 
deposited at a depth of twelve inches a 
quantity of salt to promote the general 
health and fruitfulness of the tree, ac- 
cording to the manner formerly adopted 
to some extent in the cider countries 
for the apple orchards, that these es- 
caped the honey-dew which infected 
adjacent trees, just as well as those 
which had been watered with salt and 
water." — Johnson's Vrinciples of Gar- 
dening. 

EYEBRIGHT. Euphrasia. 

FAB A vulgaris. See Bean. 

FABRICIA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

FAGELIA bituminosa. Green-house 
evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

FAGRJEA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, 
sand, and peat. 

FAGUS, Beech tree. Four species. 
Seed, budding, and grafting. Chalky 
loam. 

FALKIA re-pens. Green-house ever- 
green creeper. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

FALL of the LEAF. Dr. Lindley 
thus explains this phenomenon. 

" In the course of time a leaf be- 
comes incapable of performing its 
functions ; its passages are choked up 
by the deposit of sedimentary matter ; 
there is no longer a free communica- 
tion between its veins and the wood 
and liber. It changes colour, ceases to 
decompose carbonic acid, absorbs oxy- 
gen instead, gets into a morbid condi- 
tion, and dies ; it is then thrown off. 
This phenomenon, which we call the 
fall of the leaf, is going on the whole 
year. Those trees which lose the 
whole of their leaves at the approach 
of winter, and are called deciduous, 
begin, in fact, to cast their leaves with- 
in a few weeks after the commence- 
ment of their vernal growth ; but the 
mass of their foliage is not rejected till 
late in the season. Those, on the 
other hand, which are named ever- 
greens, part with their leaves much 
more slowly; retain them in health at 
the time when the leaves of other 
plants are perishing; and do not cast 
them till a new spring has commenced, 
when other trees are leafing, or even 



later. In the latter class, the functions 
of the leaves are going on during all 
the winter, although languidly ; they 
are constantly attracting sap from the 
earth through the spongelets, and are 
therefore in a state of slow but con- 
tinual winter growth. 

" It usually happens that the per- 
spiratory organs of these plants are less 
active than in deciduous species." — 
Theory of Horticulture. 

With all due deference to Dr. Lind- 
ley, whose scientific acquirements are 
of a high order, we cannot admit that 
his theory in this particular is entirely 
satisfactory. Nature has ordained that 
vegetables shall perform certain func- 
tions, and that which may appear to be 
the cause of change, is in fact only 
a result of the action of established 
laws. 

FALLOWING, beyond all doubt, is 
needless where there is a due supply 
of manure, and a sufficient application 
of the spade, fork, and hoe to the soil. 
Fallowing can have no other beneficial 
influence than by destroying weeds, 
aiding the decomposition of offensive 
exuviae, exposing the soil to the disin- 
tegrating influence of the air, and ac- 
cumulating in it decomposing matter. 
Now all these effects can be produced 
by judicious stirrings and manurings. 
Mr. Barnes, gardener to Lady Rolle, 
at Bicton, bears confirmatory testimony 
to this opinion, founded on many years* 
experience. 

" To rest or fallow ground for any 
length of time is only loss of time and 
produce ; more benefit will be obtained 
by trenching and forking in frosty or 
hot sunny weather, in a few days, than 
a whole season of what is erroneously 
called rest or fallow. Trench, fork, 
and hoe ; change every succeeding 
crop; return to the earth all refuse 
that is not otherwise useful in a green 
state, adding a change of other manures 
occasionally, especially charred refuse 
of any kind, at the time of putting a 
crop into the ground. Every succeed- 
ing crop will be found healthy and 
luxuriant, suffering but little either 
from drought, too much moisture, or 
vermin." — Principles of Gardening. 

The practice of fallowing appears to 
have been one of great antiquity. 
Virgil (who flourished his grey-goose 
quill two thousand years ago), thus 
alludes to it in his Georgics : 



FAR 



220 

— ♦ — 



FEB 



fi Both these unhappy soils the swain 

forbears, 
And keeps a Sabbath of alternate years, 
That the spent earth may gather heart 

again, 
And bettered by cessation, bear the 

grain, 
At least where vetches, pulse, and 

tares, have stood, 
And stalks of lupines grew (a stubborn 

wood), 
Th' ensuing season, in return may bear 
The bearded product of the golden 

year." 

FARAMEA odoratissima. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Turfy 
loam and sandy peat. 

FARM - YARD MANURE. See 
Bung. 

FARSETIA. Six species. F. 
cheiranthifolia is a hardy annual ; the 
others are half-hardy evergreen shrubs. 
The first by seed, the shrubs by cut- 
tings. Light loam. 

FEABERRY, a local name for the 
Gooseberry. 

FEATHERS. See Animal Matters. 

FEBRUARY. 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Except in the remote south, the out- 
door operations of the gardener are 
almost suspended. Nearly all that he 
can do is to provide manure, prepare 
rods and poles for peas and beans, 
labels for his plants, and if the weather 
admit, trench those compartments of his 
grounds which require such treatment. 
Such labour and the preparation of hot- 
beds for forcing, may profitably employ 
his time. Cabbage, Eggplants, Toma- 
toes, Peppers, &c, are now sown in 
hot-beds for early planting. If the 
weather be very cold delay awhile, 
nothing can be gained by setting them 
during strong frost. Farther south 
labour has now commenced in earnest. 
In theCarolinasand southward, it is per- 
haps one of the most active months in 
horticultural operations. Beans and 
Peas are planted; Cabbage and Cauli- 
flower sown, and plants from previous 
sowings transplanted. Lettuce plants 
from the autumn seed beds are set out. 
Spinach is sown, also Radishes, Car- 
rots, Parsnips, Beets; Asparagus beds 
are dressed. In short, all the early ope- 
rations of the garden are now per- 
formed. 



ORCHARD. 

Apples, finish pruning, b. Apri- 
cots, finish pruning, b. — Blossoms of 
early wall fruit, shelter in frosty and 
windy weather. — Dress and fork 
over the earth of the borders, &c. — 
Figs, prune. — Forcing, continue. (See 
Jan.) — Gooseberries, finish pruning, b. 
— Grafting, commence, if mild, e. — 
Grafts, collect ready for use. — Hot- 
house, forcing continue. (See Jan.) — 
Layers, make of Figs, Vines, Filberts, 
Mulberries, and Muscle Plums, the last 
for stocks. — Manures, apply where re- 
quired. — Moss, on trees, destroy with 
brine. (See Jan.) — Pears, finish pruning ; 
graft, e. — Plums, finish pruning ; graft, 
e. — Pruning, finish generally. — Rasp- 
berries. — Standards, finish pruning. — 
Strawberries, clear and spring dress ; 
force in hot-beds, giving air abun- 
dantly, and covering the glasses with 
mats at night. — Trench ground for 
planting. — Vines may still be pruned, 
b.; cuttings, plant. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely during midday, 
when weather permits. — Bulbs, and 
other dry roots for succession, plant, 
b. — Bark Beds attend to. (See Jan.) — 
Cherries, in blossom, shade when sun 
is bright ; disbud as required : day 
temp, keep about 60° ; night 45°. — 
Earth of borders, &c, stir once a 
week. — Figs require a day temp, about 
60°. — Flowering shrubs in pots, intro- 
duce for succession. — Heat, keep up ; 
plants becoming more sensitive. — Kid- 
ney Beans, continue to sow in boxes. 
(See Jan.) — Labels, renew where re- 
quired. — Leaves, keep cleaned ; decay- 
ed and weeds clear away constantly. — 
Liquid Manure apply to the roots of 
fruit trees in forcing, especially Vines 
and Figs. — Peaches, and other fruits in 
blossom, should not now be syringed ; 
disbud; thin when too thick, and as large 
as peas ; day temp. 60°. — Pines, water 
moderately ; (crowns of) remove from 
bark bed to pots; regulate succession 
by changing their pots, &c. — Steam (if 
employed) may be admitted almost 
daily. — Strawberries, in pots, introduce 
for succession. — Thermometer , for most 
stove plants, may be at 70° during mid- 
day. — Tobacco fumigations give weekly, 
or oftener if insects appear. — Vines, 
treat as in Jan. ; do not syringe whilst 
in blossom ; prune bunches; day temp. 



FED 



221 



FEN 



70°. — Water, give more freely than last 
month ; keep in open pans constantly. 
— Watch sedulously for the green fly 
and red spider. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely whenever practica- 
ble ; it is now still more important than 
in winter. — Dead Wood, cut away as it 
appears. — Earth, give fresh generally. 
— Head down shrubs irregularly grown. 
— Heat, give as necessary, to keep the 
temp, above 32°. — Labels, renew where 
wanted. — Leaves, keep clean, and re- 
move those decayed. — Pruning of 
Oranges, fyc, complete. — Shelter, by 
putting mats over the glass in severe 
weather. — Shift into large pots where 
required. — Water more often than last 
month, wherever needed, but only a 
little at a time. 

FEDIA cornucopia. Hardy annual. 
Seed. Common soil. 

FENCES are employed to mark the 
boundary of property, to exclude tres- 
passers, either human or quadrupedal, 
and to afford shelter. They are either 
live fences, and are then known as 
hedges, or dead, and are then either 
banks, ditches, palings, or walls; or 
they are a union of those two, to which 
titles the reader is referred. 

The following is the English law on 
the subject : — 

In the eye of the law a hedge, fence, 
ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for 
its better manuring and improvement ; 
and various remedies are therefore pro- 
vided for their preservation. 

The common using of a wall separat- 
ing adjoining lands belonging to differ- 
ent owners is primd facie evidence that 
the wall, and the land on which it 
stands, belongs in equal moieties to the 
owners of those lands as tenants in 
common. (Cubitt v. Porter, 8 B. & C. 
257.) 

One of such tenants in common of a 
wall or hedge may maintain an action 
of trespass against the co-tenant for in- 
juring the wall or for grubbing up the 
hedge, but not for clipping the latter. 
(Voyce v. Voyce, Gow. 201.) 

If a field be fenced with a bank and 
ditch, it is not a necessary consequence 
that his ditch extends eight feet from 
the interior line of the bank's foot, viz., 
four feet for the base of the bank, and 
four feet for the ditch ; and the owner 
has no right to cut into his neighbour's 



field to widen the ditch beyond the 
proof of its ancient width. (Vowles v. 
Miller, 3 Taunton, 137.) 

Where two fields are separated by a 
hedge and ditch, the hedge , primd facie, 
belongs to the owner of the field in 
which the ditch is not. If there are 
two ditches, one on each side the ditch, 
evidence must prove acts of ownership 
over the hedge to show to whom it be- 
longs. (Guy v. West, 2 Selwyn, N. P. 
1287.) 

The owner of the wall or hedge is 
bound to repair it ; and if any injury 
arises from its being out of repair, an 
action on the case lies. 

Any one stealing or cutting, breaking 
or throwing down, with the intent to 
steal, any fence, post, pales, rail, stile, 
or gate, or any part thereof, may be 
fined by a justice of the peace the 
amount of the injury done, and a fine 
not exceeding 51. Committing the same 
offence a second time renders the of- 
fender liable to twelve months' impri- 
sonment and a whipping. 

Stealing metal garden-fencing is a 
felony. In America each State has its 
own peculiar laws on this as on other 
subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act 
of 1700, entitled "An act for the regu- 
lating and maintaining of Fences,'''' it 
was provided that " all cornfields and 
grounds kept for inclosures within the 
said province and counties annexed, 
shall be well fenced with fence at least 
five feet high, and close at the bottom, 
&c." By an Act of 1729, it was pro- 
vided that " to prevent disputes about 
the sufficiency of fences, all fences 
shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, 
though they be not close at the bottom, 
so that the distance from the ground to 
the bottom thereof, exceed not nine 
inches ; and that they be four feet and 
a half high, and not under." Both acts 
are operative in certain counties only. — 
See Purdon's Digest. 

Ornamental fences for enclosing gar- 
dens, yards, &c, are almost as diversi- 
fied as the ideas of beauty in the human 
mind. " The impression, on viewing 
grounds laid out with some preten- 
sion to taste, is governed in a degree, 
by the style and character of the sur- 
rounding fence. It is a great mistake 
to suppose the most elaborate (and of 
course costly) are the most pleasing ; 
yet acting on this supposition, we see 
exhibited fences which appear to have 



FEN 



222 



FER 



been planned as if to show the amount 
of money which could be thus expend- 
ed, and after all, they rather disgust 
than please. 

Fig. 42. 




„»**~s-*r-«^*Lr^«v CMW 



Fig. 43. 



*%W|j 



.»**«XWv»asa 



Fig. 44. 




»- i -^Nj^rv\wr«^crccc<^^wrx^si^<s^ 



" The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate 
three simple designs, formed by straight 
slats or pales, and therefore of the least 
expense; they are readily executed, 
and agreeable from their simplicity. 
The colour which should be used, is of 
course a matter of taste ; white is gene- 
rally preferred, though dark shades, 
even jet black, are the most pleasing to 



many ; for ourselves, we should choose 
the latter, though it be not the best, 
so far as the preservation of the wood 
is concerned." — Rural Reg. 

FENNEL (Anethum Fcenicitlum) will 
flourish in almost any soil or situation : 
in a dry soil it is longest-lived. It is 
propagated both by offsets, partings of 
the root, and by seed ; all of which 
modes may be practised any time be- 
tween the beginning of February and 
the end of April. The best season, 
however, for sowing, is autumn, soon 
after the seed is ripe, at which time it 
may also be planted with success. 

Insert the plants a foot apart, and the 
seed in drills, six or twelve inches 
asunder, according as it is intended that 
the plants are to be transplanted or to 
remain. 

When advanced to the height of four 
or five inches, if they are intended for 
removal, the plants are pricked out 
eight inches apart, to attain strength for 
final planting in autumn or spring. 
Water must be given freely at every 
removal, and until established, if the 
weather is at all dry. 

They require no other cultivation 
than to be kept free from weeds ; and 
the stalks of those that are not required 
to produce seed to be cut down as 
often as they run up in summer. If this 
is strictly attended to, the roots will 
last for many years ; but those which 
are allowed to ripen their seed seldom 
endure for more than five or six. 

FENNEL-FLOWER. Nigella. 

FENUGREK. Trigonella. 

FERNELIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy 
loam and peat. 

FERNS from the tropics present to 
us some of the most beautiful forms to 
be found in the vegetable world, and 
now very generally are a portion of 
collections of exotic plants. Mr. J 
Henderson, the florist, gives the follow- 
ing directions for their cultivation : — 
" Procure a number of small octagon- 
shaped hand-glasses about six inches in 
diameter, (more or less,) according to 
the size of the pots intended to sow the 
seeds in, the side walls of each being 
high enough to admit the pot to stand 
underneath without touching the glass. 

"Pots. — These are to be about half 
filled with well broken potsherds, the 
finest at top ; then fill to within half an 
inch of the rim with heath-mould, sifted 



FER 



223 

— • — 



FER 



through a fine sieve. Level the surface 
of the mould, and water it freely with a 
very fine rose ; let the pot stand a few 
minutes till the water is absorbed, and 
then carry it to a dry part of the house. 

" Sowing. — Place the papers con- 
taining the fern seed for a minute or 
two on the flue, or some other place 
where they will become thoroughly 
dry : then open the paper and carefully 
dust the spores (seed) over the surface 
of the moist earth, taking care not to 
sow too thick. The pots may then be 
placed in a shady place on a level sur- 
face of wood or stone, to prevent the 
intrusion of worms, and covered with 
the hand-glass. The germination of 
ferns differs in different species ; some 
require six weeks and more ; and if 
during that time the surface of the earth 
in the pots should appear dry, a very 
slight watering must be given with the 
fine rose. 

"After-culture. — It will be necessary 
to examine the surface of the earth fre- 
quently with a pocket microscope, in 
order to discover any mouldiness or 
minute algae that may appear ; such ap- 
pearances indicate that too much water 
has been used ; and in that case the 
glasses should be taken off for a short 
time, and the pots removed to the full 
light. 

" If after this the mouldiness continue 
to spread, a knife may be introduced 
between the pot and the earth, and the 
latter slightly raised up so as to allow 
the moisture to drain off. 

" As the seedlings acquire strength, 
they may be removed from the shade 
to places where they will have more 
light ; but they must not be exposed to 
the full sun in summer as long as they 
are under the hand-glass. In winter, 
however, when the sun is less power- 
ful, all those seedlings that have per- 
fected, or nearly perfected their first 
fronds, may be exposed to the full 
light; this will prevent the spreading of 
mouldiness, which the moist atmo- 
sphere under the glasses is so apt to 
produce at this season of the year. 

" When it happens that from too 
thick sowing the seedlings are much 
crowded, they should be thinned out 
carefully with the point of a pen-knife, 
taking patches of from six to a dozen 
plants and transferring them to another 
pot, prepared in all respects as if for 
sowing spores. In planting these, a 



slight depression should be made with 
the point of the pen-knife on the sur- 
face of the mould in the new pot, and 
the patch inserted, taking care not to 
cover any part of the plants with the 
earth. They may stand about a quarter 
of an inch from patch to patch ; and 
when the operation is completed, water 
the seedlings and place the pot under 
the glass. 

" These transplanted seedlings will 
frequently succeed better than those in 
the seed-pots ; indeed with very slow 
growing seedlings it is frequently ad- 
visable to transfer the whole to another 
pot, as they will generally root better 
in the fresh than in the old earth. 

" When the seedlings have fully de- 
veloped their perfect fronds, (and not 
till then,) the glasses may be withdrawn. 
The pot with the seedlings should then 
be placed in a perfectly shaded place, 
and more frequently supplied with 
water. 

" They may remain in the seed-pots 
until three or four fronds are produced, 
when it will be advisable to shift them 
into other pots and place them at wider 
distances. 

" Many ferns grow very slowly while 
in the state of primary frond, and re- 
quire many months before their perfect 
fronds are developed. 

" It is chiefly for these slow growers 
that glasses are required ; others, such 
as most of the Gymnogrammas, some 
species of Nephrodium, Pteris, &c, 
come up readily in open pots, but with 
those which require from nine to eight- 
een months to produce their second 
fronds, glasses are indispensable. 

" Great care must be taken not to 
allow worms to get into the pots, as they 
will in a very short time destroy the 
whole crop. The only way to get rid 
of these pests, is to place the pot with 
the glass over it, on a tolerably hot 
flue, or some other well-heated surface, 
when the heat ascending through the 
earth in the pot will drive the worm 
out. 

" It may not be amiss to observe 
here, that in collecting spores for repro- 
duction, it is better to select a frond on 
which the thecae (seed vessels) have not 
opened ; if they have changed to a 
brown colour, and one or two have 
opened, they will* be in the best possi- 
ble state for transmission to a distance; 
portions of the frond should then be in- 



FER 



224 

— ♦ — 



FIG 



closed in the papers, which should be 
well secured and kept perfectly dry." — 
Gard. Chron. 

FERRARIA. Eight species. Green- 
house and hardy bulbs. Offsets and 
seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

FICARIA. Three species. Hardy 
tubers, tubers, shaded. Common soil. 

FICUS. Fig Tree. Seventy-seven 
species. Chiefly green-house and stove 
evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
Light rich loam. 

F I E L D I A australis. Green-house 
evergreen creeper. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

FIG MARIGOLD. Mesembryanthe- 
mum. 

FIG. Ficus carica. 

Varieties for open walls, and time of 
ripening. — Brown Ischia, Large White 
Genoa, and Green Ischia, (August.) 
Brown Naples, Brunswick, White Mar- 
seilles, (September.) Black Provence, 
Yellow Ischia, and Genoa, (October.) 

Propagation may be effected by 
seeds, and cross impregnation to get 
varieties ; the seedlings will be pro- 
ductive when six years old ; by layers, 
suckers, slips, and grafting, but by 
cuttings is the mode usually practised. 
These must be of young wood, about 
eight inches long, with two inches of 
old wood attached. Plant in October, 
in a sandy loam and warm situation, 
the surface covered with ashes, to ex- 
clude the frost and drought. " The 
tops of the cuttings will require the 
additional protection of haulm or litter 
during winter; give water and keep 
clear of weeds during summer, and by 
the following autumn the plants will be 
fit to be transplanted into nursery rows, 
where they must again be mulched at 
root, and protected at top. They re- 
quire no pruning farther than to rear 
them with a single stem, and keep their 
heads of a regular shape ; the second or 
third year they may be removed to 
where they are finally to remain. Cut- 
tings of roots readily make plants, but 
the process is too slow for general use, 
and the plants so produced are not 
likely to come so soon into bearing as 
by the layers or cuttings." — Loudon's 
Enc. Gard. 

Cuttings of the shoots may be of 
well-ripened wood, which Mr. Mark- 
ham, of Hewell Gardens, says may be 
also " taken off in spring and potted 
singly in small pots ; plunging them in 



a warm cucumber-frame, and re-potting 
them two or three times, they will 
attain a large size in one summer. 
With these cuttings, as with the trees 
at all ages, bottom heat and water is 
every thing." — Gard. Chron. 

Soil. — Mr. Markham says, " The 
best soil for this fruit is sandy maiden 
loam and turf mixed together, without 
manure of any kind, over-luxuriance 
being a great evil in their culture. I 
would advise all who are about to plant 
a fig wall, to form the borders about 
three feet deep, having a good drainage 
of any rough material. At the front of 
this, a wall four inches and a half thick, 
running parallel with the other should 
be brought up to within two inches of 
the surface, the intervening space being 
walled across so that each tree may 
have its own division. This prevents 
over-luxuriance, and causes them to 
fruit more freely. Any old trees that 
are growing strong and that do not bear 
well, might have their roots pruned 
back in autumn and walled in as above 
described. By doing this early it would 
afford the tree time to provide itself 
with new feeders, and by opening a 
trench in the front of the wall, about 
the end of March or beginning of April, 
and applying a pretty brisk lining of 
leaves and long litter for a few weeks, 
it would greatly assist the crop for 
that season, and establish the trees 
for the following. Water occasionally 
with soft water ; and, after the fruit has 
attained three-fourths of its size, two or 
three good waterings of liquid manure 
will assist materially in bringing the 
fruit to a large size." — Gard. Chron. 

Good drainage is also very important; 
an excess of root-moisture making the 
plants over-luxuriant. 

Standards must have a single stem, 
and require no other pruning than to 
remove irregular growths, suckers, and 
decayed branches. The soil should be 
forked over annually, and kept con- 
stantly freed from weeds by the hoe. 

Wall-trees and Espaliers. — Mr. Mark- 
ham says that of these, « The requisite 
pruning is merely to thin the branches 
where they are too thick, and to admit 
plenty of light and air. The points of 
any branches that indicate too luxuriant 
a growth are pinched out. The tree 
will show how young bearing wood is 
procured, when the branches get too 
long, or begin to have a naked appear- 



FIG 



225 



FIG 



ance. For covering the fig in winter, 
a double thickness of old mats is advis- 
able, with a little mulching ; a wide 
coping on the wall is very essential, 
and a canvas covering drawn over them 
at night in the early part of their growth 
is of great benefit to them." — Gard. 
Chron. 

The Mode of Bearing is very pecu- 
liar, and influences the pruning, or 
rather non-pruning, which is to be pre- 
ferred. The fig, observes Mr. Loudon, 
" bears, and in warmer climates brings 
to maturity in every year, two succes- 
sive and distinct crops of fruit, each 
crop being produced on a distinct set 
of shoots. The shoots formed by the 
first or spring sap put forth figs at every 
eye as soon as the sap begins to flow 
again in July and August. These figs 
(which form the second crop of the 
year) ripen, in their native climate, 
during the course of the autumn ; but 
rarely if ever come to perfection in 
England ; where, though they cover 
the branches in great abundance at the 
end of that season, they perish and fall 
off with the first severe frosts of winter. 
The shoots formed by the second flow 
of sap, commonly called midsifmmer 
shoots, put forth figs in like manner at 
every eye, but not until the first flow of 
sap in the following spring. These last 
mentioned figs, which form the first 
crop of each year, ripen in warmer 
climates during the months of June and 
July, but not in this country before 
September or October." — Enc. Gard. 

Fig-House. — If a hot-house be de- 
voted to this fruit, as it well deserves, 
good proportions, according to Mr. 
Markham, are " thirty-three feet long, 
fourteen feet wide, and eleven feet 
high at the back, trellised with wire 
two inches from the wall. The trees 
on this wall to be fan-trained ; the roots 
walled in as recommended for the open 
wall, excepting that the spaces are to 
be narrower, being two feet wide and 
two and a half deep ; the path leading 
through the house to rest on this parti- 
tion wall. Between this path and the 
front, may be a border for small stand- 
ards and circular-trained trees, ranging 
from three to five feet high, all walled 
in with rough stones, for the same pur- 
pose as already stated. The sorts may 
be the Nerii ; Brown Ischia ; large 
White Genoa ; and Kennedy's Fig, but 
the greater part the Nerii. Prune in 
15 



the latter part of February ; but this is 
a very trifling operation where they 
have been properly attended to in sum- 
mer, being only to cut out here and 
there a superfluous shoot, or to shorten 
one back to any naked or unfurnished 
part, in order to procure a supply of 
young shoots. Then have the whole 
forked over between the trees, giving 
them a good watering. Small fires are 
then to be lighted, keeping the tem- 
perature at 50°, and syringing morning 
and evening with tepid water. Air is 
to be given plentifully in fine weather, 
and when the fruit begins to grow, the 
temperature raised to 55°, then to 60°, 
and so on progressively about the same 
as for vines. For the first six or seven 
weeks water only in such quantities to 
keep the soil moderately moist, but 
afterwards more freely. 

" When the fruit is about half grown, 
commence watering freely every morn- 
ing, and generally about twice a week, 
with liquid manure. As soon as the 
young shoots have attained the length 
of four or five inches, their points are 
to be pinched out ; this shoot is the 
' second crop wood' for the latter part 
of summer or autumn, according as the 
forcing was commenced early or late. 
During the growth of the second crop 
of fruit, the tree produces a second 
shoot from three to six inches long, 
which, when properly ripened, contains 
the crop in the embryo state through 
the winter for the following spring. A 
short time before the first crop of fruit 
is ripe, the watering overhead is dis- 
continued and abundance of air given. 
As soon as practicable, the watering 
overhead is to be resumed in every part 
of the house where the fruit is not ap- 
proaching maturity. The succession of 
fruit generally lasts about four months. 

" The winter management is merely 
to keep the borders moderately dry, 
and to prevent frost from entering." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Forcing in Pots. — " For this pur- 
pose," says Mr. Markham," the plants 
should be examined as early in the au- 
tumn or winter as possible, and those 
plants that have got their roots much 
matted together should have them re- 
duced, and potted in sweet maiden 
loam, ready for the spring-forcing in 
January or February, as they may be 
wanted. The pots should be plunged 
in a half-spent tan or leaf bed, either in 



FIL 



226 



FIL 



a pit or forcing-house. If neither of 
these can be had, prepare a small bed 
of leaves and manure, and place a deep 
frame over it, plunging the plants to 
such a depth as to enable the roots to 
have 8° or 10° more heat than the tops. 
By doing this the roots are put in action 
first, which causes the embryo fruit to 
come forth in such a strong healthy 
manner as will ensure a good crop. 
After the fruit is fairly shown, the plants 
may then be removed to any forcing- 
house where they can have plenty of 
light and air. If they can be plunged 
in gentle heat, so much the better. It 
should always be borne in mind that 
the fig, in its growing state, is almost 
an aquatic, therefore little danger is to 
be apprehended from over-watering, 
but serious mischief may arise from not 
attending to this ; for if ever the soil 
gets thoroughly dry when the fruit is 
far advanced, some evil will be sure to 
result." — Gard. Chron. 

The Temperature borne by the fig ad- 
vantageously is very high. Even when 
ranging from 90° to 110° during the 
day, and never lower at night than 70°, 
though some varieties grow too lux- 
uriantly, yet the Large White ripened 
both its spring and autumn produce, 
and Mr. Knight thus obtained from the 
same plants eight crops in twelve 
months. 

FILBERT. Corylus avellana. 

Varieties. — Frizzled, great bearer. 
Red (C. tubulosa), pellicle of kernel 
pink, flavour excellent. White, pellicle 
white, flavour good. Cosford, great 
bearer, good ; shell very thin. Down- 
ton, large, square. Cob Nut. 

Propagation. — This is done by plant- 
ing the nuts, by layers, suckers from 
the root; and by grafting and budding. 

By the Nuts. — This should be done in 
October ; but if postponed until spring, 
preserve the nuts in sand, and in Feb- 
ruary plant them in drills near two 
inches deep. The plants will appear 
in six or eight weeks, which, when a 
year old, plant out in nursery-rows, and 
there train them two or three years. In 
raising these trees from the nut, the 
sorts are not to be always depended 
on, for, like other seedling trees, they 
often vary, so that the most certain 
method to continue the respective sorts 
is by layers. 

By Layers is one of the most certain 
methods of continuing .the respective 



varieties distinct; and this is a very 
easy and expeditious method of propa- 
gation ; for every twig layed will readily 
grow : therefore, in autumn or winter, 
let some of the lower branches that are 
well furnished with young shoots be 
pegged down in the ground ; then lay 
all the young shoots in the earth, with 
their tops out, every one of which will 
root, advance in length, and be fit to 
transplant by autumn following, when 
they should be separated, and planted 
in nursery rows, two feet asunder, and 
trained as observed of the seedlings ; 
but when any considerable quantity are 
to be raised this way, it is eligible to 
form stools for that purpose, by pre- 
viously, a year before, heading-down 
some trees near the ground, to throw 
out a quantity of shoots near the earth, 
convenient for laying for that use an- 
nually. 

Suckers arising from the roots of 
trees raise by either of the above me- 
thods, if taken up in autumn, winter, or 
spring, with good fibres, will also grow, 
form proper plants, and produce the 
same sort of fruit as their parent plant ; 
and suckers of these may also be used 
for the same purpose. 

By grafting and budding. — These 
methods have also the same effect as 
layers of continuing any particular va- 
riety with certainty, and the operation 
is to be performed in the usual way on 
stocks of any of the varieties of this ge- 
nus. — (Abercrombie.) 

"The season for planting is autumn 
or spring ; or any interval in mild wea- 
ther from October till the beginning of 
March. Allot detached standards not 
less than ten and thence to twenty feet 
distance, to have room to branch out in 
full heads." — Loudon, Enc. Gard. 

Soil. — "A hard loam of some depth, 
on a dry subsoil, which dress every 
year; as the filbert requires a consider- 
able quantity of manure." — Loudon, 
Enc. Gard. 
. Pruning and Culture. — Mr. R. Scott 
says, " The plants should be trained 
with single stems to the height of a foot 
or so ; then permitted to branch into a 
symmetrical head, rather open in the 
middle, and not of greater height than 
a man can conveniently reach from the 
ground, to perform the necessary opera- 
tions of pruning and gathering. 

" The proper time for pruning is in 
the spring, when the male blossoms are 



F IN 



227 



FLO 



open, as then the shaking of the trees, 
by the act of pruning, assists in the dif- 



frame. The seedlings must be small- 
hoed, to kill the weeds, from which they 



fusion of the pollen. The young shoots ! should be kept completely clear ihrough- 
should be shortened to about half their I out their growth; but at first only thin 
length ; and it is best to cut to a bud to three or four inches asunder, as it 
that shows a female blossom. All j cannot thus early be determined which 
suckers should be carefully removed. | will be the most vigorous plants. After 
Formerly it was the practice to train ' the lapse of another month they may be 
the branches to nearly a horizontal po- finally thinned to seven or eight inches 
sition, which may still be seen in many j distance from each other. Moderate 
old plantations; but experience has waterings are required throughout their 
shown that the trees produce equally growth during dry weather; and in the 
well, and as good nuts, by allowing meridian of hot days the beds are ad- 
them to take a more natural form. By ! vantageously shaded, until after the 
way of manuring, some cultivators ] plants are well up. When of advanced 

growth, about ten weeks after coming 
up, the stems must be earthed up to the 
height of five or six inches, to blanch 
for use, which will be effected in ten or 
fourteen days. In the whole about 
twelve or fourteen weeks elapse be- 
tween the time of sowing and their be- 
ing fit for use. In autumn, if frosty 
mornings occur, they should have the 
protection of some litter or other light 
covering. 

To obtain Seed. — The seed coming 
from Italy is generally worthless, and 
in this country it is saved with difficulty, 
the plants of the last sowings, if left, 
being killed by the winter; and if some 
of the earliest are allowed to remain, 
they never ripen until late in the year, 
and are often killed by early severe 
frosts. 

FIR. See Pinus and Coniferce. 
'FISH. See Animal Matters. 
FLACOURTIA. Eight species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

FLAKE, is the term by which a car- 
nation is distinguished that has two 
colours only, and these extending 
through the petals. 

FLAX-STAR. Phormium Linum- 
stellatum. 

FLORISTS' FLOWERS are those 
which, by their beauty or fragrance, 
power to produce permanent varieties, 
and facility of cultivation, are so largely 
in demand as to render them especially 
worthy of cultivation as an article of 
commerce. 

Mr. Glenny has justly enumerated the 
necessary characteristics of a florist's 
flower to be — 1st. The power to be 
perpetuated and increased by slips and 
other modes independent of its seed. 
2dly, the power to produce new varie- 
ties from seed, capable, like their parent, 



throw off the surface soil two or three 
feet wide round the stem of the tree, 
and into this basin the small prunings, 
leaves, &c, are put and dug in." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Preserving. — " The easiest and best 
method is to gather them when quite dry, 
and stow them away in large garden pots, 
or other earthen vessels, sprinkling a 
little salt amongst them throughout 
the whole mass, which preserves the 
husks from getting mouldy and rotten ; 
the pots should then be turned bottom 
upwards on boards, and buried in the 
ground, or kept air-tight by some other 
means. Stoneware jars, with lids, might 
be advantageously used for this pur- 
pose, and nuts of any kind will keep a 
long time in this way." — Gard. Chron. 

Insects. See Curculio and Aphis. 

FINOCHIO or AZOREAN FENNEL 
(Anethum azoricum), does not usually 
succeed in this country. Neither is it 
in much esteem here, being agreeable 
to few palates. It is served with a 
dressing like salads. 

Soil and Situation. — For the first crop 
a rich light soil on a moderate hot-bed 
must be selected ; for the succeeding 
sowings a more retentive one, but for 
the last two a return must be had to a 
drier and a warmer situation. A small 
bed will be required only at each 
sowing; one twenty feet by four is suf- 
ficient for the largest family. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — From the 
beginning of March until the close of 
July, at intervals of a month, for 
after attaining its full growth, it im- 
mediately advances for seed. The seed 
is sown in drills two feet asunder, to 
remain; scattered thinly, that is, about 
two inches apart, and about half an inch 
below the surface. The first sowings 
must be in a slight hot-bed, and under 



FLO 



228 



FLO 



of being perpetuated; and 3dly, it must 
possess sufficient interest and variety 
to be grown in collections. 

At present the chief florists' flowers 
are the Amaryllis, Anagallis, Anemone, 
Auricula, Calceolaria, Carnation, Chrys- 
anthemum, Cineraria, Crocus, Dahlia, 
Fritillary, Fuchsia, Gladiolus, Hyacinth, 
Hydrangea, Ixia, Iris, Lily, Lobelia, 
Narcissus, Pansy, Poeony, Pelargonium, 
Petunia, Phlox, Pink, Polyanthus, Ra- 
nunculus, Tulip, Tuberose, Verbena. 
In the United States Florists' flowers 
are, as such, unknown. We have many 
amateurs, but not in sufficient number 
to create the emulation which exists in 
Great Britain, where thousands rival 
each other in the culture of flowers of 
their peculiar fancy — not for profit, but 
enjoyment and relaxation from the toil 
of the work-shop, or the mine. 

FLOWER. See Bloom. 

FLOWER FENCE. Poinciana. 

FLOWERING ASH. Ornus. 

FLOWER OF JOVE. Lychnis flos 
Jovis. 

FLOWER GARDEN, is that portion 
of the ground in the vicinity of the 
residence, disposed in parterres and 
borders, tenanted by flowers and flower- 
ing shrubs, and among walks and lawns, 
so that the occupiers of the house may 
have ready access to what is so beau- 
tiful in form, colour, and fragrance. 
Under the title Pleasure Ground, the 
portions of ornamented garden more 
distant from the house are considered. 

Aspect. — The flower garden should 
encompass every side of the house upon 
which a window opens that is frequent- 
ed by the master or his friends, whether 
in parlour or bed-room. The aspect of 
the flower garden, therefore, must vary; 
but that which is best, because most 
favourable to flowers, is the south, 
south-eastern, and south-western sides 
of the residence; and it is usual to ar- 
range it so that the kitchen garden is im- 
mediately beyond it. Variety of aspect 
secures a succession of flowering in the 
same kinds. No directions can be given 
as to the appropriate size, for, if the 
proprietor delights in flowers, there is 
no reason why his parterres should not 
be large, though his villa be small. A 
very common proportion for a small 
cottage is, the flower garden being one- 
fourth the size of the kitchen garden. 

Soil. — Any fertile light soil is pro- 
pitious, for this can be altered easily to 



suit any flowers. The most intractable 
are clay and gravel. The first is forever 
sodden with wet, or baked hard; and 
the latter is hungry, and burnt up in 
summer. 

Arrangement. — Mr. Loudon says, — 
" Shelter is equally requisite for the 
flower as for the kitchen garden, and 
where naturally wanting, is to be pro- 
duced by the same means, viz., plant- 
ing. The plantations, except on the 
north, or very exposed points, should 
not be of the tallest kinds of trees. 
A few elegant shrubs, and one or two 
trees, may be scattered through the 
scene, either in the dug compartments, 
or in the turf glade, for the purpose of 
shelter and shade as well as ornament; 
but in general, much of either of the 
two former qualities are highly injuri- 
ous, both to the culture of flowers and 
the thick closeness of turf; sometimes 
an evergreen hedge will produce all the 
shelter requisite, as in small gardens 
composed of earth and gravel only ; but 
where the scene is large and composed 
of dug compartments, placed on lawn, 
the whole may be surrounded by an 
irregular border of flowers, shrubbery, 
and trees." — Enc. Gard. 

All this is excellent, and I will only 
add these general additional rules : — 
always plant in masses, and with due 
attention to the harmony and contrast 
of colours and forms. 

Fig. 45. 




FLOWER GATHERER (Fig. 45), 
is a pair of scissors and pincers com- 
bined ; they are of great advantage in 
gathering roses and other flowers which 
have thorny stems, as the flower cut by 
the scissors, is held fast by the part that 
acts as pincers. — Rural Reg. 

FLOWER POTS are of various sizes 
and names: — 

In. diam. 
at top. 



Thumb pots 



■ X 

are, inside . $ 
Sixties (60s) > 

to the cast $ 
Forty-eights ) 

(48s) X 



In. Lindley 
deep. 

. 2| Thumbs. 



3h ... 



4| 



FLO 



229 
♦ -- 



FLO 



Thirty-twos ] 
(32s) 

Twenty-fours 
(24s) 

Sixteens (16s) 

Twelves (12s) 

Eights (8s) . . 

Sixes (6s) . . 

Fours (4s) . . 

Twos (2s) . . 



9h ... 9 9 

1U • • .10 .... 11 

12 ... 11 12 

13 ... 12 13 

15 ... 13 15 

18 ... 14 18 

Dr. Lindley has proposed a very 
judicious change in the nomenclature 
of flower pots, by suggesting that they 
should be called according to their great- 
est diameter. At present the words 
"Fours," " Sixes," &c, intend no more 
than that there are so many to the cast, 
a piece of information conveying nothing 
worth knowing: — butby the new nomen- 
clature, "Eighteens," will be pots of 
eighteen inches in diameter; "Fif- 
teens," fifteen inches, and so on; it 
occupies the third column in the pre- 
ceding table. 

The above are about the sizes in 
inches, for at each pottery they rather 
differ in size, and none of the pots 
shrink exactly alike during the burning. 

At some of the country potteries, 
also, the gradation and size are some- 
what different. Thus, at Mr. Paul's 
Pottery, near Fareham, Hants, the sizes 
are the following: 

In. diam. 
at top. 
Thimbles are, inside . 2 . . . 

Thumbs 2| . . . 

Seventy-twos 3 ... 

Sixties 3| . . . 

Forty-eights 4a... 

Thirty-twos 5 ... 

Twenty-fours .... 6 ... 

Sixteens 7£ . . . 

Twelves 8 ... 

Eights 10 ... 

Sixes Hi . . . 

Fours 14 ... 

Twos 16 ... 

Thimbles are sometimes called 



In. 

deep. 
2 
3 

n 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

11 

12i 

14 

15 

'small 

nineties," and thumbs, "large nine- 
ties." 

The Philadelphia potters have long 
pursued the plan proposed by Dr. Lind- 
ley, and those at distant points who may 
desire to order, have only to express the 
size in inches, i. e., the diameter at top. 
The form and material also vary. 
Mr. Beck makes them very successful- 
ly of slate; and the prejudice against 
glazed pots is now exploded. 



It was formerly considered important 
to have the pots made of a material as 
porous as possible; but a more misera- 
ble delusion never was handed down 
untested from one generation to an- 
other. Stoneware and chinaware are 
infinitely preferable, for they keep the 
roots more uniformly moist and warm. 
Common garden pots if not plunged, 
should be thickly painted. Mr. W. P. 
Ayres recommends large pots to be 
employed, and there is no doubt that 
this is a system much abridging the 
gardener's labour ; but as with due care 
small pots will produce magnificent 
specimen plants, I cannot recommend 
an adoption of large pots, ensuring as 
they do such an immense sacrifice of 
room in the hot and green-houses. Cap- 
tain Thurtell, the most successful of 
growers of the Pelargonium, never 
employs pots larger than twenty-fours. 

It is usual to have saucers in which 
to place flower pots when in the house, 
and so far as preventing stains and the 
occurrence of dirt, they are deserving 
adoption; but as to their being used for 
applying water to plants, they are worse 
than' useless. The great difficulty in 
pot-cultivation is to keep the drainage 
regular, and no more effective pre- 
ventive of this could be devised than 
keeping a pot in a saucer containing 
water. No plan could be invented 
more contrary to nature ; for we all 
know that she supplies moisture to the 
surface of the soil, and allows it to 
descend, thus supplying the upper roots 
first. To facilitate draining, and yet 
to retain the tidi- 
ness secured by the 
saucer, Mr. Hunt has 
had flowerpots made 
with elevations, on 
which the pots are 
placed. (Fig. 46.) 
But this is not the 
only advantage de- 
rivable from them. 
They prevent the 
entry of worms, may 
be employed with 
common stands, allow a current of air 
to pass beneath them, and their form is 
elegant. 

Mr. Brown (Fig. 47) has proposed a 
pot with hollow sides, the vacuity to 
be filled with water through a hole in 
the rim, or left empty,. as occasion re- 
quires. The water, he considers, will 




FLO 



230 



FLO 



Fig. 47. 




to gather there, 



Fig. 48. 




prevent the plants suffering from want 
of moisture ; and 
when empty, the 
roots will be pre- 
served from being 
killed by evapora- 
tion. But surely 
applying the water 
to the sides will be 
an extra induce- 
ment for the roots 
an effect most de- 
sirable to avoid, and wetting the out.sides 
of the pot is a very doubtful mode of 
preventing the reduction of tempera- 
ture. 

Saul's Fountain 
Flower Pot (Fig. 
48), seems open 
to the same objec- 
tions, with the ad- 
ditional disadvan- 
tages of not being 
easily drained, and 
being more ex- 
pensive and cum- 
bersome. The water also is forced in at 
the bottom of the pot, contrary to the 
course of nature in applying moisture to 
plants. " An outer basin is made on the 
bottom of the pot, to which the water 
enters at a, and is carried round the pot in 
the basin, there being two or three holes 
through the pot's bottom bbb. By these 
means the water is drawn up from the 
basin by the roots of the plants (!) or, 
if it should be desirable to prevent it 
from being drawn up, the exterior ori- 1 
fices of the holes, which open into the | 
basin or saucer, may be closed (!) The I 
fountain is supplied with water by taking 
out the stopper c, the entrance into the ; 
basin at a, being at that moment closed ; 
and as soon as the water runs over at c, 
the cork or stopper is put in, and the 
stopper at a removed." — Gard. Mas;. 
March, 1843, 136. 

Mr. Stephens' Flower Pot (Fig. 49) j 
is intended to supply , 
water to the plant! 
where it is most j 
wanted, and to pro- j 
tect it at the same ; 
time from slugs and 
other creeping in- 
sects, which will not 
pass over the water 
between the two 
rims. — Ibid. 

Mr. Rendle, the intelligent proprie- 




Fig. 49. 




tor of the Plymouth Fig. 50. 

Nursery, proposed 
to improve the drain- 
age of pots, by ele- 
vating and piercing 
their bottoms. T his, 
and Mr. Brown's, 
suggested to me that 
of which Fig. 50 is 
a section. 

It is merely two pots, one fitting 
within another, having its bottom in- 
dented and pierced as proposed by 
Mr. Rendle, but not touching the outer 
pot by half an inch all round. This 
is a most effectual form to secure drain- 
age, and to prevent the evaporation from 
the sides of the inner pot, the interven- 
ing stratum of confined air being a bad 
conductor of heat. It has the merit 
too of cheapness. — Johnson's Gardener's 
Almanack. 

FLOWER STAGES are made for the 
exhibition of flowers at shows, in the 
green-house, and elsewhere. The fol- 
lowing are some very judicious obser- 
vations on the subject: — "The first 
object in the construction of stages 
should be to have them so constructed 
and situated as to afford facilities for 
grouping plants ; the second should be 
to give plants more the appearance of 
growing in borders, than upon artificial 
structures ; and the third to keep the 
pot out of sight. This is requisite for 
two reasons; first, because they are no 
ornament, and secondly, that it is always 
desirable to protect the plant from being 
scorched by exposure to the sun. It ts 
also desirable to adopt another mode of 
construction, for the purpose of giving 
plants that aspect which is most suited 
to their habits; and therefore, instead of 
placing the stages from the front to the 
back of the house, as is generally the 
j case, I would place them in groups of 
stages, thus producing an effect similar 
j to the borders in a well-arranged flower 
garden. 

" The spectators in their progress 

i from group to group would be attracted 

| by the separate display in each, instead 

j of having their attention drawn away by 

a whole blaze of beauty at once. 

" The accompanying drawings (Fig. 
i 51) represent the manner in which I 
! propose that such stages as have been 
i described should be constructed and 
{ placed in anyfloricultural building. The 
ground plan represents part of the floor 



FLO 



231 



FLO 



hb 



Fig. 51. 

V/is 



§* ^g^. ^ 



llf 






to 



/o/ 



djr* 



of a house, nineteen feet by thirteen, on 
which are placed twelve stages, and 
three vases, (D D D) basins, or'any other 
suitable ornamental article, with a gang- 
way betwixt them three feet wide. 

" The plan also shows sections of 
three different modes of constructing 
the stages, and the position of the pots 
in each; all the stages stand upon stone 
tables, resting upon brick piers, the top 
of each table being two feet two inches 
above the level of the floor. 

" In the stage (A) there are no 
shelves, the pots being plunged into 
cylinders (made of the same material as 
flower pots) standing upon the tables, 
as shown by the dotted lines; the space 
all round them being filled with compost 
1 e vel with the rim of each series of pots. 
The object of this plan is to afford op- 
portunities of planting various creepers 
round each of the potted plants, for 
which there will be plenty of room 
when they stand twelve inches apart 
from stem to stem. The pots are sup- 



posed to rest by their rims upon the 
edge of the cylinder, and may of course 
be removed with the greatest facility. 

"In the centre stage (B), the sup- 
porters stand directly upon the table, 
and are connected to it, the space be- 
tween each being made water-tight, and 
filled up solid to within half an inch of 
the bottom of the pot. If an inch deep 
of water is poured in this space, the 
pot will be immersed half an inch; a 
small hole in the side will regulate the 
height of the water line, and another in 
the bottom will draw off the water 
when it requires changing. This mode 
of construction may be adopted for 
such plants as need large supplies of 
water. 

" The stage (C) is supposed to have 
shelves pierced with holes to receive 
the pots, which rest upon their rims. 
The stages in my little green-house are 
so fitted up, and have been by many 
practical men, who prefer this plan of 
plunging the pots into the stages to the 



FLU 



232 



FOR 



old one of setting them upon the shelves. 
The fronts of the stone tables may be 
variously ornamented, those in one 
house having trellised panels, another 
having rusticated courses of brick or 
stone, while a third may be in imitation 
of rustic basket-work, and a fourth in 
rough courses like small rockeries, with 
spaces between for creepers, orchida- 
ceous, or any other plants best suited to 
the purpose. 

" The dotted lines under the stage 
(B) will give some idea how this may be 
done ; various other modes of ornament- 
ing may be adopted according to the 
particular taste of the individual. The 
vases, &c. (D D D) may be filled with 
climbers for the open space against the 
sides of the house, and with creepers 
to hang over the edges. The flower 
pots intended to be used in such stages 
as have been described, should be 
gauged before the plants are put into 
them, and all those rejected which do 
not fit the holes; the waste ones will 
answer for propagating, &c." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Mr. Ainger, also, makes these good 
suggestions: — "Stages are frequently 
formed of an equal or nearly equal 
series of ascents, in consequence of 
which the upper plants are by no means 
so well seen as the lower ones. The 
proper plan is to commence by small 
elevations, gradually increasing as the 
shelves recede from the eye. The 
lowest shelf to be eighteen inches from 
the floor, the first rise is six inches, the 
next nine, twelve, fifteen, eighteen, 
twenty-one, and so on. The upper 
shelves should also be broader than the 
lower for larger pots. The advantage 
of this arrangement as commanding a 
better view of the flowers is too obvious 
to need pointing out." — Gard. Chron. 

FLUES are pipes formed of brick or 
slate, for conducting heated air through 
stoves or other buildings where a high 
artificial temperature is desired. It is a 
mode of heating nearly banished by the 
much more manageable and effectual 
modes of heating by hot water; and 
flues have the additional disadvantages, 
that they require frequent sweeping, 
and that they emit a sulphurous fume 
that is injurious to plants and disagree- 
able to the frequenters of the structures 
so heated. This has been obviated by 
using Valencia slates in the place of 
bricks, yet flues under no circumstances 



can compare with either the pipe or 
tank system of hot water heating. When 
flues are employed they are constructed 
inside and near the walls of the build- 
ing; each flue eight or nine inches- wide 
in the clear, by two or three bricks on 
edge deep, ranged horizontally one over 
the other the whole length of the back 
wall, in three or four returns communi- 
cating with each other, continued also 
along the end and front walls in one or 
two ranges, to be used occasionally ; 
furnished with a regulator to slide open 
and shut as required, the whole pro- 
ceeding from the first lowermost flue, 
which communicates immediately from 
the furnace or fire-place behind either 
the back wall at one end, or in the back 
part of the end walls; or if very long 
stoves, of more than forty feet length, 
two fire-places are requisite, one at each 
end ; each having its set of flues ranging 
halfway; each set of flues terminating 
in an upright chimney at the end of the 
back outside. — Hood on Warming, fyc. 

Morris, Tasker and Morris of the 
Pascal Works near Philadelphia, have 
paid considerable attention to the con- 
struction of heating apparatus, whether 
for air or water. Those who desire 
such structures for green-houses, con- 
servatories, &c.,may safely rely on their 
experience and probity. 

FLY. See Black Fly. 

FLY-WORT. Myanthus. 

FCETIDA mauritiana. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Turfy loam and 
peat. 

FONTANESI A phillyrceoides. Half- 
hardy deciduous shrub. Layers and 
cuttings. Common soil. 

FORCING is compelling culinary ve- 
getables to be edible, flowers to bloom, 
and fruits to ripen, at unnatural seasons, 
being the very contrary of the object for 
which our green-houses and hot-houses 
are constructed ; viz., to secure a tem- 
perature in which their tenants will be 
in perfection at their natural seasons. 
Under the heads of Hot-beds and of each 
particular plant will be found directions 
for forcing, and it will be sufficient here 
to coincide with Dr. Lindley in saying, 
that as forced flowers are always less 
beautiful and less fragrant; and forced 
vegetables and fruits less palatable and 
less nutritious than those perfected at 
their natural periods — it is desirable, at 
the very least, to devote as much effort 
and expense to obtain superior produce 



FOR 



233 

— ♦ — 



FOU 



at accustomed times, as to the procuring 
it unseasonably. Rarity is good, but 
excellence is best. 

FORE-RIGHT SHOOTS are the 
shoots which are emitted directly in 
front of branches trained against a wall, 
and consequently cannot be trained in 
without an acute binding, which is al- 
ways in some degree injurious. 

FORK. This instrument is prefera- 
ble to the spade, even for digging over 
open compartments, for the soil can be 
reversed with it as easily as with the 
spade; the labour is diminished, and 
the pulverization of the soil is more ef- 
fectual. (See Digging.) For stirring 
the soil in plantations, shrubberies, and 
fruit borders, a two-pronged fork is 
often employed, but that with three 
prongs is quite as unobjectionable, and 
a multiplicity of tools is an expensive 
folly. Dr. Yelloly's fork is certainly a 
good working implement. Its entire 
length, three feet three and a half inch- 
es; handle's length, two feet two inch- 
es; its diameter one and a half inch; 
width of the entire prongs seven inches 
at the top ; width at the points six inch- 
es; prongs thirteen and a half inches 
long, and at the top seven-eighths of an 
inch square, tapering to a point. The 
straps fixing the head to the handle are 
eleven inches long, two inches wide, 
and half an inch thick, feathering off; 
weight of fork, eight pounds. 

Leaf -fork. Mr. Toward, of Bagshot 
Park, describes a very serviceable im- 
plement of this kind; he says — "One 
person with this implement will take up 
with greater facility more leaves than 
two persons could do with any other 
tool. It is simply a large four-tined 
fork, made of wood, shod with iron; 
the tines are eighteen inches long, and 
are morticed into a head about seven- 
teen inches long, and one and a half 
inch by two and a quarter inches thick. 
The tines are one inch in width, and one 
and a half inch in depth at the head, gra- 
dually taperingto a point with a curve or 
bend upwards. The wood of which they 
are formed ought to be hard and tough*; 
either oak or ash will do, but the Robi- 
nia Psuedo- Acacia is preferable to ei- 
ther. The head should be made of ash, 
with a handle of the same, and should 
be two feet four inches long. Its re- 
commendations are its size and light- 
ness, the leaves also do not hang upon 
it as on a common fork, the large size 



of the tines tearing them asunder." — 
Gard. Chron. 

FORMICA. See Ant. 

FOTHERGILLA. Four species. 
Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers and 
seed. Peat. 

This genus derives its name from John 
Fothergill, an eminent physician, born 
in Yorkshire in 1712. In 1762 he pur- 
chased an estate at Upton, and there 
founded an excellent botanic garden. 

FOUNTAINS surprise by their novel- 
ty, and the surprise is proportioned to 
the height to which they throw the wa- 
ter; but these perpendicular columns 
of water have no pretence to beauty. 
The Emperor fountain at Chatsworth is 
the most surprising in the world, for it 
tosses its waters to a height of two hun- 
dred and sixty-seven feet, impelled by a 
fall from a reservoir three hundred and 
eighty-one feet above the ajutage, or 
mouth of the pipe from which it rushes 
into the air. 

For an interesting description of this 
fountain and the grounds at Chatsworth, 
the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, see 
Downing's " Horticulturist." 

The following are a few of the most 
powerful fountains in Europe : — 

Feet. 

The Emperor at Chatsworth, ) 
height of jet . . . . ) 

Wilhemhoshe Fountain in ) 
Hesse Cassel . . . . ) 

Fountain, St. Cloud . . . 

Peterhoff, Russia .... 

The old Chatsworth . . . 

Versailles 

Mr. Paxton has stated that, " 
ever be the direction of the jet, the dis- 
charge of water is always the same, 
provided that the altitude of the reser- 
voir be the same. This is a necessary 
consequence of the equal pressure of 
fluids, in all directions. Water spout- 
ing from small ajutage has sufficient 
velocity to carry it to the same height 
as the" water in the reservoir; but it 
never attains entirely this height, being 
prevented by various concurring causes. 
1st. Friction in the tubes. 2d. Friction 
against the circumference of the aper- 
ture. 3d. The resistance of the air, its 
weight obstructing the rising column." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Loudon justly observes, that it 
is not easy to lay down data on this 
head ; if the bore of the ajutage be too 
small, the rising stream will want suffi- 



267 

190 

160 
120 

94 

90 

What- 



FOX 



234 



FR A 



cient weight and power to divide the 
air, and so being dashed against it, will 
fall down in vapour or mist. If too 
large it will not rise at all. The length 
of pipe between the reservoir and the 
jet will also impede its rising in a slight 
degree, by the friction of the water on 
the pipe. This is estimated at one foot 
for every hundred yards from the reser- 
voir. The proportion which this author 
gives to the ajutages, relatively to the 
conducting-pipes, is one-fourth ; and 
thus for a jet of four lines, a conduct- 
ing-pipe of an inch and a half diameter ; 
for a jet of six or seven lines, a con- 
ducting-pipe of two inches, and so on. 
From these data, the height of the foun- 
tain and the diameter of the conducting- 
pipe being given, the height to which a 
jet can be forced can be estimated with 
tolerable accuracy, and the contrary. 
But where the pipes are already laid, 
and the power of the head, owing to 
intervening obstructions, is not very 
accurately known, the method by trial 
and correction by means of a leaden 
nozzle, the orifice of which may be 
readily increased or diminished, will 
lead to the exact power under all the 
circumstances. 

Ajutages. — " Some are contrived so 
as to throw up the water in the form of 
sheaves, fans, showers, to support balls, 
&c. Others to throw it out horizontally, 
or in curved lines, according to the 
taste of the designer ; but the most 
usual form is a simple opening to throw 
the spout or jet upright. The grandest 
jet of any is a perpendicular column is- 
suing from a rocky base, on which the 
water falling produces a double effect 
both of sound and visual display. A 
jet rising from a naked tube in the mid- 
dle of a basin or canal, and the waters 
falling on its smooth surface, is unna- 
tural without being artificially grand." 
— Gard. Enc. 

Drooping fountains, or such as bub- 
bling from their source trickle over the 
edge of rocks, shells, or vases, combin- 
ing the cascade with the fountain, are 
capable of much greater beauty. 

FOXGLOVE. Digitalis. 

FRACTURES. If an immaterial 
branch is broken, it is best to remove 
it entirely, but it sometimes happens 
that a stem or branch which cannot be 
replaced, is thus injured, in which case 
it is advisable to attempt a reduction of 
the fracture; and if it be only partial, 



and the stem or branch but small, the 
parts will again unite by being put back 
into their natural position, and well 
propped up. Especially the cure may 
be expected not to succeed if the frac- 
ture is accompanied with contusion, or 
if the stem or branch is large. And 
even where it succeeds, the woody 
fibres do not contribute to the union; 
but the granular and herbaceous sub- 
stance only which exudes from be- 
tween the wood and liber, insinuating 
itself into all interstices, and finally 
becoming indurated in the wood. — 
Keith, 

Splints extending at least a foot above 
and below the fracture, should be bound 
very firmly all round, and a plaster of 
grafting-clay to exclude wet be placed 
over all ; and every precaution adopted 
to prevent the surfaces of the wound 
being moved by the force of the wind. 

F R A G A R I A. Fourteen species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seeds and runners. 
Common soil. See Strawberry. 

FRAMES are structures jemployed 
either in forcing, or in protecting plants, 
and are of various sizes. 

According to the good practical rules 
of Abercrombie : — " The one-light 
frame maybe about four feet and a half 
in width from back to front, and three 
feet six inches the other way; fifteen 
or eighteen inches high in the back, 
and nine in front, with a glass sash or 
light made to fit the top completely, to 
slide up and down, and move away oc- 
casionally. 

" The two-light frame may be seven 
feet long, four and a half wide, and 
fifteen or eighteen inches high in the 
back, with bars reaching from it at top 
to the front, serving both to strengthen 
the frame and help to support the lights ; 
the two lights to be each three feet six 
inches wide, made to fit the top of the 
frame exactly. 

"The three-light frames should be 
ten feet six inches long, four and a half 
wide, and from eighteen inches to two 
feet high in the back, and from nine to 
twelve or fifteen inches in front — ob- 
serving that those designed principally 
for the culture of melons, may be rather 
deeper than for cucumbers, because 
they generally require a greater depth 
of mould or earth on the beds; though 
frames, eighteen or twenty inches in 
the back, and from nine to twelve in 
front, are often made to serve occasion- 



FR A 



235 
— ♦— 



F R A 



ally, both for cucumbers and melons; 
each frame to have two cross bars, 
ranging from the top of the back to 
that of the front, at three feet six inches 
distance, to strengthen the frame, and 
support the lights ; and the three lights 
to be each three feet six inches wide; 
the whole together being made to lit 
the top of the frame exactly, every way 
in length and width. 

" Sometimes the above sort of frames 
are made of larger dimensions than be- 
fore specified ; but in respect to this it 
should be observed that if larger they 
are very inconvenient to move to differ- 
ent parts where they may be occasion- 
ally wanted, and require more heat to 
warm the internal air; and in respect 
to depth particularly, that if they are 
but just deep enough to contain a due 
depth of mould, and for the plants to 
have moderate room to grow, they will 
be better than if deeper, as the plants 
will be then always near the glasses — 
which is an essential consideration in 
early work — and the internal air will 
be more effectually supported in a due 
temperature of warmth. For the deeper 
tin; frame, the heat of the internal air 
will be less in proportion, and the plants 
being far from the glasses will be some 
disadvantage in their early growth. Be- 
sides, a too deep frame, both in early 
and late work, is apt to draw the plants 
up weak ; for they always naturally 
aspire towards the glasses, and the 
more space there is, the more they 
will run up ; for which reason the Lon- 
don kitchen-gardeners have many of 
their frames not more than fourteen or 
niches high behind and seven in 
front, especially those which are in- 
tended to winter the more tender young 
plants, such as cauliflower and lettuce, 
and for raising early small salad, herbs, 
radishes, &c. 

" The wood work of the back, ends, 
and front should be of inch or inch 
and a quarter deal, as before observed, 
which should be all neatly planed even 
and smooth Qn both sides ; and the 
joints, in framing them together, should 
be so close that no wet nor air can en- 
ter. The cross-bars or bearers at top, 
for the support of the glasses, should 
be about three inches broad and one 
thick, and neatly dove-tailed in at back 
and front even with both edges, that 
the lights may shut down close, each 
having a groove or channel along the 



I middle to conduct off all wet falling 

I between the lights. At the end of each 

frame, at top, should be a thin slip of 

1 board, four inches broad, up to the out- 

! side of the lights, being necessary to 

guard against cutting winds rushing in 

at that part immediately upon the plants, 

when the lights are occasionally tilted 

behind for the necessary admission of 

fresh air, &c. 

"With respect to the lights, the 
wood-work of the frame should be inch 
and a half thick and two and a half 
broad ; and the bars, for the immediate 
support of the glass-work, should be 
about an inch broad, and not more than 
inch and a half thick : for if too broad 
and thick, they would intercept the 
rays of the sun, so should be only just 
sufficient to support the lights and be 
ranged from the back part to the front, 
eight, or nine inches asunder. 

" All the wood-work, both of the 
frames and lights, should be painted to 
preserve them from decay. A lead 
colour will be the most eligible; and 
if done three times over, outside and 
in, will preserve the wood exceedingly 
from the injuries of weather, and from 
the moisture of the earth and dung." 

Mr. Knight has suggested an import- 
ant improvement in the form of frames. 
He observes, that the general practice 
is to make the surface of the bed per- 
fectly horizontal, and to give an incli- 
nation to the glass. That side of the 
frame which is to stand towards the 
north is made nearly as deep again as 
its opposite ; so that if the mould is 
placed of an equal depth (as it ought 
to be) over the whole bed, the plants 
are too far from the glass at one end of 
the frame and too near at the other. 
To remove this inconvenience, he 
points out the mode of forming the bed 
on an inclined plane ; and the frame 
formed with sides of equal depth, and 
so put together as to continue per- 
pendicular when on the bed, as repre- 
sented in the accompanying sketch, 
Fig. 52. 

There are several minor points in the 
construction of frames that deserve at- 
tention. The strips of lead or wood 
that sustain the panes of glass should 
run across the frame, and not length- 
wise ; they then neither obstruct so 
much the entrance of light nor the pass- 
ing off of rain. The inside of the frame 
should be painted white, since plants 




236 

— • — 



FRA 



generally suffer in them for want of 
light : if the accumulation of heat was 
required, the colour should be black. 

Raising the Frames. — It is a well- 
known difficulty that the gardener has, 
in raising the frames so as to keep the 
foliage of the plants within them at a 
determined and constant distance from 
the glass. To remedy this, Mr. Nairn, 
gardener to J. Creswell, Esq., of Bat- 
tersea Priory, has introduced the inge- 
nious contrivance represented in the ac- 
companying sketch and references : — 
A, a movable frame ; b b, inside lining 
of the pit ; c c, outer wall. Between 
these the sides of the frame pass, and 
are lowered or elevated by racks and 
spindles, d d. Fig. 53. 

Fig. 53. 




A more simple plan might perhaps 
be adopted, by having frames of the 
same length and breadth as the origi- 
nal, but only from an inch to three 
inches, or upwards, deep. These, as 
necessary, might be put on the top, and 
would be kept close by the pressure of 
the lights; bolts and nuts might also 
be easily applied, and the interstices 
rendered still more impervious to air 
by being faced with list. 

The frame may often be made a 



substitute for the green-house ; and on 
this subject we have the following 
statement of Mr. Crambe, of Redbraes, 
near Edinburgh : — 

" Being deficient in accommodation 
for heaths and pelargoniums, Mr. 
Crambe procured two melon-frames, 
the dimensions of which were twenty 
feet long by eight wide ; he then built 
walls of a few courses of bricks, in- 
closing an area of the exact size of the 
frames upon which they were placed. 
The floor was elevated six inches above 
the ground, level and paved with 
bricks laid in finely-sifted coal-ashes, 
having the crevices between them filled 
with sand, which makes a better joint- 
ing than lime, the close joints of which 
leave no escape for the surplus water, — 
placing the building in a longitudinal 
direction from east to west. As a fire- 
flue would have occupied more space 
than could be spared, Mr. Rogers' 
conical boiler was adopted. The 
boiler is placed on the outside and is 
inclosed in a case of double sheet-iron, 
with a movable cover, and funnel of the 
same material, for the conveyance of 
smoke into a brick-chimney, the space 
between the case and boiler being filled 
with sand as an excellent non-conduc- 
tor. At right angles to the end of the 
pit is a brick-wall about three feet 
high, inclosing the boiler on two sides, 
leaving an open space in front for the 
admission of air and the clearing away 
of ashes. A movable wooden cover, of 
a triangular form, is placed above, to 
protect the whole from the effects of 
the weather. 

" The size of the boiler is eighteen 
inches high by twelve in diameter at 
the base, and is placed upon a cast- 
iron grating, having a furnace-door be- 
neath for the regulation of air. The 
pipes, two inches and a half wide, are 
conducted along the front and secured 
to the wall with iron hooks, it being 
unnecessary to convey them round the 
back, as the apparatus is found suffi- 
cient to heat a space of double the size. 

" For fuel he has uniformly found 
coke to maintain a constant and regu- 
lar heat: indeed this sort of boiler is 
not suited for the consumption of coal, 
although, by a little alteration of the 
present form, it might be made to con- 
sume it as freely as coke. When the 
external temperature was as low as 
20°, the internal heat of the pit did not 



FR A 



237 



FRI 



vary above 3° in fourteen hours, dur- 
ing which time it required no atten- 
tion, and the cost of the fuel did not 
exceed twopence in twenty-four hours. 
When slight storms occurred, a cover- 
ing of Russia-mats was substituted in 
lieu of fire-heat, which is always, to 
a certain degree, injurious to green- 
house plants, but more particularly so 
to heaths, a class of plants which, when 
cultivated in properly constructed pits, 
have a decidedly more healthy appear- 
ance than those grown in green- 
houses." — Gard. Chron. 

Shelter for the Glass. — In proportion 
to the number of lights, matting for 
shading and sheltering must be at hand. 
The usual mode of covering at night is 
by laying on mats, and over these litter, 
in thickness according to the severity 
of the season. Some gardeners lay 
hay immediately in contact with the 
glass, and over this the mats. Every 
person conversant with these modes of 
shelter is aware of their inconvenience. 
In rainy weather they soon become 
wet, and rapidly chill the beds ; added 
to which, the trouble caused in placing 
and removing them, and the danger to 
the glass from the stones laid on as a 
resistance to the wind, are by no means 
inconsiderable. 

Mr. Seton, to obviate these incon- 
veniences, employs a particular cover- 
ing, which he constructs of four laths, 
two of such a length as to exceed a 
little that of the frame, and the others 
in a similar manner that of its breadth. 
These are bound together at right 
angles, so as to form a parallelogram 
of the form and size of the frame ; and 
pieces are bound across this at a foot 
apart from each other. Over this a 
mat is spread, and over the mat a layer 
of straw is fastened, laid on level like 
thatch, from three to six inches thick, 
as may appear necessary. If the 
breadth of the frame is, or exceeds, 
four feet, it is best to have the covering 
in two parts, otherwise it becomes 
weak and unwieldy. These panels, 
as they may be called, Mr. Seton also 
employs in preserving tender plants 
through the winter. A pit of frames, 
earthed up all round, and covered with 
one of them, or two or three if needful, 
is completely impervious to frost. 

Substitutes for glass. — Oiled paper 
was formerly employed ; but this has 
been superseded by linen dressed with 



Whitney's or Tanner's compositions; 
or the gardener may employ the follow- 
ing preparation :— • 

"Old pale linseed oil, three pints; 
sugar of lead (acetate of lead), one 
ounce ; white resin, four ounces. Grind 
the acetate with a little of the oil, then 
add the rest and the resin. Incorpo- 
rate thoroughly in a large iron pot over 
a gentle fire ; and, with a large brush, 
apply hot to a fine calico stretched 
loosely previously, by means of tacks, 
upon the frame. On the following day 
it is fit for use, and may be either done 
over a second time, or tacked on tightly 
to remain." — Gard. Chron. 

The quantity made according to this 
recipe will be sufficient for about 100 
square feet of calico. — Johnson's Gard. 
Almanack. 

FRANCISCEA uniflora. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

FRANCOA. Three species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed. Common light soil. 

FRANKENIA. Nine species. Chief- 
ly hardy evergreen trailers. Cuttings. 
Loam and sandy peat. 

FRANKINCENSE. Pinus tada. 

FRAXINUS. The ash-tree. Forty- 
one species. Hardy deciduous trees. 
Seed, or budding or grafting on the 
common ash (F. excelsior) . 

FREE-STONE peaches and necta- 
rines, the flesh of which parts readily 
from the stone. 

FRENCH BEAN. See Kidney Bean. 

FRENCH MARIGOLD. Tagetes 
patula. 

FRIESIA peduncular is. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Turfy 
loam and peat. 

FRINGE TREE. Chionanthus. 

FRITILLARIA. Fritillary. Twenty- 
three species, besides varieties. Hardy 
bulbs. Offsets. Sandy soil. 

" The season for planting or trans- 
planting all these bulbs is when their 
flower-stalks are decayed, in July or 
beginning of August, though the bulbs 
taken up at that time may be kept, if 
necessary, by being laid in dry sand ; 
but the fritillary (F. pyrenaica) and 
Persian lily (F.Persica) are rather more 
impatient, out of the earth, than the 
crown imperial (F. imperialis) , and 
therefore should always be put in again 
as soon as possible. 

Propagation of all the species. — The 
general mode of propagation of all 
these plants is by offsets, which may he 



FRI 



238 



FRU 



separated every second or third year. 
The proper time is when their flower- 
stalks decay, taking the whole cluster j 
of roots out of the earth and separating | 
them into distinct roots, planting the I 
smaller offsets by themselves, in nurse- j 
ry-beds, to remain a year or two ; and 
the larger roots plant where they are 
designed to remain. 

They are also propagated by seed to 
gain new varieties. The process is| 
tedious. The fritillary and Persian lily j 
will be three years, and the crown im- | 
perial sometimes six or seven, before j 
they flower in perfection. 

The seeds are to be sown in boxes 
of light earth in August or September, j 
covering them with earth a quarter of' 
an inch deep. — Abercrombie. 

FROST. If a plant be frozen, and j 
though some defy the attacks of frost, 
others are very liable to its fatal influ- | 
ence, death is brought upon them as it j 
is in the animal frame, by a complete j 
breaking down of their tissue ; their i 
vessels are ruptured, and putrefaction ! 
supervenes with unusual rapidity. 

The following contingencies render 
a plant especially liable to be frozen. 

" First. Moisture renders a plant 
susceptible of cold. Every gardener 
knows this. If the air of his green- 
house be dry, the plants within may be 
submitted to a temperature of 32° with- 
out injury, provided the return to a 
higher temperature be gradual. 

" Secondly. Gradual decrements of 
temperature are scarcely felt. A myr- 
tle may be forced and subsequently 
passed to the conservatory, to the cold- 
pit, and even thence to an open border, 
if in the south of England, without 
enduring any injury from the cold of 
winter ; but it would be killed if passed 
at once from the hot-house to the 
border. 

" Thirdly. The more saline are the 
juices of a plant, the less liable are 
they to congelation by frost. Salt pre- 
serves vegetables from injury by sudden 
transitions in the temperature of the 
atmosphere. That salted soil freezes 
with more reluctance than before the 
salt is applied, is well Ijnown, and that 
crops of turnips, cabbages, cauliflowers, 
&c, are similarly preserved is equally 
well established. 

" Fourthly. Absence of motion en- 
ables plants to endure a lower degree 
of temperature. Water may be cooled 



down to below 32° without freezing, 
but it solidifies the moment it is agi- 
tated." — Principles of Gardening. 

The seeds of some plants are bene- 
fited by being frozen, for those of the 
rose and the hawthorn never germinate 
so freely as after being subjected to the 
winter frosts. 

Freezing is beneficial to soils, not 
only by destroying vermin within its 
bosom, but by aiding the atmosphere to 
pervade its texture, which texture is 
also rendered much more friable by 
the frost. M. Schluber says that freez- 
ing reduces the consistency of soils 
most remarkably, and that in the case 
of clays and other adhesive soils, the 
diminution of their consistency amounts 
to at least 50 per cent. In hoeing clay 
he found it reduced from sixty-nine to 
forty-five of the scale already stated, 
and in the ordinary arable soil from 
thirty-three to twenty. He satisfactorily 
explains this phenomenon by observing 
that the crystals of ice pervading the 
entire substance of the frozen soil, ne- 
cessarily separate the particles of earth, 
rendering their points of contact fewer. 

As soil in our climate is rarely frozen 
to a depth of more than four inches, 
and in extremely hard winters it does 
not penetrate more than six inches in 
light soils, and ten inches in those that 
contain more clay, or an excess of 
moisture, these facts, and the frequent 
failure of our potato crops, have led Dr. 
Lindley to the very judicious suggestion 
of planting these crops in autumn, 
which must be the best time if practica- 
ble, for it is pursuing the dictate of na- 
ture. That it is practicable, I have no 
doubt, for no frost would injure the 
sets, if a little coal ashes were put over 
them in each hole, for coal ashes are 
an excellent non-conductor of heat, and 
consequently opposed to a low reduc- 
tion of temperature. Even if potatoes 
buried some inches beneath the soil ? s 
surface are frozen, they thaw so very 
gradually, that no injury to them oc- 
curs, uniess the freezing has been suffi- 
cient to burst their vessels, which 
occurs very rarely. 

FROTH-FLY. See Tettigonia. 

FRUIT ROOM. "Fruit for storing 
should be gathered before it is quite 
mature, for the ripening process, the 
formation of sugar, with its attendant 
exhalation of carbonic acid and water, 
goes on as well in the fruit room as in 



FRU 



239 

— ♦ — 



FRU 



the open air at the season when the 
functions of the leaves have ceased, 
and the fruit no longer enlarges. In 
gathering fruit, every care should be 
adopted to avoid bruising; and, to this 
end, in the case of apples, pears, 
quinces, and medlars, let the gathering 
basket be lined throughout with sack- 
ing, and let the contents of each basket 
be carried at once to a floor covered 
with sand, and taken out one by one, 
not poured out, as is too usual, into a 
basket, and then again from this into a 
heap, for this systematic mode of in- 
flicting small bruises is sure to usher in 
decay, inasmuch as that it bursts the 
divisional membranes of the cells con- 
taining the juice, and this being extra- 
vasated, speedily passes from the stage 
of spirituous fermentation to that of 
putrefaction. To avoid this is the prin- 
cipal object of fruit storing, whilst at 
the same time it is necessary that the 
fruit shall be kept firm and juicy. Now 
it so happens, that the means required 
to secure the one also effects the other. 

" To preserve the juiciness of the 
fruit, nothing more is required than a 
low temperature, and the exclusion of 
the atmospheric air. The best practical 
mode of doing this is to pack the fruit 
in boxes of .perfectly dried pit-sand, 
employing boxes or bins, and taking 
care that no two apples or pears touch. 
The sand should be thoroughly dried 
by fire-heat, and over the uppermost 
layer of fruit the sand should form a 
covering nine inches deep. 

" Putrefaction requires indispensably 
three contingencies — moisture, warmth, 
and the presence of atmospheric air, or 
at least of its oxygen. Now burying in 
sand excludes all these as much as can 
be practically effected ; and it excludes, 
moreover, the light, which is one of the 
prime agents in the ripening of fruit. 
The more minutely divided into small 
portions animal or vegetable juices may 
be, so much longer are they preserved 
from putridity : hence one of the rea- 
sons why bruised fruit decays more 
quickly than sound ; the membranes of 
the pulp dividing it into little cells, are 
ruptured and a larger quantity of the 
juices are together ; but this is only 
one reason, for bruising allows the air 
to penetrate, and it deranges that inex- 
plicable vital power, which whilst un- 
injured acts so antiseptically in all 
fruits, seed, and eggs. Bruises the most 



slight, therefore, are to be avoided ; 
and instead of putting fruit in heaps to 
sweat, as it is ignorantly termed, but 
in fact to heat and promote decay, fruit 
should be placed one by one upon a 
floor covered with dry sand, and the 
day following, if the air be dry, be 
wiped and stored away as before di- 
rected. Fruit for storing should not 
only be gathered during the middle 
hours of a dry day, but after the oc- 
curence of several such. 

'•'Although the fruit is stored in sand, 
it is not best for it to be kept there up 
to the very time of using, for the pre- 
sence of light and air is necessary for 
the elaboration of saccharine matter. 
A fortnight's consumption of each sort 
should be kept upon beach, birch, or 
elm shelves, with a ledge all round, to 
keep on them about half an inch in 
depth of dry sand ; on this the fruit 
rests softly, and the vacancy caused by 
every day's consumption should be re- 
placed from the boxes as it occurs. If 
deal is employed for the shelving, it .is 
apt to impart a flavour of turpentine to 
the fruit. The store-room should have 
a northern aspect, be on a second floor, 
and have at least two windows, to pro- 
mote ventilation in dry days. A stove 
in the room, or hot-water pipe with a 
regulating cock, is almost essential, for 
heat will be required occasionally in 
very cold and in damp weather; the 
windows should have stout inside shut- 
ters. Sand operates as a preservative, 
not only by excluding air and moisture, 
but by keeping the fruit cool ; for it is 
one of the worst conductors of heat, 
and moreover it keeps carbonic acid in 
contact with the fruit. All fruit in 
ripening emits carbonic acid, and this 
gas is one of the most powerful prevent- 
ives of decay known. 

" The temperature of the fruit room 
should never rise above 40°, nor sink 
below 34° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, 
the more regular the better. Powdered 
charcoal is even a better preservative 
for packing fruit than sand ; and one 
box not to be opened until April, ought 
to be packed with this most powerful 
antiseptic. If it were not from its soil- 
ing nature, and the trouble consequent 
upon its employment, I should advocate 
its exclusive use ; I have kept apples 
perfectly sound in it until June. 

" It is not unworthy of observation, 
that the eye or extremity farthest from 



FUC 



240 



FUC 



the stalk, is the first to ripen. This is 
most perceptible in pears, especially in 
the chaumontelle. That end therefore 
should be slightly imbedded in the 
sand; and thus excluding it from the 
light, checks its progress in ripening." 
— Principles of Gardening. 

FUCHSIA. Twenty species, besides 
many varieties. Green-house evergreen 
shrubs. Seed and cuttings. Light rich 
loam and peat. 

Varieties for open borders. — F. Ric- 
cartonia; globosa; gracilis; Thomsonii; 
Clintonia; conica ; reflexa; erecta ; and 
virgata. 

For Pot-culture. — Brockmannii ; Exo- 
niensis ; Colossus ; Attractor ; Enchan- 
tress; Eppsii; Stanwelliana; Splendida; 
Defiance ; Laneii ; Toddiana ; Cham- 
pion ; Victory; Majestica; Paragon; 
Splendens; Fulgens; Robusta ; Youel- 
lii ; Chandlerii ; Venus Victrix ; Money- 
pennii ; Standishii ; Dalstonii ; Curtisii ; 
Eclipse; Rosa Alba; and Spectabilis. 
There are about eighty other named 
varieties of differing degrees of merit. 

Soil. — The best is formed of equal 
parts rotted turf, sandy loam, and peat. 

Propagation by seed. — Sow directly 
it is ripe. Bruise the berries, wash 
away their pulp, mix the seed with 
sand, sow thinly in pans of the soil just 
described, and place in the green-house. 
Prick into thimbles when the seedlings 
are large enough for handling; place 
under a hand-glass, in a stove or hot- 
bed, for a few days, and then remove 
into a green-house. Shift into larger 
pots as the roots fill those in which they 
are growing. 

By cuttings. — No plant is more easily 
propagated by cuttings at any season of 
the year than the Fuchsia, but the best 
season is from the end of May to the 
end of July. Have the cuttings about 
three inches long; strip the leaves off 
the lower half of their lengths, and plant 
in pots, having the surface of the com- 
post in them to the depth of an inch 
covered with sand. Plant in this the 
cuttings, so that their ends just touch the 
compost. Moisten the sand, place the 
pots in a green-house under the cover 
of hand-glasses. When rooted, pot 
singly in sixties. 

By grafting. — "The early part of 
May is suitable for grafting fuchsias, or 
rather for inarching them, as this is de- 
cidedly the most successful mode of 
combining more than one variety upon 



the same stock. This is very desirable 
where room has to be husbanded. Cut 
away to the length of one and a half 
inch, half the thickness of the two shoots 
to be united, bind them together ; sever 
through the scion three-fourths of its 
thickness, just below the junction, keep 
in a warm moist atmosphere, and in 
three or four days the junction will be 
complete. jP. fulgens, F. Cormackii 
and other strong growing varieties are 
the best stocks." — Gard. Chron. 

To make specimen Fuchsias. — "In 
order to have specimen plants of Fuch- 
sias," says Mr. G. Watson, " put in 
cuttings in the beginning of August ; 
planting them round the rims of five 
inch pots filled with light sandy soil 
and well drained ; then place in a cu- 
cumber-frame till sufficiently rooted, 
and afterwards remove to a cool and 
airy part of the green-house, and let 
them remain till February. In that 
month, pot off into small sixties, and 
when well rooted in these pots, two or 
more healthy and well-shaped plants of 
each variety put into larger pots accord- 
ing to their size. While young, care 
must be taken that the earth, in which 
they are growing, does not become 
soured by over watering, or the plants 
will soon become sickly. When they 
have filled these pots with roots, the 
plants must be removed into larger 
pots and carefully tied up to sticks in 
order to keep the leading shoots up- 
right, as several of the varieties have a 
tendency to grow downward, and it is 
only with constant care that these va- 
rieties are kept vigorous. 

" About the second week in June, 
shift for the last time into pots suffi- 
ciently large to bloom them in ; in pot- 
ting particular attention must be paid 
to the drainage, so that the superabund- 
ant water may be easily passed off. 

" Plants treated in this manner will 
begin to bloom profusely at the latter 
end of July, and continue flowering till 
the end of September; during this pe- 
riod the pots should be placed in pans, 
so that the plant may be well supplied 
with water, and yet not constantly 
soaked in it. 

" Plants thus treated, with their 
shoots pruned to three or four buds, 
form beautiful objects for turning out 
into the flower garden the following 
summer; but if very large specimens 
are required, their pot room must be 



FUE 



241 

— ♦— 



FUM 



increased, and they should be grown 
in the open air. 

" Those who cultivate the Fuchsia, 
with the desire of obtaining it in the 
greatest perfection, should remember 
that in its native haunts it flourishes 
under the shade of loftier shrubs. Rea- 
son, therefore, suggests, and experience 
has proved, that nothing more conduces 
to its vigour than shading it for three or 
four hours during the hottest period of 
the day, and syringing gently every 
night and morning during hot weather." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Jointer Protection. — At the approach 
of frost, that excellent horticulturist, 
Mr. Mearns, recommends that the 
plants should be taken out of the soil, 
and all the laterals cut from them ; 
upon those intended to be trained to a 
wall, paling, or trellis, leave three, 
four, five or six canes. They are then 
ready to be deposited until the end of 
April, or beginning of May, in a pit in 
heath or any other tolerably dry soil, 
or sand, and plaee them in a sloping 
direction in the pit with stakes driven 
here and there diagonally over them, 
that they may be kept hollow, and to 
prevent the soil from pressing too much 
upon their brittle stems. 

In covering them use no straw, or 
matting, but allow the soil to fall 
amongst them, and form it into a sharp 
ridge at the top. — Gard. Chron. 

The laterals removed at the time of 
this winter-pruning, if divested of their 
laterals, and packed in powdered char- 
coal, or perfectly dry earth, in boxes, 
and placed out of the reach of frost, in 
a cool place, will retain their vitality 
until next April, when they may be cut 
into lengths of about a foot long, and 
planted with a dibble ; insert them into 
the ground, so as to leave about three 
inches of the cuttings above the surface 
in any place where they are wanted to 
flower next summer. If kept tolerably 
moist, they will be found to make good 
flowering plants with little trouble. — 
Gard. Chron. 

FUEL is no small item in the annual 
expenditure of the stove, green-house, 
and conservatory departments, and 
therefore deserves consideration. 

The specific heat of water being 1, 
and that of atmospheric air 0.00035, or 
^g'j^th, if the quantity of fuel which 
will heat a cubic foot of water one de- 
gree be multiplied by 0.00035, the pro- 
16 



duct will be the quantity of fuel required 
to heat a cubic foot of air, one degree ; 
and twenty times that quantity will heat 
it twenty degrees ; thirty times will heat 
it thirty degrees, and so on. Now 
0.0075 lbs. of best coals will heat a 
cubic foot of water one degree ; there- 
fore 0.000002625 lbs. of best coals will 
heat a cubic foot of air one degree. 

It is essential to good and profitable 
fuel that it should be free from moist- 
ure ; for unless it be dry, much of the 
heat which it generates is consumed in 
converting that moisture into vapour: 
hence the superior value of old dense, 
dry wood, to that which is porous and 
damp. A pound of dry will heat thirty- 
five pounds of water from 32° to 212°; 
but a pound of the same wood in a 
moist or fresh state, will not similarly 
heat more than twenty-five pounds. 
The value, therefore, of different woods 
for fuel is nearly inversely as their 
moisture : and this may be readily as- 
certained by finding how much a pound 
weight of the shavings of each loses by 
drying during two hours, at a tempera- 
ture of 212°. 

The preceding are the average of 
results obtainable in a common well- 
constructed furnace. By a complicated 
form of boiler, perhaps a small saving 
of fuel, in obtaining the same results, 
may be effected ; but it will be found 
generally, that the original cost of 
apparatus, and the current additional 
expense for repairs, will more than 
exceed the economy of fuel. — Prin. of 
Gard. 

FULL-FLOWER. See Double-flower. 

FUMx\RIA. Six species. Hardy an- 
nual climbers. Seed. Common soil. 

FUMIGATING is employed for the 
destruction of certain insects ; the in- 
haled vapour or smoke arising from 
some substances being fatal to them. 
Tobacco (see Tobacco) is the usual sub- 
stance employed ; and it may be ignited, 
and the smoke impelled upon the insects 
by bellows ; or the ignited tobacco may 
be placed under a box, or within a 
frame together with the affected plant. 
The vapour of turpentine is destructive 
to the scale and other insects, employed 
in this mode. Mr. Mills has also stated 
the following as the best mode of fumi- 
gating with tobacco. 

" According to the size of the place 
to be fumigated, one or more pieces of 
cast iron, one inch thick, and three 



FUM 



242 

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GAR 



inches over, are made red hot; (pieces 
of old tiles, such as are used for cover- 
ing smoke flues, would probably answer 
equally well ;) one of these is placed in 



GALEANDRA gracilis. Stove 
orchid. Division. Sandy peat, and 
light loam. 

GALEGA. Goat's Rue. Five spe- 



a twenty-four sized pot, on which is put j cies, and some varieties. Hardy her- 
the quantity of tobacco considered ne- I baceous perennials. Division or seeds, 
cessary to charge the structure with j Common soil. 

smoke sufficient to destroy insect life. GALEOBDOLON Lwtewm and variety. 
To fumigate an ordinary sized eight- 1 Hardy herbaceous perennial. Division, 
light house, I use three heaters, and Marshy soil. 

three twenty-four sized pots, which I GALIPEA. Two species. Stove 
have placed on the front flue or walk ; evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peaty 
one pound of strong tobacco is put on soil, 
the three heaters in equal parts, and 
this I find sufficient to fill the house, so 
as to destroy all the kinds of insects 
that perish by fumigation. The system 
has these advantages : the tobacco is so 
quickly consumed, that the house is 
completely filled in a very short time, 
and but little smoke can escape before 
the insects are destroyed; the pure heat 
from the iron heaters prevents injury 
from gas, and as no blowing is required 
there is no dust: it being only neces- 
sary to put the tobacco on the heaters, 
and leave the house." — Gard. Chron. 

FUMITORY. Fumaria. 

FUNKIA. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Sheltered light 
soil. 

FURCRCEA. Seven species. Stove 
succulents. Suckers. Rich light loam. 

G^ERTNERA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

GAGEA. Nineteen species. Hardy 
bulbous perennials. Offsets. Light soil. 

GAGNEBINA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings and seeds. 
Loam and peat, with a little sand. 

GAILLARDIA. Four species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

GALACTIA. Four species. Hardy 
deciduous or stove evergreen twining 
plants. Cuttings. Division. 
Loam, peat and sand. 

GALACT1TES. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

GALANGALE. Kampfera. 

GALANTHUS. Snowdrop. Two 
species. Hardy bulbous perennials. 
Offsets. Common soil. 



GALL is a tumour, formed in conse- 
quence of the part being punctured by 
an insect, the tumour becoming the ni- 
dus of the insect brood. The Oak apple 
caused by the Cynips querci is a fami- 
liar example ; as also are the bunches 
of leaves not unlike a rose on the Rose 
Willow, and the mossy tufts on the 
twigs of the wild rose, and erroneously 
called Bedeguar. 

GALPHINIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreens ; one a shrub ; one a climber. 
Ripened cuttings. Loam and peat. 

GAMBOGE. Garcinia Gambogia. j 

GAMMA MOTH. See Noctua. 

GANGRENE. See Canker. 

GARCINIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen fruit trees. Ripened cuttings. 
Light loamy soil with peat. They 
require a strong moist heat. 

GARDEN BALSAM. Justicia pec- 
toralis. 

GARDEN BEETLE. See Phyllo- 
pertha. 

GARDEN PEBBLE MOTH. See 
Scopula. 

GARDENING. « Herder, in his Kal- 
ligone, calls gardening the second libe- 
ral art, architecture the first. * A dis- 
trict,' says he, ' of which every part 
bears what is best for it, in which no 
waste spot accuses the indolence of the 
inhabitants, and which is adorned by 
Seeds, beautiful gardens, needs no statues on 
the road ; Pomona, Ceres, Pales, Ver- 
tumnus, Sylvan and Flora meet us with 
all their gifts. Art and nature are there 
harmoniously mingled. To distinguish, 
in nature, harmony from discord ; to 
discern the character of every region 
with a taste which developes and dis- 
GALAX aphylla. Hardy herbaceous j poses to the best advantage the beauties 
perennial. Division. Peaty soil in a j of nature — if this is not a fine art, then 
moist situation. i none exists.' However true it may be, 

GALAXIA. Five species. Green- that gardening deserves to be called a 
house bulbous perennials. Offsets. I fine art, we can hardly agree with Her- 
Sandy peat soil. I der, that it is the second in the order of 



GAR 



243 



GAR 



time ; for though gardens must have 
originated soon after man had advanced 
heyond the mere nomadic life, yet the 
practice of gardening as a fine art, that 
is, not merely as a useful occupation, 
must necessarily have been of a much 
later date. The hanging gardens of 
Semiramis are reckoned among the 
wonders of the world ; but that which 
astonishes is not therefore beautiful. 
Scaffoldings, supported by pillars, co- 
vered with earth, bearing trees, and 
artificially watered, are, no doubt, won- 
derful ; but we have no reason to sup- 
pose them beautiful. The gardens of 
the Persians (paradises) are called by 
Xenophon delightful places, fertile and 
beautiful ; but they seem rather to have 
been places naturally agreeable, with 
fruit-trees, flowers, &c, growing spon- 
taneously, than gardens artificially laid 
outand cultivated. Whetherthe Greeks, 
so distinguished in the fine arts, neglect- 
ed the art of gardening, is a question 
not yet decided. The gardens of Al- 
cinoiis (Odyssey, vii., 112 — 132) were 
nothing but well laid out fruit orchards 
and vineyards, with some flowers'. The 
grotto of Calypso (Odyssey, v., 63 — 73) 
is more romantic, but probably is not 
intended to be described as a work of 
art. The common gardens which the 
Greeks had near their farms, were more 
or less like the gardens of Alcinous. 
Attention was paid to the useful and the 
agreeable, to culinary plants, fruits, 
flowers, shadowing trees and irrigation. 
Shady groves, cool fountains, with some 
statues, were the only ornaments of the 
gardens of the philosophers at Athens. 
The descriptions of gardens in the later 
Greek novelists do not show any great 
progress in the art of gardening in their 
time ; and it would be worth while to 
inquire, whether the same cause, which 
prevented the cultivation of landscape 
painting with the ancients, did not also 
prevent the progress of the art of gar- 
dening. The ancients stood in a differ- 
ent relation to nature from the moderns. 
The true art of gardening is probably 
connected with that element of the ro- 
mantic, which has exercised so great an 
influence on all arts ever since the re- 
vival of arts and letters, and, in some 
degree, ever since the Christian era. 
Even the grottoes of the ancients owed 
their origin merely to the desire for the 
coolness they afforded. Natural grot- 
toes led to artificial ones, which were 



constructed in the palaces in Rome, 
and in which, as Pliny says, nature was 
counterfeited. But a grotto does not 
constitute a garden ; and that the Ro- 
mans had no fine gardens, in our sense 
of the word, is proved by several pas- 
sages of their authors, and by the ac- 
counts we have of their gardens. In 
Pliny's description of his Tuscan villa, 
we find, indeed, all conveniences — pro- 
tection against the weather, an agreea- 
ble mixture of coolness and warmth; 
but everything beautiful relates merely 
to buildings, not to the garden, which, 
with its innumerable figures of box, and 
in its whole disposition, was as tasteless 
as possible. Ofthe gardens ofLucullus, 
Varro says, that they were not remark- 
able for flowers and fruits, but for the 
paintings of the villa. A fertile soil, 
and a fine prospect from the villas, 
which were generally beautifully situ- 
ated, seem to have satisfied the Romans. 
Whatever the art of gardening had pro- 
duced among them, was, with every 
other trace of refinement, swept away 
by the barbarians who devastated Italy. 
Charlemagne directed his attention to 
this art, but his views did not extend 
beyond mere utility. The Troubadours 
of the middle ages speak of symmetri- 
cal gardens. In Italy, at the time of 
the revival of learning, attention was 
again turned towards pleasure gardens, 
some of which were so famous, that 
drawings were made of them. They 
may have been very agreeable places, 
but we have no reason to suppose them 
to have exhibited much of the skill of 
the scientific gardener. At a later 
period, a new taste in gardening pre- 
vailed in France. Regularity was car- 
ried to excess; clipped hedges, alleys 
laid out in straight lines, flower-beds 
tortured into fantastic shapes, trees cut 
into the form of pyramids, haystacks, 
animals, &c, were now the order of 
the day. The gardens corresponded 
with the taste ofthe time, which dis- 
played itself with the same artificial 
stiffness in dress, architecture and poet- 
ry. Lenotre was the inventor of this 
style of French gardening, which, how- 
ever, his successors carried to greater 
excess. Nothing natural was left, and 
yet nature was often imitated in arti- 
ficial rocks, fountains, &c. Only one 
thing strikes us as truly grand in gar- 
dens of this sort — the fountains, which 
were constructed at great expense. 



GAR 



244 

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GAR 



The Dutch imitated the French. The 
English were the first who felt the ab- 
surdity of this style. Addison attacked 
it in his famous Essays on Gardening, 
in the Spectator ; and Pope, in his 
fourth Moral Epistle, lashed its petty, 
cramped and unnatural character, and 
displayed a better taste in the garden of 
his little villa, at Twickenham ; crowds 
followed him, and practice went before 
theory. (See Horace Walpole's History 
of Modern Taste in Gardening.) This 
style, however, was also carried to 
excess. All appearance of regularity 
was rejected as hurtful to the beauty of 
nature, and it was forgotten, that if in a 
garden we want nothing but nature, we 
had better leave gardening altogether. 
This extreme prevailed, particularly 
after the Oriental and Chinese style (see 
Chambers' Dissertations on Oriental 
Gardening) had become known. What 
in nature is dispersed over thousands of 
miles, was huddled together on a small 
spot of a few acres square — urns, tombs; 
Chinese, Turkish and New Zealand 
temples; bridges, which could not be 
passed without risk ; damp grottoes ; 
moist walks ; noisome pools, which 
were meant to represent lakes; houses, 
huts, castles, convents, hermitages, 
ruins, decaying trees, heaps of stones ; 
— a pattern card of every thing strange, 
from all nations under heaven, was ex- 
hibited in such a garden. Stables took 
the shape of palaces, kennels of Gothic 
temples, &c. ; and this was called 
nature ! The folly of this was soon felt, 
and a chaster style took its place. At 
this point we have now arrived. The 
art of gardening, like every other art, 
is manifold ; and one of its first princi- 
ples, as in architecture, is to calculate 
well the means and the objects. Im- 
mense cathedrals and small apartments, 
long epics and little songs, all may be 
equally beautiful and perfect, but can 
only be made so by a proper regard to 
the character of each. Thustheclimate, 
the extent of the grounds, the soil,&c, 
must determine the character of a gar- 
den. Aiken justly observes, that no- 
thing deviates more from nature, than 
the imitation of her grand works in 



tastic, predominate in a garden, ac- 
cording to the means which can be 
commanded. This is not so easy as 
might appear at first, and it requires as 
much skill to discover the disposition 
which should be made of certain 
grounds, as to carry it into effect ; but 
if such skill were not required, garden- 
ing would not be an art. Another prin- 
ciple, which gardening has in common 
with all the fine arts, is, that it is by no 
means its highest aim to imitate reality, 
because reality will always be better 
than imitation. A gardener ought to 
study nature, to learn from her the 
principles and elements of beauty, as 
the painter is obliged to do ; but he 
must not stop there. As another gene- 
ral remark, we would observe, that the 
true style of gardening lies between the 
two extremes. It is by no means a re- 
proach to a garden that it shows the 
traces of art, any more than it is to a 
drama. Both, indeed, should follow 
nature ; but in respect to the fine arts, 
there is a great difference between a 
free following of nature and a servile 
copy of particular realities. Tieck, in 
his Phantasien, does not entirely reject 
the French system ; at least, he defends 
the architectural principle as one of 
the principles of the art of gardening. 
There are many works of great merit 
on gardening, of which we only men- 
tion Descriptions des nouveaux jardins 
de la France, &c, by La Borde (Paris, 
1S08 to J814), the most complete for 
descriptions; Loudon's Encyclopaedia 
of Gardening, 5th edit., (London, 1827;) 
Handbuch der schonen Gartenkunst, by 
Dietrich (Giessen, 1815); Hirschfeld's 
Theorieder Gartenkunst (Leipsic, 1779), 
5 vols., 4to., with many engravings, a 
work of very great merit, and still of 
considerable use ; Le bon Jardinier, 
Almanachpour P Annie 1830, edited by 
A. Poiteau (Paris), 1022 pages. (See 
the article Horticulture.)" — Encyclo- 
pedia Americana. 

GARDENER. The day is gone when 
the spade and the blue apron were the 
only appropriate devices for the gar- 
dener; he must now not only have a 
thorough practical knowledge of his 



miniature. All deception ceases at the ; art, but he must also have an intimate 



first view, and the would-be magnificent 
garden appears like a mere baby house. 
Let the character of the agreeable, the 
sublime, the awful, the sportive, the 
rural, the neat, the romantic, the fan- 



acquaintance with its sciences. No 
man can have stored in his mind too 
much knowledge, but there are always 
some branches of information of more 
value than others j of these to the gar- 



GAR 



245 



GEI 



dener there are none so important as 
botany and chemistry. Botany, physi- 
ological as well as classical. Chemistry, 
especially as applied to the examination 
of organic nature. 

GARDENIA. Twenty-seven species 
and two varieties. Stove or green-house 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

GARDEN ROCAMBOLE. Allium 
ophioscordon. 

GARDEN SWIFT. See Hepialus. 

GARDOQUIA. Five species. Stove 
or green-house evergreen shrubs. G. 
betonicoides is an herbaceous perennial. 
Cuttings. Sand, loam, and peat. 

GARLAND FLOWER. Pleurandra 
Cneorum. 

GARLICK. Allium sativum. Is ca- 
pable of growing in almost any soil. 

Mode and Time of Planting. — It is 
generally propagated by parting the 
root, but may be raised from the bulbs 
produced on the stems. The planting 
may be performed any time in February, 
March, and early in April ; but the 
middle of the second is the usual time 
of insertion. A single clove to be 
placed in each one of holes made six 
inches apart, and one and a half deep, 
in straight lines, six inches distant from 
each other; care being taken to set the 
root downwards : to do this it is the 
best practice to thrust the finger and 
thumb, holding a clove between them, 
to the requisite depth without any pre- 
vious hole being made. The only cul- 
tivation is to keep them clear of weeds, 
and in June the leaves to be tied in 
knots to prevent their running to seed, 
which would greatly diminish the size 
of the bulbs. A few roots may be taken 
up as required in June and July, but 
the whole must not be lifted until the 
leaves wither, which occurs at the close 
of this last mentioned month, or in the 
course of August. It is usual to leave 
a part of the stalk attached, by which 
they are tied into bundles, being pre- 
viously well dried for keeping during 
the winter. 

GARLIC PEAR. Cratava. 
G A R R Y A elliptica and laurifolia. 
Hardy evergreen shrubs. Layers. 
Loamy soil. 

GARUGA primata. Stove evergreen 
tree. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

GASTERIA. Forty-two species and 
many varieties. Green-house evergreen 
shrubs. Suckers or leaves. Sandy loam, 



leaf mould and peat, with a little bush 
rubbish. 

GASTONIA palmata. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Sand, loam, 
and peat. 

GASTROCARPHA runcinata. Half- 
hardy herbaceous perennial. Seeds. 
Common soil. 

GASTROCHILUS pulcherrimus. 
Stove herbaceous perennial. Division. 
Sandy loam. 

GASTROLOBIUM. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Half 
ripened cuttings. Loam, peat, and 
sand. 

GASTRONEMA clavatum. Green- 
house bulbous perennial. Offsets. Rich 
mould. 

GATHERER. The hand is the best 
instrument for collecting fruit into the 
basket, but to avoid the danger and 
breakage of branches unavoidably inci- 
dental to using long ladders, the fol- 
lowing instruments have been designed. 
Fig. 54, for apples and other single fruit, 
Fig. 55, for grapes, the branches of which 
it severs and retains in its grasp. 



Fig. 54. 



Fig. 55. 





GATHERING. See Fruit Room. 

GAUDICHAUDIA cynanchoides. 
Stove evergreen twiner. Ripe cuttings. 
Light tur r y loam and peat. 

GAULSHERIA. Four species. 
Hardy or green-house evergreen shrubs. 
G. procumbens, a creeper. Layers. 
Peat soil. 

GAURA. Eight species. Chiefly 
hardy plants. G. fruticosa, increases 
by cuttings. The perennials by seed: 
they thrive in a rich soil. The annuals 
and biennials. Seeds. Common soil. 

GAZANIA. Five species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials or ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

GEISSOMERIA longiflora. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich soil 
of loam and rotten dung. 



GEI 



246 

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GER 



GEISSORHIZA. Eleven species and 
a few varieties. Green-house bulbous 
perennials. Offsets. Sandy peat. 

GEITONOPLESIUM. Three spe- 
cies. Green-house herbaceous peren- 
nials. G. cymodum, is an evergreen 
twiner. Cuttings. Peat and loam, or 
sandy peat. 

GELA. Two species. Green-house 
evergreens. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 

GELASINE azurea. Green-house 
bulbous perennial. 

GEM. See Bud. 

GENISTA. Forty-nine species and 
a few varieties. Chiefly hardy ever- 
green shrubs. A few deciduous or ever- 
green trailers and shrubs. For the 
green-house or half hardy kinds, cut- 
tings, loam, peat, and sand. The 
hardy kinds are increased by layers or 
seeds. 

GENTIAN A. Fifty-eight species 
and some varieties. Hardy plants. 
The herbaceous kinds for the most part 
grow well in a rich peaty soil, and 
may be increased by division. The 
annuals and biennials by seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

GENTIANELLA. Gentiana acaulis. 
Is a hardy and herbaceous creeper. 
Sow the seeds of this as soon as they 
are ripe, (otherwise they soon lose the 
power of vegetation,) in pans filled with 
rather heavy peat. Sow on the surface, 
without any covering except a slight 
sprinkling of silver sand ; then place 
the pans either in a cold frame facing 
the north, and kept close, or on the 
north side of a wall, where they are 
completely screened from the sun, and 
cover them with a hand-glass. 

Soil. — A light loam suits it best ; ma- 
nured annually with leaf mould. If the 
subsoil is dry, the soil may be advan- 
tageously more clayey. 

GEOMETRA. The Amphidasis of 
some entomologists, is a genus of moths; 
including G.polosaria. Pale Brindled 
Beauty Moth which appears in March ; 
eggs deposited in bands round a twig, 
as done by the Lacky Moth. Caterpil- 
lars appear with the opening leaves of 
the elm, lime, lilac, and apple tree. 
They are at first a light green. 

G. defoliaria, Lime Looper, or Mot- 
tled Umbre Moth, feeds on the leaves 
of the lime and apple. Moth appears 
in November. Caterpillar reddish, with 
a bright yellow stripe on each side. 
Female moth has no wings, so that a 



piece of cloth dipped in tar and bound 
round a tree's stem prevents its ascent. 

G. piniaria attacks the pine and fir 
tribe. 

GEONOMA. Six species. Palms. 
Seed. Rich sandy loam, and a strong 
heat. 

GERANIUM. Fifty-one species and 
some varieties. Chiefly hardy herba- 
ceous perennials. The green-house 
and frame kinds increase from cuttings 
or seeds, and grow well in a mixture of 
loam and peat, and vegetable soil. The 
hardy species and the annuals increase 
from seeds, and require only common 
soil. See Pelargonium. 

GERARDIA. Seven species. Hardy 
annuals, biennials, and herbaceous pe- 
rennials. Seed or cuttings. Peatv soil. 

GERBERA crenata. Green-house 
biennial. Seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

GERMINATION is the sprouting, or 
first step in vegetation of a seed. To 
enable it to germinate, it must have a per- 
fectly-developed embryo, and be ripe, or 
nearly ripe. It must not be too old. 

The following list, furnished by the 
late Mr. Loudon, shows the greatest 
age at which some of our common gar- 
den seeds germinate freely j and this 
result of experience is quite concurrent 
with our knowledge of their chemical 
constitution : — 

"One year. — Peas, beans, kidney 
beans, carrot, parsnip, oraches, herb- 
patience, rhubarb, elm, poplar, and 
willow. Two years. — Radish, salsafy, 
scorzonera, purslane, the alliums, car- 
doon, rampion, alisander, love-apple, 
capsicum, egg-plant. Three years. — 
Sea-kale, artichoke, lettuce, marigold, 
rue, rosemary. Four years. — Brassicas, 
skirret, spinach, asparagus, endive, 
mustard, tarragon, borage. Five and 
six years. — Burnet, sorel, parsley, dill, 
fennel, chervil, hyssop. Ten years. — 
Beet, celery, pompion, cucumber, me- 
lon." 

Mr. Loudon may be safely received 
as good authority on subjects which he 
investigated. If the age at which the 
vitality of certain seeds cease in Eng- 
land as expressed herein, be correct, it 
proves a result in that climate different 
from our own. For instance, peas, 
beans, carrots, &c, vegetate freely in 
the United States when two or three 
years old, sea-kale seldom after the 
first year, and so of other seeds enume- 
rated in the list. 



GER 



247 



GER 



A certain degree of warmth is essen- 
tial ; for no known plant has seed that 
will germinate below or at the freezing 
point of water. A temperature above 
32o of Fahrenheit's thermometer there- 
fore is requisite. But on the other hand, 
the temperature must not be excessively 
high. Even no tropical seed, probably, 
will germinate at a temperature much 
above 120° F., and we know from the 
experiments of M. M. Edwards and 
Colin, that neither wheat, oats, nor bar- 
ley will vegetate in a temperature of 
113°. 

Every seed differing in its degree of 
excitability, consequently, has a tem- 
perature without which it will not ve- 
getate, and from which cause arise the 
consequences that different plants re- 
quire to be sown at different seasons, 
and that they germinate with various 
degrees of rapidity. The gardener 
should always bear in mind that it would 
be a very erroneous conclusion, because 
a seed does not germinate at the accus- 
tomed time, that therefore its vegetating 
powers are departed. No two seeds 
taken from the same seed-vessel ger- 
minate precisely at the same time ; but 
on the contrary, one will often do so 
promptly, while its companion seed will 
remain dormant until another year. 

M. de Candolle relates an instance 
where fresh tobacco seedlings continued 
to appear annually for ten years on the 
same plot, though no seed was sown 
after the first sowing ; and the same 
phenomenon usually occurs for two or 
three years, when the seed of either the 
peony or hawthorn are sown. Why one 
seed is more easily excited than another 
is as yet unexplained ; but the wisdom 
of this one of many provisions for avoid- 
ing the accidental extinction of a spe- 
cies in any given locality is readily dis- 
cerned. An ungenial spring may destroy 
the plants from those seeds which first 
germinated ; but this could scarcely oc- 
cur also to those of the second and third 
year, or even to those which were only 
a few weeks later in their vegetation. 

It is not possible to enunciate a ge- 
neral rule relative to germinating tem- 
peratures, requiring no exceptions ; but 
in general, for the seeds of plants, 
natives of temperate latitudes, the best 
germinating temperature is about 60°, 
and for those of tropical plants about 
80°; and the necessity for such tempe- 
ratures depends upon the same causes 



that prevent the incubation of eggs, un- 
less they be kept for a certain period at 
a temperature of about 100°. 

As no seed will germinate unless a 
certain degree of heat is present, so also 
does it require that a certain quantity 
of water is in contact with its outer 
skin or integument ; and this is required 
not only to soften this covering, and 
thus permit the enlargement of the co- 
tyledons (seed lobes) always preceding 
germination, but also to afford that wa- 
ter to internal components of the seed, 
without which the chemical changes 
necessary for the nutriment of the em- 
bryo plant will not take place. As 
water is essential to germination, and 
only a certain quantity is required for 
its healthy progress, so is it by no means 
a matter of indifference what matters it 
holds in solution. Until germination 
has commenced, no liquid but water at 
common temperatures will pass through 
the integuments of a seed. 

So soon as germination has com- 
menced, this power to exclude foreign 
fluids ceases ; but the organs starting 
into activity, the radicle and the plumule 
are so delicate, that the weakest saline 
solutions are too acrid and offensive for 
them. It may be noted as a warning to 
those who employ steeps for seed, with 
the hope of promoting the vigour of the 
future plant, that they must keep the 
seed in those steeps a very few hours. 
In forty-eight hours, if the temperature 
be 60° or more, putrefaction com- 
mences, and germination is weakened, 
or entirely destroyed. M. Vogel, of 
Munich, has published an extended 
course of experiments upon this subject, 
and they fully confirm my opinion that 
salts, innoxious when the plant is of 
robust and advanced growth, are fatal 
to it at the time of germination. 

The presence of one of the constitu- 
ent gases of the atmosphere, oxygen, is 
also essential to germination. It is ne- 
cessary that the oxygen should penetrate 
to the cotyledonous parts of the seed, 
as is evident by the changes which take 
place during germination, and it is fur- 
ther proved by experiment. When 
healthy seed is moistened and exposed 
in a suitable temperature to atmos- 
pheric air, it absorbs the oxygen only. 
This power of separating one gas from 
the others appears to reside in the 
integuments of the seed, for old seeds 
lose the power of absorbing the oxygen,, 



GER 



248 

— • — 



GER 



and, consequently, of germinating ; yet 
they will frequently germinate if soaked 
in an aqueous solution of chlorine — a 
gas which has the power of attracting 
hydrogen from water, and others of its 
compounds, and releasing the oxygen, 
doing so in the case of seeds within 
their integuments, as well as without- 
side. Humboldt and Saussure have 
also shown that the application of chlo- 
rine to seeds accelerates its germina- 
tion ; and Cress seed, which under or- 
dinary circumstances requires some 
days to complete the process, they 
found effected it in no more than three 
hours. The late Mr. George Sinclair, 
author of the excellent Hortus Grami- 
neus Woburnensis, also informed me 
that he employed chlorine with sin- 
gular success. He obtained it by mix- 
ing a tablespoonful of muriatic acid with 
a similar quantity of black oxide of man- 
ganese, and half a pint of water. After 
allowing the mixture to remain two or 
three hours, the seed is to be immersed 
in the liquid for a similar period, and 
then sown. Another, and I consider 
the most eligible mode of applying the 
chlorine was also suggested to me by 
the same distinguished horticulturist. 
In this way he said he made tropical 
seeds vegetate which refused to germi- 
nate by other modes of treatment. He 
placed the mixed ingredients mentioned 
above in a glass retort, inserting its 
bulb in the hot-bed, and bringing its 
beak under the pot in which the seeds 
were sown, connecting it with the 
draining aperture of the pot. The chlo- 
rine gas is gradually evolved, passing 
through the earth of the pot to the seeds, 
with more or less rapidity, according 
to the heat employed. This absolute 
necessity for the presence of oxygen is 
a reason why seeds will not germinate 
if buried beyond a certain distance from 
the earth's surface; and why clayey 
soils often fail of having a good plant, 
an impervious coat of the clay envelop- 
ing the seed, and preventing the air's 
access. How oxygen operates in aid- 
ing the seed to develope the parts of the 
embryo plant, we cannot even guess — 
we enly know that most seeds have 
more carbon (pure charcoal) in their 
composition than other parts of their 
parent plant; that the oxygen absorbed 
by the seeds combines with a portion of 
that carbon, and is emitted in the form 
of carbonic acid. These are the attend- 



ant phenomena, — but we can penetrate 
the mystery no farther. 

I have never been able to discover 
that light has injurious influence over 
germination, and in those experiments 
apparently proving the contrary, due 
care was not taken to prevent the seed 
being exposed to a greater degree of 
dryness as well as to light. 

If seed be placed on the surface of a 
soil, and other seed just below that sur- 
face, and care be taken to keep the for- 
mer constantly moist, it will germinate 
just as speedily as the buried seed, and 
if exposed to the blue rays only of the 
spectrum by being kept under a glass 
of that colour, even more rapidly. 
Therefore the object of sowing the seed 
below the surface, is for the purposes 
of keeping it in a state of equable and 
salutary moisture, as well as to place 
the radicle iu the medium necessary 
for its growth into a root, immediately 
it emerges from the integument of the 
seed. These facts hold out some bea- 
cons worthy of being attended to, as 
guides for the operation of sowing. 

They point out that every kind of 
seed has a particular depth below the 
surface at which it germinates most 
vigorously, as securing to it the most 
appropriate degree of moisture, of oxy- 
gen gas, and of warmth. From a quar- 
ter of an inch to two inches beneath 
the surface, appear to be the limits for 
the seeds of plants ; but they usually 
vary for the same seeds in different 
grounds and countries. It must be the 
least in aluminous soils and dry cli- 
mates. In general, sowing should be 
performed in dry weather, especially 
on heavy soils, not only because of the 
greater saving of labour, but because 
it prevents the seed being enveloped 
with a coat of earth impermeable by 
the air, " which," says Sir H. Davy, 
"is one cause of the unproductiveness 
of cold clayey soils." Perhaps the 
time at which any ground may be 
raked with the greatest facility is as 
good and practical a criterion as any 
to judge when it is fit for sowing. In 
general, if clay does not predominate 
in its constitution, a soil rakes best just 
after it has been turned up with the 
spade. If clay does predominate it 
usually rakes with most facility after it 
has been dug two or three days, and 
then immediately after a gentle rain. 
But it is certain that the sooner seed is 



GER 



249 



GL A 



sown after the soil is dug for its recep- 
tion, the earlier it germinates. In the 
droughts of summer, water is often re- 
quired to newly-sown beds. Such ap- 
plication must not be very limited or 
transitory ; for if the soil is only moist- 
ened at the immediate time of sowing, 
it induces the projection of the radicle, 
which in very parching weather, and 
in clayey, caking soil, I have known 
wither away, and the crop be conse- 
quently lost from the want of a con- 
tinued supply of moisture. — Princ. of 
Gardening. 

GEROPOGON. Old Man's Beard. 
Three species. Hardy annuals. G. 
calyculatus an herbaceous perennial. 
Seeds. Common soil. 

GESNERA. Thirty species, and 
two varieties. Stove herbaceous pe- 
rennials, or evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Rich light soil. 

GKTHYLLIS. Fivespecies. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Offsets or 
seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

GETONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

GEUM. Twenty-three species, and 
a few varieties. Hardy herbaceous 
perennials. Division or seeds. Rich 
light loamy soil. 

GIL I A. Eight species, and one 
variety. Hardy annuals. Seeds. — 
Common soil. G. aggregata; a green- 
house biennial. 

GILLENIA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

GILLYFLOWER. See Mathiola. 

GINGER. Zinziber. 

GINGERBREAD TREE. Parin- 
arium macrophyllum. 

GIPSY MOTH. See bombyx. 

GIRDLING is a mode of killing 
trees adopted in clearing the forests of 
America, by cutting, early in the 
spring, a girdle or ring round the stem 
of each tree, taking away not only the 
bark but the entire alburnum down to 
the hard wood — the ascent of the sap 
is thus prevented. See Ringing. 

GLADIOLUS. Forty species; many 
varieties. Chiefly green-house, and a 
few hardy bulbous perennials. 

G. cardinalis. On the culture of this 
we have the following information 
from Mr. A. Mackenzie and Mr. Gor- 
don : — 

" Gladiolus cardinalis, and its hy- 



brids, are the next in beauty to G. 
psittacinus, but they are not so hardy 
nor so vigorous. They require taking 
up every season ; for if left in the 
ground, though protected with a cover- 
ing, they always suffer from damp, and 
never start early enough to flower well 
the next season. 

" About the beginning of October, 
to propagate them, take from well- 
established plants a cluster of corms 
about one and a half or two feet in cir- 
cumference, and plant them one foot 
apart, and two or three inches deep, in 
beds two feet wide, with a little sand 
at the bottom of the bulbs. When 
forced, this plant forms a brilliant orna- 
ment for the green-house in the begin- 
ning of summer. 

" In the month of October take eight 
or twelve-sized pots, and fill them with 
as large a mass of the strongest corms 
as the pots will admit, and protect them 
till they are required for forcing." — 
Gard. Chron. 

" Gladiolus psittacinus or natalensis, 
is one of the most ornamental of the 
Cape gladioli, and, from its easy culti- 
vation, deserves to have a place in all 
flower-gardens where a brilliant dis- 
play is required during the autumn. 
Beds should be prepared some time 
during the winter, or early in the 
spring, by digging up the soil deep 
and leaving it rough, adding, at the 
same time, a good portion of well- 
rotted dung and a little sand, if the soil 
is of a stiff nature ; but if light, sand is 
not required. 

" About the middle of April mark 
out the bed into rows, one foot apart 
and four inches deep, putting a little 
sand along the bottom of the rows ; 
then place the bulbs in the rows, about 
nine inches or one foot apart, taking 
care to separate all the bulbs, and only 
plant one in each place; then, having 
a little sand (any refuse from cutting 
pots, or bank-sand, will do), put a 
small portion round each bulb, and fill 
in the rows. After this the plants will 
require no further trouble except keep- 
ing clean and tying up, which latter is 
easily done by driving a few sticks 
round the outside of the bed, and run- 
ning a couple of tiers of tar-twine round 
it. With this treatment the gladioli 
will begin flowering about the end ot 
July, and will continue blooming for 
nearly two months, particularly if they 



GL A 



250 

— ♦ — 



GL A 



are freely supplied with water once or 
Twice (as the season may require) just 
before they begin to expand their first 
flowers. Care must be taken, however, 
not to water them overhead. 

" The bulbs to be taken up about 
the end of October, or as soon as the 
stems and leaves become brown or 
damaged by the frost. They must be 
well dried, and placed in some situa- 
tion secure from frost or damp until 
the next spring, when they must be di- 
vided, and again treated as before. 
The large bulbs will also produce 
numerous offsets round their root-end ; 
but these are of little value, for they 
will be two or three years before they 
flower; and as every flowering bulb 
planted in the spring produces three 
or four bulbs of sufficient size to bloom 
next season, from the crown of the old 
one, there is always enough for all 
purposes. The plant also flowers free- 
ly ; but the small bulbs and the seed- 
lings will be so long before they flower, 
that they are not worth the trouble of 
raising, except for the sake of obtain- 
ing new varieties." — Gard. Chron. 

" Gladiolus ramosissimus is the next 
most beautiful kind for growing either 
in pots or in a bed. The bulbs of 
these hardier kinds should be taken 
up every two years, divided, and re- 
planted, as they will not flower so 
finely if left too long in one place. 

" They require a rich soil, made 
rather free by adding a little sand to it 
when the bulbs are being planted. By 
this treatment nearly all the cape gladi- 
oli may be made to flower beautifully, 
and far finer and better than if retained 
in pots. They are easily increased by 
offsets or by seeds ; but the latter way 
is rather tedious, and only worth re- 
sorting to for the sake of raising new 
varieties. When this is intended, the 
seed should be sown about the end of 
February, in pans filled with a mixture 
of sandy peat, and loam, and leaf- 
mould. The seeds should be planted 
about half an inch deep in the soil, and 
the pans placed in a green-house. — 
They will soon vegetate, and require 
little trouble, for the first season, ex- 
cept watering and keeping free from 
slugs and weeds, taking care, how- 
ever, that they are kept growing as 
vigorously and as long as possible by 
freely supplying them with water du- 
ring the growing season. When they 



have done growing for the season, care 
must be taken not to dry the soil in the 
pans too quickly or too much ; for the 
young bulbs, being very small, are apt 
to become much exausted, and fre- 
quently perish if kept very dry the first 
winter. They should be, if possible, 
placed in some cool, dry situation, 
where they are secure from frost. In 
the spring they should be again placed 
in a green-house or warm pit, and, 
when fairly started, they should be 
carefully removed into fresh pans or 
pots, being rather a richer soil than 
that used for the seeds, planting them 
still rather thickly in the pots or pans, 
and keeping them shut up close and 
rather moist for a few days, untd they 
begin to grow again, after which treat 
them as before, and encourage them to 
grow as long as possible in the autumn, 
then rest them as before. The next 
spring they may be potted in smaller 
pots, and treated like the Gladiolus 
cardinalis, when many of them will 
flower." — Gard. Chron. 

GLASS is the best agent employed 
by the gardener to exclude the cold, 
whilst the light is admitted to his plants 
which are natives of hotter climates 
than that in which he cultivates them. 
Now that the excise-duty is removed 
from glass, the gardener is enabled to 
employ the best, and a thicker kind 
than formerly, when the duty was high 
in proportion to the good quality and 
weight. Anxiety to obtain the best 
glass for hot-houses, &c, is every way 
laudable ; but the benefit sought for is 
frustrated if it be not constantly well 
cleansed. The best glass, if dirty, 
allows fewer rays of light to pass 
through than inferior glass kept bright. 
A thorough cleansing should be given 
both to the outside and inside twice 
annually, during the first weeks of 
February and of October, and a third 
cleansing, on the outside only, at the 
end of June. In proportion to the de- 
ficiency of light does the plant under 
glass become, in the gardener's phrase- 
ology, drawn; that is, its surface of 
leaves becomes unnaturally extended, 
in the vain effort to have a sufficient 
elaboration of the sap effected by means 
of a large surface exposed to a dimi- 
nished light, for which a less surface 
would have been sufficient if the light 
were more intense. The plant with 
this enlarged surface of leaves becomes 



GL A 



251 

— ♦ — 



GL A 



Fig. 56. 



unfruitful, the sap being expended in 
their production which should have 
been appropriated to the formation of 
fruit. 

GLASS-CASES are of various kinds. 
One is formed of glazed wooden frames, 
fitting together, to protect espaliers, 
wall-trees, or shrubs too large to be 
covered with a hand-glass. 

Another glass-case is made for pro- 
tecting a single branch. It is thus de- 
scribed by Mr. Maund, the author of 
that most useful periodical 
the Botanic Garden : — 

" Although my experi- 
ment is not yet com- 
pleted, I cannot omit 
mentioning to you its 
success. Grapes grown 
on open walls in the 
midland counties are 
rarely well - ripened ; 
therefore this year I pro- 
vided a small glazed 
frame, a sort of narrow 
hand-glass, of the shape 
shown in the annexed 
outline, to fix against the 
wall, and inclose one 
branch of the vine with 
its fruit and foliage. 
"The open part, which rests against 
the wall, is thirteen inches wide, and 
may be of any length required to take 
in the fruit. The sides are formed of 
single panes of glass, seven inches 
wide, and meet on a bar which may 
represent the ridge of a roof, the ends 
inclosed by triangular boards, and hav- 
ing a notch to admit the branch. This 
was fixed on the branch a month be- 
fore the vine came into flower. The 
consequence was, the protected 
branches flowered a week earlier than 
the exposed. The frame was not 
fitted closely to the wall, but in some 
places may have been a quarter of an 
inch from it. The lateral branches 
being shortened before it was fixed, it 
did not require removal even for prun- 
ing, because I adopt the long-rod mode 
of training, which is peculiarly adapted 
to my partial protection system. The 
temperature within the frame is always 
higher than without, sometimes at mid- 
day even from 20° to 30°. 

" By this simple protection I find 
grapes may be ripened from three 
weeks to a month earlier than when 
wholly exposed, and this saving of 




time will, I believe, not only secure 
their ripening well every year in the 
midland counties, but also that such 
advantage will be available in the 
north of England, where grapes never 
ripen on the open walls." 

Lastly, there is the Wardian-case 
to cover plants growing in rooms, 
preserving to them uniform moisture 
and excluding dust. To prevent the 
dew which is occasionally deposited 
inside the glass, it is only necessary to 
open the case frequently, for a few 
minutes, to render the temperature 

Fig. 57. 




Fig. 58. 




GL A 



252 

— ♦ — 



GLO 



within similar to that outside. They 
are not intended to exclude the air, 
and are now made very ornamental. 




GLASTONBURY THORN. Cratae- 
gus oxyacantha. 

GLAUCIUM. Six species, one va- 
riety. Hardy annuals and biennials. 
Seeds. Common soil. 

GLAUX rnaritima. Hardy herba- 
ceous trailer. Seeds. Open sandy loam. 

GLAZING. See Stove. 

GLEDITSCHIA. Ten species, be- 
sides varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. 
Seeds. Any soil suits them. 

GLEICHENIA. Five species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
and loam. 

GLOBE-AMARANTH. Gomphrena. 

GLOBE-FLOWER. Trollius. 

GLOBE-THISTLE. Echinops. 

GLOBULARIA. Nine species. Hardy 
or green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Cuttings or seed. The green-house spe- 
cies thrive in loam and peat; the hardy 
kinds in sandy light soil. 

GLOBULEA. Sixteen species, be- 
sides varieties. Green-house herbaceous 
perennials. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
peat, with brick rubbish. 

GLORIOSA. Four species. Chiefly 
stove bulbous perennials. Division ; also 
seeds sown as soon as gathered. Turfy 
loam, white sand, and peat. 

G. superba. — Mr. W. Scott, of Bury 
Hill, gives these particulars as to its 
culture : — 

" It naturally requires about six 



months' rest, and will seldom start for 
growth before March, when it will re- 
quire a good bottom heat of at least 80°, 
either in a bark-pit or cucumber-bed. 
The greatest error committed with re- 
gard to its treatment is leaving the root 
to start in the same pot, &c, it grew in 
in the previous year. As it makes its 
shoot from the lower end of the new 
tuber, which is consequently at the bot- 
tom of the pot, if it is not taken out, 
and that end placed upwards, it has to 
struggle through the whole mass of 
mould to reach the surface, which it 
often fails in doing. It should be potted 
at the beginning of March in a forty- 
eight pot ; or, if the tuber (which some- 
times happens) is too long, a bulb-pot 
may be used. It should be well drained, 
and planted in pure light peat or heath 
mould, with the end of the root just 
above the surface. When it makes a 
shoot, it also forms fresh roots from the 
base of the new shoot, and will grow 
rapidly if kept in a stove or vinery at a 
temperature of 70° or 80°, and soon 
requires a larger pot. It generally 
takes a six, using nothing but light peat 
soil. 

iC It may then be trained in any form 
most convenient. After it has flowered 
and the leaves are decayed withhold 
water entirely to ripen the tubers, which 
may be kept in the dry mould till the 
spring, or taken out and kept in dry 
sand till the season for potting them." 
— Gard. Chron. 

GLOSSODIA. Two species. Green- 
house orchids.^ Offsets. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

GLOXINIA. Five species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. All are propa- 
gated by seed, but G. maculata is also 
increased by division; and the others 
by leaves taken off close to the stem. 
Loam, peat, and sand, with leaf mould. 

Varieties.— Many varieties have been 
raised by cross-impregnation, but for a 
private garden the following may be 
recommended: — G. coccineus ; G. 
Youngii; G. Manglesii; G. rubra; G. 
Maxima ; G. speciosa ; and G. Candida. 

Mr. J. McL, of Hillsborough, gives 
the following directions for the culture 
of these flowers : — 

il Propagation. — The gloxinia is rea- 
dily increased by seeds and cuttings; 
the seeds should be sown very thinly, 
as soon as they are gathered, in pans 
that are well drained, and filled with a 



GL Y 



253 

— ♦ — 



GO A 



mixture of fine peat and sand ; the seeds 
should not be covered ; they may after- 
wards be placed in a frame where the 
temperature is about 680. When they 
have acquired one or two leaves, they 
should be potted off into small pots, 
and not dried off until the second year, 
as the small fibres are not sufficiently 
strong to cause them to grow vigor- 
ously in spring. This remark is also 
applicable to young plants raised from 
cuttings; 

" Gloxinias are readily propagated 
even by a single leaf pressed firmly in- 
to the soil, which may be the same as 
is used for seeds. 

"Culture. — The roots should be al- 
lowed to become quite dry during au- 
tumn, and continue so all the winter; 
they should not be allowed to become 
dry, however, all at once, but by de- 
grees. While they are in this state the 
pots may be laid on their sides, on a 
dry shelf in the green-house until Feb- 
ruary or March, but February is the 
best time for starting them. In potting 
them, the earth should be carefully 
shaken from the bulbs, which should be 
repotted in a mixture of one-half de- 
cayed vegetable mould, and one-half 
good rich loam, with the addition of a 
little sand or charcoal. 

" The pots should be well drained. 
In planting, press the roots gently on 
the surface of the soil, and give them 
no water for some time, as the moisture 
of the pot will be sufficient for them at 
first. 

"After they are all potted, remove 
them to a frame where the temperature 
is about 60°, and when they have com- 
menced growing, give them a little 
water, increasing the quantity as they 
advance in growth. A little air should 
be given them in fine weather. 

" By the middle of May they will 
have attained a good size, and some of 
them will be showing flowers, when 
they may be removed to the green- 
house, when nothing except proper at- 
tention to watering them is required. 
When the plants have done flowering, 
water should be gradually withheld. 

"It often happens, however, that 
some of the species continue in a grow- 
ing state all the winter, for instance, 
G. caulescens, which is unlike any of 
the others in habit and manner of 
growth." — Gard. Chron. 

GLYCINE. Eight species. Stove or 



green»house evergreens ; chiefly twin- 
ers. Seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 

GLYCIRRHIZA. Liquorice. Eight 
species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Slips from the roots with eyes. Planted 
in the spring. Light sandy soil. See 
Liquorice. 

GLYPHYTERYX. A genus of moths. 

" G. Roesella, Spinach Moth, appears 
in the spring and throughout the sum- 
mer. It is blackish-brown coloured. 
Caterpillar yellowish green. Feeds 
on spinach, strawberry blite, &c:, and 
lives three or four together, under a 
web on the leaves." 

Mr. Curtis says, that "when fully fed 
the caterpillars leave the plants on 
which they have been subsisting, and 
seek some crack in a tree or wall, 
where they spin a slight cocoon, and 
change to pupa ; in this state they re- 
main ten or twelve days, when the per- 
fect insect emerges. The moth, when 
its wings are expanded, is about five 
lines long ; the head, body, and feet 
are black, with a shining metallic ap- 
pearance. The antennae are black with 
white rings, and the upper wings are 
yellow, with black edges, and about five 
silvery spots disposed in the shape of a 
cross ; the under wings are blackish, 
and, as well as the upper, have long 
fringes. It is difficult to find means to 
destroy so minute an enemy as the pre- 
sent ; but where it attacks spinach it is 
much better to pull up the plants with 
the caterpillars on them, and burn 
them ; where they appear only in small 
quantities, hand-picking may answer 
very well." — Gard. Chron. 

GMELINA. Five species. Stove or 
green-house evergreen trees. Cuttings. 
Rich loam and peat, and a very strong 
heat. 

GNAPHALIUM. Six species. Chiefly 
hardy plants. G. albescens, an evergreen 
shrub. G. purpurium. The shrubby 
and herbaceous increase by cuttings and 
division; the annuals and biennials by 
seeds. Rich light soil. 

GNIDIA. Seventeen species. Green- 
house and evergreen shrubs. Young 
shoots planted in sand. Peat soil. 

GOAT MOTH. See Bombyx. 

GOAT'S BEARD. Spiraa aruncus. 

GOAT'S FOOT. Oxalis caprina. 

GOAT'S ORIGANUM. Thymus Tra- 
goriganum. 

GOAT'S RUE. Galega. 



GO A 



GOO 



GOAT'S THORN. Astragalus fra- 
gacantha. 

GOBBO. See Artichoke. 

GODETIA. Three species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

GODOYA geminiflora. Stove ever- 
green tree. Ripe cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

GOLDBACHIA laevigata. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. 

GOLDEN HAIR. Chrysocoma co- 
maurea. 

GOLDEN ROD. Bosea. 

GOLDEN THISTLE. Scolymus. 

GOLDEN THISTLE. Protea Scoly- 

7UUS. 

GOLDFUSSIA anisophylla. Stove 
evergreen shrub. G. glomerata, stove 
herbaceous perennial. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

GOLD OF PLEASURE. Camelina. 

GOLDY LOCKS. Chrysocoma. 

GOMPHIA. Six species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

GOMPHOCARPUS. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

GOMPHOLOBIUM. Twenty-five spe- 
cies. Chiefly green-house evergreen 
shrubs. Cuttings. Sandyloam and peat. 

GOMPHRENA. Seven species. 
Stove or green-house annuals and bien- 
nials, herbaceous perennials, or ever- 
green shrubs. Seeds ; and the shrubby 
kinds, cuttings. Rich mould. 

GONGORA. Four species. Stove 
orchids. Division. Wood. 

GONOLOBYS. Twenty-one species. 
Stove evergreen and hardy and green- 
house deciduous twiners. The hardy 
require a dry situation, and increase by 
division or seeds. Peat or any light 
soil. For the stove and green-house 
kinds, cuttings. Loam and peat. 

GONOSTEMON. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
dy loam. 

GOODENIA. Seven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs, and herbaceous 
perennials. Seeds or cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

GOODIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or 
seed. Loam and Peat. 

GOOD NIGHT. Argyreia bona nox. 

GOODYERA. Six species. Stove or 
hardy orchids. The former do best in 
sandy peat and leaf mould : the latter 
require sandy peat, and are increased 
by division. 



GOOSEBERRY. Ribes grossularia 
The European succeed but indifferently 
in this country, unless it be in the dry 
atmosphere of a city. Mildew, the 
especial enemy of this fruit, seizes on 
it, and speedily arrests the circulation 
of the juices — the consequence is inevi- 
table disease. It has been said that a 
solution of whale-oil soap will destroy 
the parasite, and preserve the fruit 
healthful and perfect. 

Varieties. — If quality be the chief 
consideration, as most assuredly it ought 
to be, the following are the best : — 

Red Champagne. 

Red Turkey. 

Keen's seedling, Warrington. 

Early White. 

Woodward's Whitesmith. 

Hebburn. 

Green Prolific. 

White Fig. 

Pigmaston. 

Green Gage. 

Yellow Champagne. 

Taylor's Bright Venus. 

Red Warrington. 

Rumbullion. 

If size be the primary object, the 
following may be cultivated : — 

Beds. 
Briton. Lion's Provider. 

Companion. London. 

Conquering Hero. Roaring Lion. 
Guido. Young Wonderful. 

Whites. 
Cossack. Miss Walton. 

Fleur-de-Lis. Philip the First. 

Freedom. Tally-ho. 

Lady Stanley. White Eagle. 

Yellows. 

Leader. 

Pilot. 

Teazer. 

Two- to-one. 



Broom Girl. 
Bird Lime. 
Catherina. 
Goldfinder. 
Gunner. 



Green Prince. 
Keepsake. 
Overall. 
Providence. 



Greens. 

Peacock. 
Turn-out. 
Thumper. 
Weathercock. 



The size to which some of these have 
been grown are as follows: — 

Roaring Lion .... 29 dwts. 

Teazer 32£ " 

Young Wonderful ... 27^ « 
Companion ..... 28 <c 
London 35 " 



GOO 



255 



GOO 



To raise Varieties. — The seed must 
be taken from perfectly ripe berries, 
and sown immediately in pots of light 
loam, to remain in the green-house 
during winter, or be preserved in sand 
until February, and then sown. The 
soil must be kept moderately moist un- 
til they are large enough to prick out 
in beds. 

Cuttings are the best mode of propa- 
gating approved kinds. Take a bearing 
shoot not less than nine inches long; 
remove all the buds but the top three, 
and bury them to within an inch of the 
lowest bud left. Plant them in rows 
eighteen inches apart each way. 

Culture. — At the end of the first year, 
the shoots must be cut down to a few 
eyes, and the plants kept clear from 



bush, B B is the soil taken out about 
eighteen inches all round the plant, 
and about six inches deep at C, that if 
there are any buds or suckers, they are 
sure to be seen and destroyed. This do 
every year in December, and as soon 
as the soil is taken out, spread cowdung 
over the roots as shown at B, after 
which replace the earth that has been 
taken out: when you have any new 
seedlings to propagate, do not take out 
the soil, but lay the manure round them, 
and cover it with a layer of earth, 
which encourages the plant to produce 
suckers. 

li By these means good bushes are 

sooner obtained than by cuttings, and 

generally speaking, well-rooted suckers 

may be taken off in October, which 

any summer shoots that may be on the j produce fruit the following year. The 



stem or that spring from the root ; they 
must have plenty of water the first sum- 
mer. 

They will be fit to plant out in two 
or three years into borders or quarters, 
at eight feet between the rows, and six 
feet apart. At the time of planting out, 
some rich compost may be added with 
great effect towards the flavour, size, 
and abundance of the crop. — Doyle. 

" There is a continual tendency on 
the part of the under ground buds to 
become branches, and these are the 
suckers that we find so troublesome in 
many kinds of soils. By continually 
stopping and wounding them, however, 
they will in general perish ; and to do 
this is what we recommend. 

" The Lancashire gooseberry grow- 
ers adopt the following as the best 
means of preventing gooseberries from 
throwing up suckers, and also an excel- 
lent plan of insuring an abundance of 
large fruit. 

" In the sketch, (Fig. 60,) A is the 

Fig. 60. 




cuttings should be deprived of all their 
under-ground eyes or buds ; before they 
are put into the ground to take cuttings 
from twelve to fifteen inches long, cut 
the upper end to a bud, leaving three or 
four other buds below it, then pare 
away all the other buds, and pick out 
the lowest of all, finishing just below it 
by a horizontal clean cut." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Pruning in the summer is confined 
to pinching off superfluous and mis- 
placed shoots, it always being kept in 
mind that the centre of the tree in 
standards must be kept open so as to 
admit the light. " At the time of prun- 
ing," says Mr. Doyle, " some fine young 
shoots should be left in the most con- 
venient place as bearing wood for the 
ensuing year, and room must be made 
for them by cutting out some of the old 
wood. Each of the old branches should 
have a leader left of new wood, which 
may be shortened according to its 
strength so as to leave five or six inches 
above the old wood. Very strong shoots 
need not be so much shortened unless 
in a part of the bush which is naked, 
and requires to be furnished. 

" Avoid shortening the shoots unless 
when the tree is naked, or the wood 
will be crowded, tufted, and productive 
of very small and indifferent fruit. The 
leading shoot at the end of each branch 
should, where it is possible, terminate 
naturally, if it be not inconsistent with 
the equable extent of the tree ; and in 
most cases it may still be so contrived 
by having recourse to the next lateral 
branch of the desired extent, and by 



GOO 



256 



GOU 



taking away that which straggled be- 
yond it. Let it be recollected that at 
the time when the young trees are 
growing in the nursery, and at all times 
after, the attention of the gardener 
must be directed to what is called 
" stemming the trees," which is pro- 
ducing and continuing a clear stem to a 
given height, (according to the growth 
of the different kinds,) by taking off all 
lateral shoots at their first appearance. 
Espaliers. — No fruit is more benefited 
than that of the gooseberry, by having 
the tree trained as an espalier. It is 
best done to stakes arranged lozenge- 
wise, (see Espalier,) or the bush may 
be trained round hoops in this form. 




Fruit. — This should be thinned, the 
smaller berries be cut away with a pair 
of scissors for tarts, &c, as required, 
and the fine berries left for dessert. If 
some of reds, as the Warrington, and 
of the thick-skinned yellows, as the 
Mogul, are matted over when the fruit 
is ripe, it will remain good until Christ- 
mas. This is easiest done when the 
tree is grown as an espalier. To in- 
crease the size of the berries, abund- 
ance of water and liquid manure are 
given to the roots, and the berries are 
suckled by keeping their tips in saucers 
of water; this is sacrificing the flavour 
to increase the circumference of the 
fruit. 

Vermin. — The caterpillar and the 
black-fly are both destroyed by syring- 
ing the bushes with water, and then 
dusting the leaves above and beneath 
with white hellebore powder, or with 
lime and soot mixed in equal propor- 
tions. 

Forcing. — Neither the gooseberry 
nor currant can be forced without great 
care. No heat must be applied when 
they are first put under glass. A very 



low temperature, about 60° afterwards, 
and not higher than 40° at night. 

GORDONIA.— Four species. Hardy 
deciduous shrubs. G. hczrnatoxylon is 
a stove evergreen tree. G. pubescens, 
(the Franklinea) is a highly attractive 
shrub or minor tree, indigenous to 
Georgia, &c. Layers or cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

GOSSYPIUM. The Cotton Tree. 
Eleven species. Stove annuals, bien- 
nials, perennials, or evergreen shrubs. 
For the shrubby kinds, cuttings and 
seeds. The annuals and biennials, 
seeds. A light rich soil and a moist 
heat. 

GOUANIA. Six species. Stove ever- 
green climbers. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

GOURD, Sagenaria vulgaris, and 
PUMPKIN, Cucurbita pepo, are chiefly 
employed in the making of pies, &c. 
There are numerous varieties, varying 
in the shape and colour of their fruit: 
as the globular, oval, pear-shaped, 
green, striped, marbled, yellow, &c, 
&c. One variety, of a pale buff or 
salmon colour and globular form grows 
to the weight of one hundred and ten 
pounds and upwards : it is known in 
France as the Potiron Jaune, and used 
in soups, but in particular from being 
mashed and eaten as potatoes or turn- 
ips, being of a very pleasant and pecu- 
liar flavour. The bottle-shaped is of 
little use for culinary purposes, but is 
remarkable as being of the form of a 
Florence or oil-flask. 

Cucurbita melopepo, the Squash. Cu- 
curbita succada, the Vegetable Marrow. 
Both these are cultivated for the fruit, 
which being gathered when of the size 
of a goose's egg, is boiled whole in 
salt and water, laid upon toast, and 
eaten as asparagus. Of the squash, 
there are almost as many varieties as of 
the pompion, and similarly character- 
ized. The young fruit is much used in 
pickles. They may be sown in a hot- 
bed of moderate strength, under a frame 
or hand-glasses at the end of March or 
early in April. In May they may be 
sown in the open ground, beneath a 
south fence, to remain, or in a hot-bed, 
if at its commencement, to forward the 
plants for transplanting at its close, or 
early in June. The plants are fit for 
transplanting when they have got four 
rough leaves, or when of about a 
month's growth. They must be plant- 



GOV 



257 

— ♦— 



GR A 



ed without any shelter on dunghills, or 
in holes prepared as directed for the 
open ground crop of cucumbers. Some 
may be inserted beneath pales, walls 
or hedges, to be trained regularly over 
them on account of their ornamental 
appearance. They may be treated in 
every respect like the cucumber, only 
they do not want so much care. They 
require abundance of water in dry 
weather. When the runners have ex- 
tended three feet, they may be pegged 
down and covered with earth at a joint ; 
this will cause the production of roots, 
and the longer continuance of the plant 
in vigour. 

The fruit for seed should be selected 
and treated as directed for the cucum- 
ber. It is ripe in the course of Sep- 
tember or October. 

We have retained this article in its 
original form as a matter of curiosity, 
not only as regards the artificial means 
necessary in Great Britain, for the pro- 
duction of the pumpkin and the squash, 
but also with reference to the manner 
in which the latter vegetable is serv- 
ed at table. In the United States no 
person who cultivates a garden, how- 
ever small, can be presumed ignorant 
as to the culture of these vines, and it 
is therefore unnecessary to add a word 
of instruction. The pumpkin described 
as the Potiron Jaune is the one known 
with us as the mammoth, of which spe- 
cimens have been exhibited before the 
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, over 
eight feet in circumference. 

GOVENIA. Four species. Stove 
orchids. G. gardneri an herbaceous 
perennial. Division. Sandy peat and 
light loam. G. lagenophora, as a swamp 
plant in very sandy peat. " Having 
filled a twenty-four with about two 
inches of crocks, place over them a 
layer of spungy peat for two or three 
inches more, and then fill it up with 
nearly equal quantities of sharp sand 
and heath mould, so that the surface is 
nearly all sand. Place it near the light 
in a eool part of the stove about 60°, 
and keep it very wet as long as it con- 
tinues growing. It generally flowers in 
April or May. Remove to the green- 
bouse after flowering, and keep quite 
dry in the stove from October to Feb- 
ruary." — Gard. Chron. 

GRAFF or GRAFT. See Scion. 

GRAFTING is uniting a scion or 
17 



part of a branch of one plant upon the 
root, branch, or stem of another. 

Grafting is a difficult mode of multi- 
plying an individual, because it is re- 
quisite so to fit the scion to the stock, 
that some portion of their alburnums 
and inner barks must coincide, other- 
wise the requisite circulation of the 
sap is prevented. No graft will suc- 
ceed if not immediately grafted upon a 
nearly kindred stock. I say immedi- 
ately, because it is possible that by 
grafting on the most dissimilar species 
on which it will take, and then moving 
it with some of the stock attached, to 
another stock still more remotely allied, 
that a graft may be made to succeed 
though supplied with sap from roots of 
a very dissimilar species. Thus some 
pear scions can hardly be made to unite 
with a quince stock ; but if they be 
grafted upon a young shoot and after- 
wards inserted in a quince stock, they 
grow as freely as if inserted in a seed- 
ling pear stock. 

The reason for this unusual difficulty 
in the way of uniting kindred species, 
arises from one or more of these causes. 
First, the sap flowing at discordant 
periods. Secondly, the proper juices 
being dissimilar. Or thirdly, the sap 
vessels being of inappropriate calibre. 

Grafting is employed, first, to multiply 
any desired variety or species; second- 
ly, to accelerate its fruitfulness, as 
when the shoot of a two year old apple 
seedling is grafted upon a stock of six 
years' growth, it will arrive at fruitful- 
ness much sooner than one left on the 
parent stem ; thirdly, to improve the 
quality of the fruit by having a more 
abundant supply of sap : and fourthly, 
to renew the productiveness of stocks 
from which previous kinds had failed. 

The best modes of grafting are thus 
described by Dr. Lindley in his admir- 
able Theory of Horticulture : — "Whip 
grafting is the commonest kind ; it is 
performed by heading down a stock, 
then paring one side of it bare for the 
space of an inch or so, and cutting 
down obliquely at the upper end of the 
pared part, towards the pith ; the scion 
is levelled obliquely to a length corre- 
sponding with the pared surface of the 
stock, and an incision is made into it 
near the upper end of the wound ob- 
liquely upwards so as to form a ' tongue,' 
which is forced into the corresponding 
wound in the stock : care is then taken 



GR A 



258 

— ♦ — 



GR A 



that the bark of the scion is exactly ad- j Cactaceae; the parts of which, ow- 



justed to that of the stock, 
and the two are bound 
firmly together. 

" Here the mere con- 
tact of the two enables 
the sap flowing upwards 
through the stock to sus- 
tain the life of the scion 
until the latter can de- 
velop its buds, which then 
send downwards their 
wood ; at the same time 
the cellular system of the 
parts in contact unites by 
granulations, and when 
the wood descends it 
passes through the cel- 
lular deposit, and holds 
the whole together. 

" The use of < tongue- 
ing' is merely to steady 
the scion and to prevent 
its slipping. The advantage of this mode 
of grafting is the quickness with which 
it may be performed ; the disadvantage 
is, that the surfaces applied to each 
other, are much smaller than can be 
secured by other means 



ing to their succulence, rea- 
dily form a union with each Fig. 64. 
other. 

" A far better method than 
whip grafting, but more te- 
dious, is saddle grafting, in 
which the stock is pared ob- 
liquely on both sides till it 
becomes an inverted wedge, 
and the scion is slit up the 
centre, when its sides are 
pared down till they fit the 
sides of the stock. In this 
method the greatest possible 
quantity of surface is brought 
into contact, and the parts are 
mutually so adjusted, that the 
ascending sap is freely received 
from the stock by the scion, 
while at the same time, the 
descending sap can flow freely ^ 
from the scion into the stock. Mr, 
Knight, in describing this mode of 
operating, has the following observa- 
tions : 

" The graft first begins its efforts to 
unite itself to the stock just at the period 
when the formation of a new internal 



Fig. 63. 



It is, however, a great improvement i a y er of bark commences in the spring, 
upon the old crown grafting, still em- an "d the fluid which generates this layer 
ployed in the rude unskilful practice of f bark, and which also feeds the in- 
some continental gardeners, but expel- ser ted graft, radiates in every direction 
led from Great Britain ; which consists f rom the vicinity of the medulla to the 
of nothing more than heading down a external surface of the alburnum, 
stock with an exactly horizontal cut, 
and splitting it through the middle, into 
which is forced the end of a scion cut 
into the form of a wedge, when the 
whole are bound together. In this 
method the split in the stock can hardly 
be made to heal without great care ; 
the union between the 
edges of the scion and 
those of the stock is very 
imperfect, because the 
bark of the former neces- 
sarily lies upon the wood 
of the latter, except just 
at the sides: and from 
the impossibility of bring- 
ing the two barks in con- 
tact, neither the ascend- 
ing nor descending cur- 
rents of sap are able freely 
to intermingle. This plan 
is much improved by cutting out the 
stock into the form of a wedge, instead 
of splitting; it may, however, be advan- 
tageously employed for such plants as 




" The graft is of course most advan- 
tageously placed when it presents the 
largest surface to receive such fluid, and 
when the fluid itself is made to deviate 
least from its natural course. This 
takes place most efficiently when, (as 
in this saddle grafting) a graft of nearly 
equal size with the stock is divided at 
its base and made to stand astride the 
stock, and when the two divisions of 
the graft are pared extremely thin, at 
and near their lower extremities, so 
that they may be brought into close 
contact with the stock (from which but 
little bark or wood should be pared off N 
by the ligature." — Hort. Trans. 147. 

To execute saddle grafting properly, 
the scion and stock should be of equal 
si2e ; and where that cannot be, a se- 
cond method, in which the scion may 
be much smaller than the stock, has 
been described by the same great gar- 
dener. 

This is practised upon small stocks 



GR A 



259 

— ♦ — 



GRA 



Fig. 65. almost exclusively in Here- 
fordshire; but it is never 
T| attempted till the usual sea- 
son of grafting is past, and 
till the bark is readily de- 
tached from the alburnum. 
The head of the stock is 
then taken off, by a single 
stroke ofthe knife, oblique- 
ly, so that the incision com- 
mences about the width of 
the diameter of the stock, 
below the point where the 
medulla appears in the sec- 
tion, and ends as much 
above it upon the opposite 
side. The scion, or graft, 
which should not exceed in 
diameter half that of the 
stock, is then to be divided 
longitudinally, abouttwo inches upwards 
from its lower end, into two unequal 
divisions, by passing the knife upwards 
just in contact with one side ofthe me- 
dulla. The stronger division of the 
graft is then to be pared thin at its lower 
extremity, and introduced, as in crown 
grafting, between the bark and wood of 
the stock ; and the more slender divi- 
sion is fitted to the stock upon the op- 
posite side. 

" The graft, consequently, stands 
astride the stock, to which it attaches 
itself firmly upon each side, and which 
it covers completely in a single season. 
Grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever 
fail in this method of grafting, which 
may be practised with equal success 
with young wood in July, as soon as it 
has become moderately firm and ma- 
ture." — Theory of Horticulture. 

The other modes of grafting require 
no description, but will be best under- 
stood by a reference to the following 
sketches. 



Cleft Grafting. 
Fig. 66. 



Side Grafting. 
Fig. 67. 





Chink or Shoulder 

Grafting. Root Grafting. 



Fig. 69. 




Peg Graft- 
ing, or Te- 
rebration. 




By whatever mode the operation be 
performed, the essentials for success 
are, 1. That the same 
parts of the stock and 
scion should he brought 
into contact as much as 
possible — bark to bark, 
and alburnum to albur- 
num. 2. That as the 
nourishment has to be 
afforded to the graft from 
the alburnum ofthe stock 
with which it is brought 
in contact, this should not 
be exposed to the air for 
one minute longer than 
is necessary to insert the 
previously prepared graft, 
for if the surface becomes 
dry in the slightest de- 
gree, vegetation on that part is perma- 
nently destroyed ; and thirdly, that the 
air and wet should be excluded after 
the scion has been inserted, otherwise 
the dryness of the parts, or the dilution 
of the sap, will prevent the union. To 
effect the desired exclusion, the entire 
wound must be inclosed with grafting 
clay or grafting wax, the best recipes 
for which are these : — 

Grafting Clay is best made of two 
parts cow-dung ; three parts common 
clay ; and one part awns or beards of 
barley, kneaded together thoroughly. 

Grafting Wax. — Moist bast is usually 
employed for closing the wound of the 
stock, but it is far preferable to use 
worsted, and over this a coating of the 
grafting wax, made according to the 
following recipe : — 

Burgundy pitch 1 oz. 

Common pitch 4 

Yellow wax 4 

Tallow or lard 2 



GRA 



GRA 



Nitre (carbonate of potash, 
powdered) 1 

The same composition spread upon 
slips of linen makes Grafting Plaster, 
frequently used by amateur budders. 

G R A M M A N T H E S chlorceflora. 
Stove annual. Seeds. Loam and lime 
rubbish. 

GRAMMATOPHYLLUM. Two spe- 
cies. Stove orchids. Division. Wood. 

GRANGERIA borbonica. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

GRAPE-VINE (Vitis vinifera). Of 
this fruit ninety-nine varieties-are culti- 
vated in the Chiswick Garden. 

Open-wall culture. — Varieties best 
Ruited for this, according to the experi- 
ence of Mr. Hoare, are : — 

Black Hamburgh. 
Black Prince. 
Esperione. 
Black Muscadine. 
Miller's Burgundy. 
Claret Grape. 
Black Frontignan. 
Grizzly Frontignan. 
White Frontignan. 
White Muscadine. 
Malmsey Muscadine. 
White Sweetwater. 

Eighty-six of the varieties have been 
cultivated at Wilbeck within the last 
seven years, but only about fourteen 
found of superior excellence, and many 
of the others were mere synonymes. 
Mr. Tillery, from this long course of ex- 
perience and observation, recommends 
the following selections : — 

" For the Earliest House. — The Pur- 
ple Constantia, or Frontignan ; White 
Frontignan; Black Prince ; Dutch, or 
Stillward's Sweetwater; Black Ham- 
burgh ; and Tripoli. 

" For Stove. — White Muscat of 
Alexandria; Purple Constantia ; White 
Frontignan ; Grizzly Frontignan ; Black 
Muscat; and Black Damascus. 

" For Green-house. — Black Ham- 
burgh ; Tripoli; Grove-end Sweetwa- 
ter ; and Muscadine. 

" For Latest House. — West's St. Pe- 
ter's, and Cliarlesworth's Tokay. 

" For a Single House with fourteen 
rafters. — One Purple Constantia; one 
White Frontignan ; one Royal Musca- 
dine, or Chasselas D'Arboyce ; three 
Muscats; three Black Hamburghs, or 
Tripoli*; three West's St. Peter's; and 
two Black Princes. 



" For Pot-Culture, to cover in during 
April and May. — Purple Constantia and 
White Frontignan." — United Gar. Jour. 

Until recently but few houses for the 
exclusive growth of grapes under glass, 
had been erected in the United States. 
The success which attended the effort 
in the vicinity of Philadelphia, Boston, 
and other cities, has excited emulation, 
and at this day (1847) one of the most 
attractive features of our Horticultural 
exhibitions, are grapes grown under 
glass, not exclusively through the agen- 
cy of fire-heat, but in many instances 
by the aid of the glass alone. 

Propagation. — Layering is the most 
certain and most expeditious mode of 
propagating the grape-vine. In the first 
part of March cut away the fourth bud 
of the shoot to be layered, pass the 
shoot through the hole in the bottom of 
garden-pot, fill this with light rich earth, 
so that the wound of that fourth bud is 
in the centre of the earth, and two buds 
above its surface ; fix the pot firmly to 
the wall, so as not to be disturbed ; keep 
the earth constantly moist with liquid 
manure, giving a little every day, and 
a little moss tied over the surface and 
round the sides of the pot to check 
evaporation. Cut away the layer from 
the parent in the last week of August; 
and, turning it out from the pot, with- 
out at all disturbing the earth, plant it 
where it is to remain, and water it 
plentifully with liquid manure until the 
leaves begin to fall. 

Cuttings. — At the time of autumn- 
pruning select some middle-sized, well- 
ripened shoots, cut off lengths of six 
buds, keep them in moist sand through 
the winter, and, at the end of March, 
cut them in half, remove the two lower 
buds, and plant them under a wall hav- 
ing an eastern aspect, leaving the upper 
bud just above the surface, and cover- 
ing them with a hand-glass. The soil 
must be light, rich, and well pulverized, 
pressed close round the cuttings, and 
kept constantly moist with liquid manure 
until the leaves fall in autumn. The 
surface round them should be stirred 
at least twice a week to allow the air 
unimpeded entrance. 

Coiling is only a peculiar mode of 
propagating by cuttings suggested by 
Mr. Mearns, whose practice has been 
epitomised thus by Dr. Lindley: — 

" In the propagation of vines by coil- 
ing, Mr. Mearns' practice, if single rods 



G R A 



261 

— ♦— 



are contemplated, is not to leave them 
longer than four or five feet, and to re- 
move all the buds but the uppermost. 
These rootless cuttings are coiled into 
long narrow pots, being so placed that 
the bud of the apex of the shoot, al- 
though the highest part, is still two 
inches beneath the surface of the soil; 
at the same time sufficient room is left 
beneath the coil for the roots to extend 
themselves. These cuttings being put 
in between the middle of January and 
the end of March, are plunged at once 
into a hot-bed between 90° and 100o, 
where they remain until they require 
more pot-room. They are then shifted, 
and placed in a suitable situation until 
again excited in November or December. 
When the cutting begins to grow, the 
shoot is trained upright, until it is seven 
or eight or ten joints long, when the top 
is pinched ofF. After this stopping the 
laterals are displaced as they appear; 
and if the vines have done well, two or 
three of the buds will also be excited 
at the same time, in which case the 
shoots are cut down to the lowest ex- 
cited eye. The single shoot is then 
trained upright and divested of all late- 
rals and tendrils. None of the plants 
are allowed to grow longer than from 
four to six feet, at which length the tops 
are pinched off, the uppermost lateral, 
which is also stopped at the first joint, 
being left to carry off the remaining 
sap. 

" At this season the plants are re- 
moved to a warm and sheltered situa- 
tion in the open air; and when the 
leaves fall they are headed down to 
one, two, or three joints, according to 
their strength, and are placed against a 
northern aspect. When cold weather 
sets in they are taken back to a shel- 
tered spot, and plunged in the ground 
to protect the roots, the pots being 
mulched over, and the rods covered to 
protect them from frost. 

" When these yearling potted vines 
are brought early into action, it is re- 
commended to bow a piece of wire 
above the pot with both its ends run- 
ning down the inside, of sufficient height 
to allow the whole length of the stem to 
be attached to it, as represented in the 
accompanying figure. 

" The buds from the stem being thus 
bent, break more regularly ; and when 
this is effected the vine is united, and 
secured to an upright stake or sloping 



GR A 



Fig. 71. 




trellis. To prevent evaporation the stem 
is wrapped loosely in moss, which is 
kept constantly moist until the grapes 
are set, when it is removed. The plants, 
up to this period, are encouraged by 
bottom-heat and shifting; and the quan- 
tity of fruit is regulated by the size of 
the pot and the quality of the vine." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Seed. — To raise new varieties seed 
from the largest, earliest, and best rip- 
ened berries must be separated from 
their pulp, and kept until the February 
following; then to be sown in "pots 
filled with light fresh mould, and plunged 
in a moderately warm hot-bed. They 
will come up in four or six weeks ; and 
when the plants are about six inches 
high, they should be transplanted singly 
into forty-eights, and afterwards into 
pots of larger size. 

"Water gently as circumstances re- 
quire; allow abundance of light and 
air, and carefully avoid injuring any of 
the leaves. Cut down the plants every 
autumn to good buds, and suffer only 
one of these to extend itself in the fol- 
lowing spring. Shift into larger pots, 
as occasion requires, till they have 
produced fruit. This, under good ma- 
nagement, will take place in the fourth 
or fifth year, when the approved sorts 
should be selected, and the rest de- 
stroyed, or used as stocks on which to 
graft or inarch good sorts." — Enc. of 
Gard. 

If a hybrid grape be required, the 
stamens of the female parent must be 
cut away with very sharp-pointed scis- 
sors before their anthers have burst, 



GRA 



GRA 



and the pollen be applied to the stigma 
from the male desired to be the other 
parent. No very superior varieties have 
yet rewarded those who have attempted 
thus to improve the grape. 

Budding. — A good authority thus 
states his mode : — 

" About the first week in March I 
perform the operation : or, as soon as 
I perceive the sap begin to rise, I cut 
from a branch, about three inches in 
length, an eye having attached as much 
wood as I could possibly get with it; 
at each end of the eye, I cut off" about 
a quarter of an inch of the upper bark, 
making the ends quite thin ; I next mea- 
sure off the exact length of the bud, on 
the base of the vine intended to be 
budded, and make a nick slanting upT 
ward at the upper part, and another 
slanting downward at the bottom. I 
then take the piece neatly out, so that 
the bud may fit nicely in ; and by mak- 
ing the nick as stated above, each end 
of the bud is covered by the bark of the 
shoot. I bind the buds firmly round 
with matting, and clay it, taking care, 
however, that the clay does not cover 
the eye of the bud : I then tie it round 
with moss, and keep it constantly 
damp ; and as the sap rises in the vine, 
the bud begins to swell. 

" When the vine commences to push 
out young shoots, take the top ones off, 
in order to throw a little more sap into 
the bud, and as you perceive it getting 
stronger, take off more young shoots, 
and so continue until you have taken 
off all the young shoots. Budding can 
only be performed where the long-rod 
system is practised, as in that case you 
have the power of confining the sap to 
the bud, which will grow vigorously. 
As soon as you perceive this, cut the 
vine down to the bud. Budding has the 
advantage over grafting, by not leaving 
an unsightly appearance where the bud 
was inserted. I always allow the mat- 
ting to remain on until about the month 
of September." 

Grafting. — "The best method," says 
Dr. Lindley, " of grafting vines is to 
shorten the branch, or shoot, at the 
winter pruning to the most eligible place 
for inserting the graft. The graft should 
be kept in sufficiently moist soil till the 
time of performing the operation, and 
for a week previous in the same tem- 
perature as that which the vines to be 
operated upon are growing. 



" When such portions of the latter 
as are shortened for receiving the grafts 
have made a bit of shoot, graft as you 
would other fruit trees, taking care to 
preserve the shoot at the top in claying, 
and until the buds on the scion have 
pushed, then shorten it back. Inarching 
may be performed any time after the 
vines have started, so far as to bleed." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Knight, the late eminent pre- 
sident of the Horticultural Society, has 
left this record of his experiments on 
the same mode of propagation : — "I 
conceived it probable that the success 
of the Roman cultivators in grafting 
their vines might arise from the selec- 
tion of grafts similar to their cuttings, 
and the result of the following experi- 
ment leads me to believe my conjecture 
to be well founded. I selected three 
cuttings of the Black Hamburgh Grape, 
each having at its base one joint of two 
i years old of wood : these were inserted 
in, or rather fitted to branches of nearly 
the same size, but of greater age; and 
all succeeded most perfectly. The clay 
which surrounded the base of the grafts 
was kept constantly moist, and the 
moisture thus supplied to the graft ope- 
rated very beneficially, at least, if it 
was not essential to the success of the 
operation. A very skilful gardener in my 
vicinity, to whom I mentioned my inten- 
tion of trying the foregoing experiment, 
was completely successful by a some- 
what different method. He used grafts 
similar to mine, but his vine grew under 
the roof of the hot-house, in which sit- 
uation he found it difficult to attach 
such a quantity of clay as would supply 
the requisite degree of moisture to the 
graft ; and he therefore supported a pot 
under each graft, upon which he raised 
the mould in heaps sufficiently high to 
cover the grafts and supply them with 
moisture. The grafts which I used 
consisted of about two inches old wood, 
and five of annual wood, by which 
means the junction of the new and old 
wood', at which point cuttings most rea- 
dily emit shoots and receive nutriment, 
was placed close to the head of the 
stock, and a single bud only was ex- 
posed to vegetate." — Knight's Papers. 

As the practice is rather precarious, 
I will add further, the observations of 
Mr. Braddick : — " I feel confident in 
stating that healthy vines may be suc- 
cessfully grafted with young wood of 



GRA 



263 
— ♦ — 



GRA 



the preceding year's growth, from the 
time that the shoots of the stocks which 
the grafts are to be put upon have made 
four or five eyes, until mid-summer, 
with every prospect of the grafts grow- 
ing, and without the least danger of the 
stocks suffering by bleeding. They may 
likewise be grafted with shoots of the 
same summer's growth, worked in the 
rind of the young wood, from the time 
that the young bunches of grapes be- 
come visible on the stocks till July, 
out of doors, or till a month later under 
glass. The operation must not be per- 
formed later than the periods here spe- 
cified, because time is necessary for the 
young shoots of the graft to become 
hard and ripen before winter." — Hort. 
Soc. Trans. 

Single Eyes, or Buds. — Mr. Appleby 
gives the following directions for this 
mode of propagation: — " Take a single 
bud with about half an inch of wood on 
each side of it, and insert it in a pot 
four inches in diameter, filled with light 
rich soil, covering the bud half an inch, 
and pressing the earth firmly about it, 
place the pots in a bark bed, or dung 
bed covered with saw dust ; either of 
these will do, provided the heat is 
moderate. It will soon shoot up above 
the soil and begin to send out roots ; 
water very sparingly, for a time in- 
creasing the quantity as it requires it. 
Air is given on all mild days to make 
it become stout and of a good colour. 
As soon as the roots reach the sides of 
the pots, shift into large pots, which 
operation may be done thrice during 
the growing season; it will require a 
stick to support it, and all the super- 
fluous leaves and tendrils removed ; 
ripen the wood by keeping as dry an 
atmosphere in the pit or frame as pos- 
sible during the latter part of the sea- 
son, endeavouring to effect this without 
any reduction of temperature, which 
should average about 70° Fahrenheit. 
When the wood is sufficiently ripened, 
keep the plant in a cool house or frame, 
just protected from frost until the plant- 
ing season." — Gard. Chron. 

WALL CULTURE. 

Aspect. — The object to be obtained 
is not only warmth, but shelter from 
the wind, which is injurious to the vine 
at all times of its growth. To secure 
this desideratum, the best aspect is S.E. 
Even E. by N. is a good aspect. Any 



westerly point or even due S., exposes 
the vine to the strong winds which pre- 
vail from the W. and S.W. 

Soil. — The best soil is a light, rich, 
sandy loam, eighteen inches deep, rest- 
ing on a drainage of twelve inches of 
bricklayers' rubbish. 

Manures. — The richest manures, such 
as night-soil, blood, bone-dust, and 
butchers' offal, are most beneficial to 
vines, and should be added annually to 
the border in which they grow. During 
the time of their being in bloom, a slight 
trench in a circuit three feet from the 
stem should be opened, and the con- 
tents of the house slop pail, soapy 
water, and urine, be poured into it 
daily. 

Walls, for the grape-vine, need never 
be higher than eight feet, and the more 
substantial the better, as they cool 
slowly in proportion to their thickness. 
They should be painted annually with 
a creamy mixture of one part lime and 
two parts soot, to fill up the nail holes, 
the harbours of insects, to destroy moss, 
and to increase the warmth of the wall. 
Although a dark-coloured body radi- 
ates heat, and consequently cools more 
quickly than a similar body of a light 
colour, yet this is prevented if a proper 
screen is placed before it. (See Shelters.) 
A coping should project from the top 
of the wall four inches wide, if this be 
four feet high, and an additional inch 
for every foot of height. 

Pruning and Training. — The vine 
bears on wood one year old only, and 
this knowledge must control these ope- 
rations, for after a branch has borne it 
is of no further use ; and in pruning, a 
chief object consequently, is to get rid 
of all the old wood that can be spared. 
As Mr. Clement Hoarse's practice is 
founded upon this, I adopt his rules 
without any modification. He obtains, 
he says: — "All the fruit of a vine from 
a few shoots trained at full length, in- 
stead of from a great number of spurs 
or short shoots. To provide these shoots 
the former bearers are cut down to very 
short spurs at the autumnal pruning, 
and at the same time a sufficient number 
of shoots are left at whole length to 
produce fruit in the following year; at 
the succeeding autumn these latter are 
cut down to very short spurs, and the 
long shoots that have pushed from the 
spurs are trained at whole length as 
before, and so on annually in alternate 



GRA 



GRA 



succession. This method recommends 
itself by its simplicity, by the old wood 
of the vine being annually got rid of, 
by the small number of wounds inflicted 
in the pruning, by the clean and hand- 
some appearance of the vine, and by 
the great ease with which it is managed, 
in consequence of its occupying but a 
small portion of the wall. 

" 1st. In pruning, always cut up- 
wards, and in a sloping direction. 

"2d. Always leave an inch of blank 
wood beyond the terminal bud, and let 
the cut be on the opposite side of the 
bud. 

" 3d. Prune so as to leave as few 
wounds as possible, and let the surface 
of every cut be perfectly smooth. 

"4th. In cutting out an old branch, 
prune it even with the parent limb, that 
the wound may quickly heal. 

" 5th. Prune so as to obtain the quan- 
tity of fruit desired on the smallest 
number of shoots possible. 

" 6th. Never prune in frosty weather, 
nor when a frost is expected. 

" 7th. Never prune in the months of 
March, April, or May. Pruning in either 
of these months causes bleeding, and 
occasions thereby a wasteful and an in- 
jurious expenditure of sap. 

" 8th. Let the general autumnal prun- 
ing take place as soon after the 1st of 
Oetober as the gathering of the fruit 
will permit. 

''Lastly, use a pruning-knife of the 
best description, and let it be, if pos- 
sible, as sharp as a razor." — Hoare on 
the Vine. 

In the spring next after the planting, 
two buds only having been left, remove 
the one which shoots the most weakly, 
and rub ofFall others but 
that one selected to re- 
main as often as they ap- 
pear. Nail the shoot to 
the wall as often as it ex- 
tends six inches beyond 
the previous shred. In 
November cut the vine so 
as to leave only two buds. 
In the second spring ma- 
nage as before, and in the 
November cut down to 
three buds; the vine will 
then appear thus : Fig. 72. 

The third spring retain two shoots, 
treating as before. In September pinch 
off their tops, and in November prune 
them so as to retain some buds. 



Fig. 72. 




The fourth spring in February remove 
the 1, 2,4, 5, and 6 buds, bending the 
shoots down horizontally thus : 

Fig. 73. 




and training the shoots from buds 3 and 
7 as there represented. Prune and train 
as before directed during the summer, 
removing also superfluous shoots, and 
in November cut back a and c to about 
eight or twelve buds according to the 
stiength of the vine; and b and d so as 
to leave only one bud on each. In the 
fifth spring train the shoots from these 
single buds in the same waving form as 
before. 

" The vine," says Mr. Hoare, to 
whose valuable work I am indebted 
for most of the preceding directions, 
" has now assumed the form which it 
is permanently to retain, and the man- 
ner in which it is trained may be con- 
sidered as the commencement of a sys- 
tem of alternately fruiting two shoots, 
and training two at full length for bear- 
ing wood in the following year; which 
method may be continued every year 
without any alteration until the capacity 
of the vine is equal to the maturation 
of more fruit than can possibly be borne 
by two single shoots, which, on an aver- 
age, may be estimated at sixty pounds 
weight annually. Several years must 
elapse before this will be the case; but 
when it is, the arms may be easily 
lengthened by the training in of a shoot 
at their extremities, and managing it in 
the same manner as when the arms of 
the vine first formed. It is very advis- 
able, however, that the vine should not 
be suffered to extend itself further on 
the wall, for in such case, the bearing 
shoots emitted from the centre are sure 
to decline in strength ; whereas, by 
confining the dimensions of the vine to 
a single arm on each side of the stem, 
and each arm to the support and nou- 
rishment of two branches only, the very 
best description of bearing shoots will 
never fail to be generated close at home, 



GRA 



265 

— ♦ — 



GRA 



and these, as the vine advances in age, 
will become prolific almost beyond con- 
ception. I have often ripened as many 
as seven full sized bunches of grapes on 
two shoots which have pushed from a 
single bud, on vines managed in this 
manner. Indeed, those who have been 
accustomed to permit their vines to 
cover a large space of walling, and to 
possess a great number of branches, 
can scarcely imagine how much easier a 
vine is managed, and with what cer- 
tainty the fruit is increased in quantity, 
and improved in quality." — Hoare on 
the Vine. 

Thinning. — When the vine has be- 
come fruitful, in August, it must have 
the berries of each branch thinned until 
not more than half their original num- 
ber remain. It is best done with a 
sharp-pointed pair of scissors, and care 
being taken to remove the smallest 
berries. This increases the weight and 
excellence of the bunches, for two ber- 
ries will always outweigh four grown 
on the same branchlet of a bunch, be- 
sides being far handsomer, and having 
more juice as compared with husks. 
The average weight of the bunches on 
a vine may be taken, when ripe, at 
half a pound each, and with this data 
it is easy to carry into practice Mr. 
Clement Hoare's excellent rule for pro- 
portioning the crop to the size of the 
vine. If its stem, measured just above 
the ground, be three inches in circum- 
ference, it may bear 5 lbs. weight of 
grapes. 

3i inches 10 lbs. 

4 « 15 

4^ » 20 

5 » 25 

And so five pounds additional for every 
half inch of increased circumference. 

VINES IN GREEN-HOUSE. 

Training here must be the same as 
in the hot-house, and the points besides 
to be attended to are : — 

" 1. To train the vines to the rafters, 
or otherwise, so that they shall not 
overshadow the interior before the end 
of May. 2. To empty the green-house 
of all green-house plants after that pe- 
riod, and to take every possible pains 
to get the wood ripe ; you cannot have 
grapes without well-ripened wood. If 
vines are very late in growing, they 
will require fire-heat in autumn, in 
order to ripen their wood, in many 



seasons. Vines and green-house plants 
do not agree very well ; but under such a 
system they may be kept from quarrel- 
ling much." — Gard. Chron. 

VINES IN HOT-HOUSE. 

Varieties. — The proportions the dif- 
ferent vines should bear to each other, 
in order to secure the best succession 
and a constant supply, are three Black 
Hamburgh's ; two White Muscats of 
Alexandria; one White and one Black 
Frontignan ; one Black Prince, and one 
Black St. Peter's. 

Construction of Vinery. — For the 
general principles applicable to the 
construction of this and all other hot- 
houses, see the titles Stove, Trellis, fyc. 

Borders. — These may be formed 
eight feet broad, of a soil similar to 
that recommended for the open wall 
vines, with the same attention to ma- 
nuring and drainage. 

Planting and Pruning. — The prac- 
tice of Mr. Mearns in this particular is 
very good : — 

" The vines are planted inside the 
house at two feet and a half apart, 
nearly close to the front wall, and are 
headed down to within a foot of the 
soil. One shoot only is allowed to pro- 
ceed from each plant, which at the end 
of the first season is cut down to the 
second or third eye. Next year two 
leading shoots are encouraged, the 
strongest of which is stopped when it 
has grown three or four joints beyond 
the middle of the roof, and the weaker, 
after having grown three or four feet, 
for the purpose of strengthening the 
eyes. At the fall of the leaf, the lead- 
ing shoots are reduced, the main one 
to the length of the middle of the roof, 
and the lower one to the third eye. In 
the third season, one leading shoot is 
trained in from each shoot, and from 
the leading shoot fruit-bearing side 
shoots are produced. One bunch is left 
on each, and the shoot stopped at one 
or two joints above it. No side shoots 
are allowed to proceed from the spur, 
the leading shoot from which is to be- 
come the bearing wood for the next 
year. Thus, in the autumn of the third 
season the lower part of the house is 
furnished with a crop of grapes from 
shoots proceeding from wood of the 
preceding year, and parallel to this 
bearing shoot on each vine is the young 
shoot for the next year's crop. 



GR A 



GR A 



" In winter, the shoot from the ex- 
tremity of the bearing branch is cut off 
at the top of the roof, or within twelve 
or fifteen inches of it, and the shoot 
from the spur is cut down to the mid- 
dle of the roof, and all the spurs which 
had borne the grapes are now cut out. 
Each vine is now furnished with two 
shoots of bearing wood, a part of old 
barren wood, and a spur for producing 
a young shoot the following year. In 
the fourth summer a full crop is pro- 
duced, both in the upper and lower 
half of the house. The longer shoot 
bearing on the upper half of its length, 
and the shorter on its whole length; a 
leading shoot is produced from the short 
shoot, and another from the spur. 

" In the pruning season of the fourth 
year, the centre shoot is entirely re- 
moved, and replaced by the side shoot, 
now the whole length of the roof, and 
this side shoot is in its turn supplanted 
by the shoot from the spur, while a spur 
is prepared to succeed it. 

" Summer Pruning. — Mr. Mearns 
gives the following directions : — ' Stop 
the bearing branches at the bunch, in- 
stead of the next joint above it, which 
is the usual practice ; for I found that 
the fruit did equally well, and it divest- 
ed the branch of an incumbrance, while 
it allowed a much larger portion of light 
to come into the house, together with a 
more free circulation of air among the 
fruit and young wood. I blind all the 
eyes on each fruit spur as soon as they 
push above a joint or two, before I 
pinch them back, always cautiously re- 
taining one eye; and am particularly 
cautious that nothing should happen to 
injure the leaf that accompanies the 
bunch, for if that is lost, the fruit of 
course will come to nothing.'" — Hort. 
Soc. Trans. 

Forcing. — This is sometimes com- 
menced in September, but the close of 
the next month is sufficiently early. 
Mr. Appleby, of Macclesfield, gives 
the following very full and excellent 
directions : — " In places where there 
are a number of houses devoted to the 
vine, it is possible to have ripe grapes 
all the year round. To accomplish this 
completely, six houses are necessary, 
though it may in some degree be done 
with three. In the former case, the 
first house ought to be started at the 
end of October, the second on the first 
of December, and so on, the first day 



of every month till April. Where there 
are but three houses, it will be early 
enough to commence the first house in 
November, the second in February, 
and the third in April. To cause the 
vines to break equally all the length of 
the shoot, tie them down to the front 
windows, until the buds are all expand- 
ed, that one part of it may not be more 
excited than another. 

" When every bud has pushed, care- 
fully separate the vines one by one; 
and as it is convenient, regulate the 
shoots, stop them, and thin the number 
of branches, and do all that is required. 
Then tie them up loosely to the rafter; 
and should they hang down a foot from 
the glass, it is an advantage, especially 
during the early part of the season." 

Syringing and Steaming. — " During 
the time of forcing the vine (unless they 
are in blossom) and the ripening of the 
fruit, syringe them freely with rain- 
water, morning and evening, all over; 
also steam the houses by pouring water 
on the pipes or flues, to keep up a 
moisture in theair. It is beneficial to 
the growth of the plant, swells the ber- 
ries, and keeps down the red spider. 
While the vines are in blossom, refrain 
from syringing, but use the steam freely. 

" When the berries begin to colour, 
also cease syringing; but use the steam 
a fortnight longer, though only at night. 
As soon as the grapes are nearly ripe, 
keep as dry an atmosphere as possible, 
both to give the fruit a good flavour, 
and to ripen the wood." 

Covering the Border. — "This in the 
early part of the forcing season is ab- 
solutely necessary, using either light 
horse-litter, or fresh-gathered leaves. 
No frost must be allowed to reach the 
stems or roots; if it does, the vines 
will droop when the sun shines, and 
the bunches will be crippled, and per- 
haps never come out properly. A tar- 
paulin is useful to cover the litter and 
dung, to keep' off the heavy rains and 
snow." 

Temperature. — " Commence forcing 
the vine with a low temperature. The 
first week keep up the heat to 50o, the 
second to 60°, the third to 65°, and the 
fourth to 70 Night temperature about 
1(P lower. A good rule is 60o for vines 
in leaf, and 70° when blooming and 
ripening fruit; the night temperature 
may then be 20o lower." 

Setting the Fruit. — " To effect the 



GR A 



267 

— ♦ — 



GRA 



setting of the fruit, and more especially 
in the earlier part of the forcing season, 
use a camel-hair pencil to disperse the 
pollen on the stigmas. Some kinds of 
grapes have very little pollen, while 
others have plenty to spare. In this 
case take a sheet of white paper, and 
hold it under the bunch that has abund- 
ance of pollen, gently shake the bunch, 
and then with the camel-hair pencil ap- 
ply the pollen to such kinds as are defi- 
cient." 

Thinning the Berries. — As soon as 
the berries are set and begin to swell, 
it is time to thin them. For this opera- 
tion there are proper scissors, with long 
handles and short blades. Provided 
with these, some good soft matting, and 
with something to catch the berries in, 
(which make excellent vinegar or tarts, 
&c.,) commence the operation by tying 
up the shoulders of such bunches as 
require it, to the wires on each side of 
the rafter ; or, if the bunches are very 
large, fasten some thin narrow lath to 
the rafter, to tie the shoulders to. 

Some persons use a thin piece of 
lath notched at each end, to prop the 
shoulders off" from the main body of the 
bunch; but I do not like this plan so 
well as the matting, the props being apt 
to drop out. 

In order to have large berries, thin 
very freely, so much so, that the bunches 
look like skeletons. Of course thin ac- 
cording to the kind ; some sorts under 
the best management do not swell to 
such a size as others ; hence it is ne- 
cessary to know the medium size to 
which every variety will swell, and thin 
accordingly. 

Watering the Roots. — Use manure 
water alternately with clear water. If 
the border be well watered once a week, 
it is sufficient. Remember to place 
boards to walk on, and as soon as the 
water has sunk in, and the surface be- 
comes rather dry, go over it with a 
Dutch hoe and rough rake ; the more 
frequently it is stirred the less water it 
will take ; if, however, it is so smooth 
as to let the water run off, instead of 
sinking in, point the surface over with 
a fork and leave it rough. 

Covering the Vines in Winter. — 
" When the vines are not covered with 
glass in consequence of other fruits 
being grown in the house, protect them 
from severe frost; hay-bands may be 
used, and long straight wheat straw ; 



the tarpaulin is the best, as it keeps 
them dry, and of course renders them 
more able to endure frost." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Vines in Pots. — The first week in 
February is the best time for planting 
the cuttings of vines in pots, to remain 
in cultivation in them. If intended to 
be fruited next season, plant the cut- 
tings in thirty-twos, selecting well- 
ripened shoots, with only one plump 
bud, and cutting the shoot at each end 
down to about one inch and a half of 
the bud. Bury this bud in the earth, 
composed of equal parts of fresh light 
turfy soil and decayed leaves. Plunge 
in a bottom heat of 90° ; temperature 
of frame 60° to 90°. In April, shift to 
the fruiting pots, twos or fours, accord- 
ing to the strength of plant desired. 
Soil, two parts light turfy loam, and one 
part old night-soil. Temperature, 60° 
to 80°. Place the pots so near the 
roof, that the shoots may be at once 
trained near the glass as they advance. 
Best length for the shoots, from four to 
six feet, though they will bear even ten 
feet ; therefore stop each when a foot 
longer than required for next season. 
Manure water must be employed to 
sustain the growth of the vines, and 
every means adopted to ripen the wood. 
Early in September, the pots may be 
placed out of doors, on the north side 
of a wall, and laid on their sides, to 
hasten the vines into a state of rest. 
In November, they may be returned 
under glass, and forcing commenced 
to ripen a crop by the end of March. 
If strong, and grown in No. 2 pots, 
seven bunches may be left upon a Ham- 
burgh, eight upon a Muscadine, but 
upon weaker plants only about halt 
those numbers. 

Mr. W. Stothard, gardener at Chant- 
rey House, in 1841, gives these direc- 
tions : — " When the vines that are let 
into the house have reached the top of 
the rafters, instead of stopping the lead- 
ing shoot, as is commonly done, and 
often too soon, which causes the eyes 
to burst, and renders them useless for 
the succeeding year, turn the shoot 
back, and having ready a pot of suitable 
size, well drained and filled with fresh 
turfy loam and rotted dung, of equal 
parts, place it upon the back shelf or 
wall of the pit, and as soon as the young 
shoot has attained a sufficient length to 
be laid into the pot, cut out two or three 



GRA 



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eyes, and as many of its leaves, and 
scrape off a little of the bark the whole 
length of the part intended for roots, 
which is bent into the pot, and covered 
with mould to the depth of six or seven 
inches. No attention is required, ex- 
cepting to train the shoot as it advances 
in growth, and keep the mould in the 
pot a little moist, to encourage the 
emission of roots, which will appear in 
a fortnight or three weeks, and soon 
fill the pot. When the shoot is laid in 
the pot. allow it to grow from four to 
eight feet long, according to the strength 
of the parent vine, to which leave it 
attached until it has done growing, and 
perfectly ripened its wood. 

" Should there not be a sufficient 
quantity of leaders, place pots under 
the rafters at mostconvenient situations, 
and likewise on the front flue; but the 
shoots that are laid in these pots never 
suffer to exceed five feet in length. 
When the plants are severed from the 
parent vines, put them out under a wall, 
where they are protected from frosts, 
and take into the house as required for 
forcing; at that time shift into pots 
about a foot over and fourteen inches 
deep, to remain until the fruit is cut, 
after which they may be thrown away, 
sure of a fresh supply of plants every 
year by the same process." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Mr. H. Burn, gardener of Tottenham 
Park, gives the following particulars of 
his mode of cultivating the vine in pots: 
— " I invariably set the eyes in thumb 
pots on the first ofFebruary, and putting 
moss about two and a half inches deep 
on the flue at the back of the pine pits, 
I place the pot upon it, keeping the 
moss always moist. 

" As soon as the bud or eye has grown 
and become well furnished with roots, 
I repot into sixty-sized pots, and con- 
tinue afterwards to shift as fast as the 
pots become filled with roots ; from 
sixties to forty-eights, thirty-twos, twen- 
ty-fours, sixteens, and twelve-sized pots 
successively; and lastly, into bushel- 
pots, which I have made for the purpose. 
I encourage rapidity of growth as much 
as possible, by feeding them with liquid 
manure made from cows' and deers' 
dung ; and during the whole time keep 
a good drainage at the bottom of the 
pots. The soil I used is nothing more 
than three-fourths strong turfy loam, 
and one-fourth horse-dung; from the 



linings of the pine pits select the most 
decayed parts of the manure. 

"I usually allow the shoots to run to 
the extent of thirteen eyes, and then 
stop them. 

" By the middle of September the 
wood becomes ripened, and I then 
prune them back to the ninth eye, and 
remove them from the pinery to the 
open air, setting them under a south 
wall, on bricks placed edgewise, so as 
to admit free drainage. On the first of 
November, I generally take in fifty-pots 
for forcing; (this I have occasionally 
done on the first of October ;) when they 
are washed with soft soap and sulphur. 

"After all the eyes have shown fruit, 
I select from six to eight of the best 
bunches to remain, and pluck off the 
others, never allowing one eye to bear 
more than one bunch. I syringe the 
vines gently with warm water three 
times a week, and water them twice a 
week with the liquid manure. Should 
they, however, occasionally require 
more moisture, I give them nothing 
more than soft water about milk warm. 
I invariably fruit annually from 100 to 
120 vines, taking in after the first fifty 
the rest in succession. 

Fig. 74. 




" The above engraving represents a 
transverse section of the vinery, with 
bed for tree leaves to decay and heat; 
frame-work for the support of front 
trough sixteen inches wide at the top, 
and ten inches deep, and the wire un- 
der the rafters on which the vines are 
trained." — United Gard. and Land 
Steward's Journ. 



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Vines in Frames. — We have the fol- 
lowing information on this mode of cul- 
ture : — " It is well adapted for gardens 
where the quantity of glass is limited, 
and is practised by Mr. Dawson, gar- 
dener to Lord Ducie, at the Hoo, Hert- 
fordshire. About the first week in April, 
a bed of partly decayed dung, to which 
a small quantity of raw material is add- 
ed , so as to produce a slight heat, is 
made at about eighteen inches from the 
wall in front of the selected vines. 

" This bed is built sufficiently deep 
to admit of its being about three feet 
high, after settling. The frame used by 
Mr. Dawson separates into two portions, 
so that the lower part can be first placed 
upon the bed. It contains a trellis upon 
which the vines are trained, fixed about 
a foot above the surface of the dung. 
The upper portion of the frame can be 
afterwards put on and secured to the 
lower by small brackets. The advan- 
tage of having the frames constructed 
in this way is the ease and safety with 
which the vine can be taken in ; since, 
in introducing the shoots of a vine 
through a hole cut in the back of a 
frame of ordinary construction, the 
buds would be liable to be rubbed off. 
No more care is required, except in 
stopping, thinning, &c. Air is given 
freely, but no linings to the bed are re- 
quired. In severe weather a covering 
is put on, but this is not generally re- 
sorted to. By pursuing the above me- 
thod, fruit of good quality has been cut 
by the latter end of August, for which 
Mr. Dawson has obtained several prizes 
at local horticultural exhibitions." — 
Gard. Chron. 

DISEASES. 

Shanking is a moist gangrene, at- 
tacking and destroying the stalk of the 
grapes, arising apparently from the tem- 
perature of the soil being unsuitably 
below that in which the branches are 
vegetating. 

Warts on Leaves. — Dr. Lindley says, 
" The appearance of warts on their 
under side, is most probably caused by 
damp atmosphere and rich soil, and 
may be conceived to arise thus: the 
water which the leaves derive from the 
stem, and absorb from the atmosphere, 
is unable to escape again, in conse- 
quence of the air that surrounds them 
being continually loaded with moisture; 
the result of this is, that the water ac- 



cumulates in the interior of the leaves, 
and swells them up in the form of warts. 
The presence of the latter on the under 
side only, is owing to perspiration from 
the vines, taking place principally by 
that surface, which is, moreover, much 
softer and looser in texture than the 
upper surface." — Gard. Chron. 

Rust. — The rust of the vine is a dis- 
ease which attacks the grapes, covering 
them with a tough brown skin, which 
is incapable of natural extension, and 
which stops their growth. Wherever 
the disease appears, the crop is injured 
or even ruined. Various causes have 
been suggested as the origin of this 
disease; but the true origin I believe 
to be a sudden unhealthy reduction of 
temperature whilst the grapes are young. 
From one frosty night I have seen the 
fruit of apple trees infected with a very 
similar induration of the skin. 

Bleeding. — If pruned late in the spring 
the vine is very liable to bleed at this 
season. A red hot iron applied to the 
wound until it is partially charred will 
stop the effusion of sap for a time, and 
to render the cure permanent, the place 
should be well rubbed and coated with 
a paste made of newly burnt lime and 
grease. This hardens and forms an ef- 
fectual plaster. 

Shrivelling arises in the berries from 
a want of sap. It is caused by several 
modes of bad cultivation, as excess of 
wet and cold to the roots ; over-heating 
and subsequent reduction of tempera- 
ture in the house ; and by thinning the 
leaves erroneously. 

Insects infesting the Vine. — See Scale, 
Thrips, Wasp, SfC. 

GRAPE HYACINTH. Muscari. 

GRAPE PEAR. Amelanchier Bo- 
tryapium. 

GRASS MOTH. See Chamas. 

GRASS-PLOT, correctly speaking, is 
a parterre, or beds of flowers, arranged 
with grass-turf between them, instead 
of gravel. It is usually confounded with 
Lawn, which see. 

GRASS RAKE. See Lawn Rake. 

GRATIOLA. Six species. Hardy 
or green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Rich moist soil. 

GRAVEL WALKS, like all other 
Walks, (vide,) require a good substratum 
of drainage, and the facing of about five 
inches deep of gravel. It must have no 
stones mixed with it larger than good- 



GR A 



270 

— 4 



GRE 



sized marbles, and about one-fourth of 
it must be much smaller. If a portion 
of clay is by nature or art incorporated 
with the gravel, it will bind more firmly, 
and present when rolled a more com- 
pact and even surface. 

The following is an excellent plan to 
make or turn gravel walks in dry weather. 
If of a sandy or gravelly nature strew a 
little clay or marl upon the walks. When 
turned over take away all large stones, 
and place them at the bottom of the 
mass. Immediately after you have le- 
velled the walk apply the roller, and let 
an assistant follow, pouring upon it wa- 
ter from a watering pot with coarse rose ; 
in twenty-four hours after, if the wea- 
ther is dry, it will be as solid as a stone 
floor. The writer has had ocular de- 
monstration of the fact in twenty in- 
stances in the driest weather. — Gard. 
Chron. 

The best method of extirpating grass 
which springs up from beneath a gravel 
walk and spreads over its surface, is to 
break up the walk, and pick out care- 
fully all the under-ground runners which 
may be met with. Where it is not de- 
sirable to disturb the walk, the best 
way is to spread salt in considerable 
quantities over its whole surface ; and 
if after the first application it is found 
that portions of the grass still exist, let 
another coating of salt be applied, 
which will effectually destroy it. Care 
must be taken, however, if the walk 
is edged with box, that the salt does 
not come in contact with it, otherwise 
it will destroy the edging also. 

" In the early part of April, gravel 
walks are usually turned ; and practice 
has taught that there is a right as well 
as a wrong way, even for the perform- 
ance of this simple operation. After 
the walk has been broken up and level- 
led, and a facing of new gravel spread 
over, this ought to be left for three or 
four days, and until a shower of rain 
has fallen, before the roller is used. 
This bleaches the gravel, and washes 
down the fine particles, so that, imme- 
diately after rolling, the walk is solid, 
and has a clean bright surface." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Dr. Lindley has proposed a substi- 
tute for gravel in the construction of 
walks, which will get rid of most of 
the annoyances attendant upon gravel; 
for, formed of this material, they will 
never be troubled by worms or weeds, 



and will never require rolling. They 
may be made of the same arched form; 
and if, at the time of making, the surface 
be sprinkled with fine bright coloured 
gravel, they will be as handsome as if 
formed entirely of that material. 

The composition recommended must 
be made and laid down in perfectly dry 
weather. 

" Procure a quantity of road-sand, or 
similar powdery material— finely sifted 
lime-rubbish will do — and let it be tho- 
roughly dried, so that it feels like dust 
when handled : also sift out ofthe cinders 
from the dwelling-house, &c, the finer 
parts, and let these be also made per- 
fectly dry ; mix these carefully, two 
parts road-sand to one of ashes. In a 
dry place, on a dry day, spread a quan- 
tity of the mixture, as a bricklayer 
spreads his lime, with a hollow in the 
middle. Into this hollow pour some 
coal-tar, boiling hot. Incorporate the 
whole with a shovel, as if making mor- 
tar, and when a thick paste, spread it 
three or four inches thick over the 
ground, laid out for the walk or floor. 
The ground should previously be beaten 
down as firm and as level as possible. 
Powder it all over with dry and rather 
coarse sand, after which a few passages 
of the roller will press it level. Leave 
it for a few days to harden, after which 
the walk is fit for use, and will last for 
very many vears." — Gard. Chron. 

GREAT "BURNET. Sanguisorba. 

GREAT CENTAUREA. Centaur ea 
centaurium. 

GREEN-HOUSE. This is a winter- 
residence for plants that cannot endure 
the cold of our winter, yet do not re- 
quire either the high temperature or 
moist atmosphere of a stove [i. e. hot- 
house] . 

" The first thing to be attended to in 
its construction," says Mr. H. Fortune, 
ofthe Chiswick Gardens, " is the choice 
of a proper situation. South is the best 
aspect, or as nearly that as possible : 
south-west or south-east will do, or even 
east or west ; but on no account should 
it ever face the north. Green-houses 
should be fixed in situations where they 
will not be shaded from the sun by any 
part of the dwelling-house, or other 
buildings, and should also be quite free 
from large trees. They should not 
be placed near trees for another reason 
than being shaded by them, namely, 
the glass in the roof being apt to be 



GRE 



271 

— ♦ — 



GRE 



broken by the rotten branches which 
are sent down during high winds. 

"Another most desirable considera- 
tion is, to make arrangements for a 
constant supply of rain-water. This is 
very easily done when the house is 
building. Gutters are wanted to carry 
the wet off the roof; and, in so doing, 
letit be brought into a tank in the house, 
and used for watering the plants. Slate- 
tanks may be used for this purpose, or 
they may be built of brick and cement- 
ed over on the inside. This will be 
economy in the end ; and the water 
collected in this way is much to be 
preferred to many kinds obtained from 
springs. 

" A drain should be made to enable 
the tank to be emptied at pleasure, and 
into which the water used in washing 
out the house can be swept, without 
running into the tank." — Gard. Chron. 

The following is the plan of a green- 
house erected at Yester, the seat of the 
Marquis of Tweedale, and which an- 
swers perfectly. 

" In ordinary severe weather, while 
the thermometer, in the open air during 
night, ranges between 20° and 30°, no 
difficulty is found in keeping the tem- 
perature to any point required between 
50° and 80°, which is quite sufficient. 
The stove is heated with coke ; and 
during a period while the thermometer 
ranged between 60° and 76°, the cost 
did not exceed 2s. 6d. per month. The 
fuel consumed during the time was ten 
bushels. We do not know what is the 
principle of the stoye, but it resembles 
an Arnott, and stands within the house, 
which is twenty-five feet long, twelve 
feet broad, and thirteen feet high. 

" a a, back wall ; b b, mouths of cold 
air stove, d ; e e, a few descending steps 
by which it is supplied from the outside 
with fuel, through an opening in the 
wall, as shown in the plan. On the 
same level there is a place, /, for con- 
taining coke, as represented by the 
dotted lines; g g is a brick casing, 

Fig. 75. 




formed in lengths of two feet each, and 
neatly joined together; they are open 
at top, and have movable covers. In- 
to this casing the heated air from the 
stove is first received, and afterwards 
distributed at pleasure. In addition to 
the heat given off in this way, the brick 
casing, from retaining the hot air, toge- 
ther with the flue-pipe passing through 
it, becomes so hot as to give off a large 
quantity in a radiating form. 

" In the figure, two of the flue covers 
are removed to show the surface of the 
iron water-troughs, fitted on the flue- 
pipe, and resting on the bottom of the 
brick-casing, better seen in the sectional 
view. The troughs are only filled with 
the heated air when it is wanted in a 
humid condition ; in other cases the 
humidity from the cistern h, which sup- 
plies water for the ordinary purposes of 
the house, will be sufficient ; i and j 
are wood wedges inserted on one side 
of the covers to raise them, more or 
less, in proportion to the quantity of 
heat required : k is the termination of 
the flue-pipe, where it ascends, crossing 
the house above the door, and entering 
the back wall into the chimney. When 
the house is to be heated, it is only ne- 
cessary to light the fire in the stove d, 
and open one of the cold air-drains 6 c, 
as in the present instance the internal 
one, b, is open. The arrows represent 
the cold air flowing towards the stove, 
where it enters below, and after travers- 
ing a numerous formation of winding 
channels in a heated state, discharges 
itself into the brick-casing, g g, above 
the flue-pipe, from which it escapes as 
heretofore mentioned. 

" When the cold air is taken from 
the external drain, c, the internal one, 
b, is closed ; a regulation, however, 
which is entirely at the discretion of 
the superintendent of the house : r, 
the regulator in the ash-pit of the stove, 
the handle of which is turned so as to 
admit a greater or less quantity of air, 
by which the combustion of fuel in the 
stove is regulated : s s and m m, venti- 
lating grates ; n n, rods of iron sus- 
pended to the frames of the top win- 
dows to open and shut them ; g, a sys- 
tem of small rods for conveying the 
drip from, the inside of the roof to the 
cistern, h; p, cover of stove-pit : it is 
hinged, and readily thrown back when 
admission to the stove is wanted. 
" For ordinary-sized plant or fruit- 



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272 



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Fig. 76. 




houses, the above method of heating 
will be found quite sufficient. Where 
very large structures are required to 
be heated, any additional quantity may 
be procured by means of hot water- 
pipes supplied from a boiler placed 
within the patent stove. The pipes 
may be conveyed in a different direction 
from the hot-air flue. The boiler, al- 
though heated with the stove-furnace, 
requires no additional fuel." — Gard. 
Chron. 

On a larger scale is the green-house 
at Kew; but as the same principles 
and arrangements may be adopted on a 
smaller scale, I give the following ex- 
tracts from the details published by 
Dr. Lindley : — 

" The general arrangement is excel- 
ent. None of the door-ways are placed 
in direct continuation of the walls ; but 
they are either formed immediately op- 
posite the principal masses of plants, 
or obliquely with respect to the walks ; 
so that the eye necessarily rests upon the 
foliage as 6oqn as the house is entered. 

" Then, again, at the point where the 
houses join each other, a semicircular 
stage is thrown forward, by which the 
disagreeable effect of a long narrow 
walk, in a small house, is completely 
removed. 

" The house is span-roofed, and illus- 
trates the great advantage of this kind 
of construction over the wretched lean- 
tos, which were formerly in fashion. 
We need not say that one of the ad- 
vantages of a span-roofed house is, that 
plants are exposed to light in all direc- 
tions : but, all-important as is that pro- 



perty, it by no means forms the only 
valuable feature in them. Plants can 
be easily reached and easily removed ; 
the appearance of the interior is very 
much improved, and no space is wasted. 
In a common glass shed, at least one 
half is useless — that is to say, the whole 
of that part which is next the back wall. 
Here, on the contrary, every portion of 
the interior, except the walks, is ren- 
dered available. 

" The construction of the roof is 
excellent. It rises at an angle of 30o, 
which is exactly that best suited for 
houses of such a description ; the raft- 
ers are very light, and of a better form 
than any we have previously seen. We 
will not pretend to say why they pro- 
duce so good an effect; for words will 
never convey an adequate idea of the 
cause of the beauty of such objects. 
Perhaps it is their lightness ; probably 
it is the two combined. Lightness of 
appearance has been combined with 
strength by the addition of an iron rod 
to the lower edge of the rafter, in the 
place of a head. 

" In order to strengthen the roof and 
to provide for the cultivation of climb- 
ers, all the rafters are connected by 
means of curved iron rods, which them- 
selves add much to the beautiful ap- 
pearance of the interior. This mode 
of combining strength and decoration 
may of course be varied, but it will not 
be improved. 

" Another important thing in the ar- 
rangements is the ample provision for 
receiving in tanks the rain-water that 
falls on the roof of the building : this 
is raised for use by means of small 
hand-pumps. 

" It must be apparent that such a 
house as this is precisely what is most 
generally wanted by those who build 
green-houses. If a large space is re- 
quired, it is easy to lengthen any of 
the arms; if more variety is desired, 
another cross house could be readily 
added to the smaller one. Should it be 
too large, as will more frequently be 
the case, the smaller arm may be co- 
pied or the larger, as the case may be. 
If a stove is wanted instead of a green- 
house, it would only be necessary to 
inclose the stages, to put hot water 
troughs into the chamber so obtained, 
and to add evaporating- pans to the 
pipes which are carried round the walls. 

" In short, it appears to us that in 



GRE 



273 



GRE 



this one house are contained illustra- 
tions of all the more important objects 
which are in the majority of cases to be 
attained in green-house building. 

" It should be added, that the upright 
sides of the house are glazed with panes 
of sheet-glass, in one length ; and that 
each of the roof sashes has but two panes 
in its length; this no doubt adds very 
much to its beautiful appearance." — 
Gard. Chron. 

The plan given of the green-house at 
Yester is a lean-to, but the same system 
of heating is adaptable to a span-roofed 
house. This form is to be preferred on 
many accounts. Thus, as the practice 
is most injurious to have the tempera- 
ture of the hot-house too elevated dur- 
ing the night, so no less injurious, in 
winter, is it to permit tender plants in 
the green-house or elsewhere, which 
may have been subjected to a freezing 
temperature, to be suddenly exposed to 
a higher degree of heat. Experience 
has placed it beyond dispute that such 
plants should be shaded from the sun, 
and thus returned very slowly to a more 
genial temperature. So convinced by 
experiment of the importance of secur- 
ing plants in green-houses from sudden 
transitions is Mr. Macnab, the curator 
of the Caledonian Horticultural Socie- 
ty's garden, that he has those structures 
ranging north and south, and consequent- 
ly with a western and eastern aspect. 
They have two aspects, because he has 
them with span roofs, instead of the old 
lean-to form. For green-houses, but 
not for forcing, there is no doubt that 
this form is to be preferred ; and Mr. 
M'Nab thus enumerates its advantages : 
" In a span-roofed house the circulation 
of air may be constantly kept up so as 
effectually to prevent damp. For such a 
green-house fire heat is scarcely at all 
required; for, if there be a free circu- 
lation of air during the autumn and 
winter months, and if the tables and 
shelves be carefully kept dry and clean, 
water being sparingly given to such 
plants only as require it, cold, even 
descending to freezing occasionally the 
surface of the soil, will do less injury 
than the application of fire heat to most 
plants. In the case of plants frozen in 
a lean-to house, and others in a span- 
roofed house extending north and south, 
the consequences were much the least 
injurious in the latter, for in it the in- 
fluence of the sun was much less felt; 
18 



as he proceeded towards the meridian, 
the astragals and rafters formed a shade, 
and air being given, the plants survived 
and soon recovered ; in the leaTi-to 
house they blackened and perished." 

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 

DWARFS SUITABLE FOR BEDDING IN THE 
HOUSE. 

Acacia armata. 
Chorozema varium. 
Sollya heterophylla. 
Templetonia glauca. 
Pultenea daphnoides. 
Statice arborea. 
Pimelea decussata. 
Oxylobium retusum. 
Loddigesia oxalidifolia. 
Epacris grandiflora. 

impressa. 

Corraaa speciosa. 
Euchilus obcordatum. 
Hovea Celsi. 
Chironia frutescens. 
Diosma rubra. 
Eutaxia myrtifolia. 
Eriostemon buxifolium. 
Dillwynia floribunda. 
Boronia denticulata. 
Genista canariensis. 
Polygala oppositifolia. 
Coleonema tenuifolia. 
Lambertia formosa. 

CLIMBERS FOR THE BACK WALL. 

Clematis azurea grandiflora. 
Sieboldi. 



Cobosa scandens. 
Maurandya Barclayana. 
Kennedya Maetryaltae. 

SELECT PLANTS FOR THE SHELVES. 

Boronia pinnata, serrulata, and anemo- 

nefolia. 
Polygala oppositifolia and cordifolia. 
Gardoquia Hookeri. 
Roelia ciliata. 
Hovea celsi and pungens. 
Chorozema varium, Dicksoni, 

Henchmanni. 
Mirbelia floribunda. 
Aphelexis humilus. 
Pimelea spectabilis, decussata, and 

hispida. 
Bossioea linophylia. 
Eutaxia myrtifolia. 
Dillwynia floribunda. 
Luculia gratissima. 
Leschenaultia formosa and biloba. 
Coleonema tenuifolia. 



and 



GRE 



274 



GRE 



Genista canadensis. 

Sprengelia incarnata and Croweasaligna 

together with the different kinds of 
Acacia. 
Corraea. 
Camellia. 
Azalea, &c. 

Climbers may consist of- — 
Kennedya Maryettse. 
Hardenbergia monophylla and macro 

phylla. 
Sollya linearis. 

Gompholobium polymorphum. 
Zichya glabrata. 
Tropoeopium brachyceras, tricolor, and j 

azureum. 
Mandevillia suaveolens. 
Dolichos lignosus. 
Clematis azurea grandiflora. 
Veronica speciosa. 
Chorozema varium nanum. 
Pimelia spectabilis. 
Hovea pungens. 
Leschenaultia grandiflora. 
Mirbelia dilatata. 
Statice Dickensoni. 
Tropceolum azureum. 
Tetranema mexicanum. 
Habrothamnus fasciculatus. 

cyaneus. 

Boronia crenulata. 
Eriostemon buxifolium. 
Gompholobium versicolor. 
Tecoma jasminoides rosea. 
Echeveria secunda. 
Hardenbergia macrophylla. 

SWEET-SCENTED GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 

Aloysia citriodora. 
Daphne odora. 
Gardenia radicans. 
Jasminum grandiflorum. 
Luculia gratissima. 
Heliotrope. 

Common Orange, of which the Brigadier 
multiflora is one of the best. 

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS FLOWERING IN 
AUTUMN. 

Hedychium Gardinerianum (which does 
best when planted in the border of 
the house). 

Mimulus glutinosus. 

Leonotis Leonurus. 

Bouvardia splendens. 

Achimenes longiflora. 

Chironia frutescens. 

Swainsonia galegifolia. 

alba. 

Mandevilla suaveolens. 



Lilium lancifolium and its varieties. 
Sollya linearis. 
Leschenaultia formosa. 

GREEN-HOUSE BULBS. 

Oxalis Bowei and versicolor. 
Lachenalia tricolor. 
Sparaxis tricolor and grandiflora. 
Tritonia palida, crispa, and squalid a. 
Ixia patens, viridiflora, aristata, and 

crocata. 
Watsonia fulgida. 
Hypoxis elegans. 

Green-house plants are chiefly kept 
in pots or tubs for moving them into 
shelter in winter, and into the open air 
in summer ; for being all exotics from 
warmer parts of the world, they are not 
able to live in the open air in the 
winter. 

Most of them will prosper in any 
good rich garden earth. Some sorts, 
however, require a particular compost. 
As to the pots and tubs to contain the 
plants, they must be of different sizes, 
according to that of the plants ; and 
when these become too large for pots, 
they must be shifted into tubs, hooped 
with iron, and with handles at top to 
each, of the same metal. See Flower 
Pots and Potting. 

Removing into the open air. — All the 
sorts succeed in the open air from May 
or beginning of June until October ; but 
from October until May or June again 
they require the shelter of the green- 
house. The varieties of Myrtle, Gerani- 
um, Oleander, Cistus, Phlomis, Shrubby 
Aster, Tree Wormwood, Tree Candy 
Tuft, Yellow Indian and Spanish Jas- 
mines, Indian Bay, are the first that will 
bear removal into the air; and in June, 
accordingly as the season proves more 
or less favourable, bring forth all the 
others. But this should not be done 
until there is a fair prospect of summer 
being settled. 

It is a good observation that when the 
Mulberry tree begins to expand its 
leaves this is a certain sign of the ap- 
proach of summer, and settled weather 
fit to begin moving out most sorts of 
green-house exotics. A mild warm day 
should be chosen for this work, and if 
during a warm rain it will be of much 
advantage, as it will wash the leaves 
and branches, and greatly refresh the 
plants. 

When they are first brought out it is 
proper to place the plants in some shel- 



GRE 



275 

— ♦- 



GRE 



tered sunny place for a fortnight, till 
they are inured to the open air, and 
then in any open exposure, where they 
are designed to remain for the summer. 
As soon as they are brought out let 
them be cleared from dead leaves and 
dead wood, and let the earth on the 
surface of the pots be stirred, taking a 
little of the old out and adding some 
fresh in its stead ; then give a moderate 
watering, not only to the soil but also 
over the heads of the plants. Supply 
them with water during that season, in 
hot dry weather. All except the suc- 
culent will require it three times a week 
at least, and in a very hot dry season 
once a day will be requisite. The suc- 
culent kinds must also have a moderate 
supply of water twice a week in dry 
weather, observing that the proper time 
of the day for watering all the sorts at 
this season is either in a morning before 
nine o'clock, or in the afternoon after 
four or five. Moderate rains should not 
deter from watering, especially such 
plants as have spreading heads, as these 
prevent the rains, unless very heavy or 
constant, from falling in sufficient quan- 
tities on the earth of the pots to moisten 
it properly. In hot weather, if some 
mowings of short grass, or moss, which 
is neater, are spread on the surface of 
the Orange Tree tubs and others, it will 
greatly preserve the moisture. During 
the season loosen the surface of the 
earth occasionally. 

Removing into the Green-house. — To- 
wards the latter end of September, or 
as soon as the nights become cold, be- 
gin to return into the green-house the 
more tender kinds, and especially the 
succulents should be removed to shelter 
at the first approach of excessive wet 
and cold nights. 

The Oranges, Lemons, and all the 
other species of Citrus, should also be 
moved into shelter in due time, either 
at the end of September or early in 
October. 

Continue moving in the others as the 
cold increases, and by the end of the 
month or first week of November bring 
in the whole collection ; observing, ac- 
cording as the time approaches for mov- 
ing in the different sorts, to clear them 
perfectly well from decayed leaves, &c, 
and let all the pots be well cleaned, 
and loosen the surface of the earth in 
each pot, adding a little fresh soil. 
Their principal culture now will be, 



supplying them with fresh air at all op- 
portunities in mild weather, and giving 
moderate waterings occasionally, pick- 
ing off decayed leaves as often as they 
appear, and making moderate fire3 in 
severe or foggy weather. 

When the plants are first housed, 
they should have as much free air as 
the nature of the season will admit, by 
opening the windows every mild day to 
their full extent ; and if the air is quite 
temperate, they may remain open at 
nights for the first week : but in cold 
nights let them be constantly shut. This 
work of admitting air must be attended 
to all winter. 

The proper time of day, during the 
winter, for admission of air is from 
about eight, nine, or ten in the morn- 
ing till three in the evening, according 
to the mildness of the weather ; but 
as the days lengthen and the warmer 
season advances, give more air in pro- 
portion earlier and later in the day, as 
you shall judge proper, being careful 
always to shut all close every evening 
as soon as the sharp air approaches. 
In foggy weather it is advisable to keep 
the windows quite close, for the great 
damp occasioned by fogs is very perni- 
cious to plants whilst they are confined 
in the house ; likewise in frosty weather 
keep the house close, unless the frost 
is moderate, and the middle of the day 
sunny and warm, when some of the 
windows may be opened a little, but 
shut close again if the sun is clouded. 
In severe weather let the shutters also 
be closed every night, and occasionally 
in severe days, and be particularly 
careful to water with great moderation 
whilst the plants remain in the green- 
house. 

A sunny day from about eleven to two 
o'clock, is then the proper time for 
watering. (Abercombie.) 

See January and other months for the 
routine work. 

GREEN MANURE is a mass of re- 
cently growing plants dug whilst green 
and fresh into the soil, for the purpose 
of enriching it; and it is a rule without 
any exception, that all fresh vegetable 
matters so turned into the earth do 
render it more fertile, and if plants are 
grown upon the soil for this purpose, 
the greater the amount of the surface 
of leaves in proportion to that of roots 
the better, because such plants obtain a 
large proportion of their chief constitu- 



GRE 



276 

— ♦ — 



GRO 



ent, — the chief constituent of all plants, 
carbon, — from the atmosphere : they, 
therefore, return to the soil more de- 
composing matter than they have taken 
from it. 

The putrefaction of the vegetables, 
and the gases in that case emitted, says 
my brother, Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, 
" appear to be on all occasions highly 
invigorating and nourishing to the suc- 
ceeding crop. During this operation, 
the presence of water is essentially ne- 
cessary, and is most probably decom- 
posed. The gases produced vary in 
different plants ; those which contain 
gluten emit ammonia ; onions and a few 
others evolve phosphorus ; hydrogen, 
carbonic acid gas, and carburetted hy- 
drogen gas, with various vegetable 
matters, are almost always abundantly 
formed. All these gases when mixed 
with the soil are very nourishing to the 
plants growing upon it. The observa- 
tions of the farmer assure us that they 
are so. He tells us that all green ma- 
nures cannot be employed in too fresh 
a state, that the best corn is grown 
where the richest turf has preceded it, 
and that where there is a good produce 
of red clover there will assuredly follow 
an excellent crop of wheat ; he finds 
also that when he ploughs in his crop of 
buckwheat to enrich his land, that this 
is most advantageously done when the 
plant is coming into flower." — Farm. 
Encyc. 

Sea Weed is a species of green ma- 
nure, for it ought to be employed 
whilst quite fresh. There are many 
species, and they differ very essentially 
in their components. The Laurinarice , 
those long, tawny-green, ribbon-like 
algae so common on our coasts, contain 
besides vegetable matter a large pro- 
portion of the salts of potash in addition 
to those of soda ; whereas the Fuci con- 
tain none of the salts of potash. All, 
however, are excellent manures, and I 
know a garden, near Southampton, very 
productive, that for some years has had 
no other manure. It is particularly 
good as a manure for potatoes. The 
Fucus vesiculosus, so distinguishable by 
the bladders full of air embedded in its 
leaves, is a very excellent manure. It 
contains, when dry, about 84 parts ve- 
getable matter, 13 parts sulphate of 
lime and magnesia, with a little phos- 
phate of lime, and 3 parts sulphate and 
muriate of soda. 



The advantage of green manure is 
practically understood by thousands of 
our farmers, who, though they may be 
unable to philosophize upon the subject 
or refer to its true chemical cause, fully 
appreciate its value. 

The great desideratum of those who 
aim at enriching the soil, is to produce 
clover, — that attained, the rest is easy. 
Clover, when turned in, prepares the 
land for every description of crop, and 
places the whole under the control of 
the husbandman. 

GREVILLEA. Forty-two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings, and some species, seeds. 
Sand, loam and peat. 

GRIFFINIA. Three species. Stove 
bulbous perennials. Offsets. Seeds. 
Turfy loam, white sand and peat. 

GRINDELIA. Nine species. Chiefly 
green-house evergreen shrubs. G. an- 
gustifolia and G. squamosa are herba- 
ceous perennials, and G. ciliata a hardy 
annual. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

GRISLEA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat and loam. 

GROBYA Amherstia. Stove orchid. 
Division. Wood. 

GROTTO, is a resting place, formed 
rudely of rock-work, roots of trees, 
and shells, and is most appropriately 
placed beneath the deep shade of woods, 
and on the margin of water. Its inten- 
tion is to be a cool retreat during sum- 
mer. 

GROUND CHERRY. Cerasus Cha- 
mcecerasus. 

GROUND CHRISTA. Cassia Cha- 
mcechrista. 

GROUND CISTUS. Rhododendron 
Chamcecistus. 

GROVE, is a moderately extensive as- 
sociation of trees without underwood. 

" The character of a grove is beauty; 
for fine trees are lovely objects, and a 
grove is an assemblage of them, in 
which every individual retains much of 
its own peculiar elegance, and whatever 
it loses is transferred to the superior 
beauty of the whole. To a grove, 
therefore, which admits of endless vari- 
ety in the disposition of the trees, differ- 
ences in their shapes and their greens are 
seldom very important, and sometimes 
they are detrimental. Strong contrasts 
scatter trees which are thinly planted, 
and which have not the connexion of 
underwood ; they no longer form one 



GRO 



277 

♦ 



GUA 



plantation ; they are a number of single 
trees. A thick grove is not, indeed, ex- 
posed to this mischief, and certain situ- 
ations may recommend different shapes 
and different greens for their effects up- 
on the surface. The eye, attracted into 
the depth of the grove, passes by little 
circumstances at the entrance; even 
varieties in the form of the line do not 
always engage the attention, they are 
not so apparent as in a continued thick- 
et, and are scarcely seen if they are not 
considerable. 

"But the surface and the outline are not 
the only circumstances to be attended 
to. Though a grove be beautiful as an 
object, it is, besides, delightful as a 
spot to walk or to sit in ; and the choice 
and the disposition of the trees for 
effect within are therefore a principal 
consideration. Mere irregularity alone 
will not please, strict order is there 
more agreeable than absolute confusion, 
and some meaning better than none. 
A regular plantation has a degree of 
beauty; but it gives no satisfaction, be- 
cause we know that the same number 
of trees might be more beautifully ar- 
ranged. A disposition, however, in 
which the lines only are broken, with- 
out varying the distances, is less natural 
than any ; for though we cannot find 
straight lines in a forest, we are habitu- 
ated to them in the hedge-rows of fields ; 
but neither in wild nor in cultivated 
nature do we ever see trees equidistant 
from each other; that regularity be- 
longs to art alone. The distances, there- 
fore, should be strikingly different; the 
trees should gather into groups, or stand 
in various irregular lines, and describe 
several figures ; the intervals between 
them should be contrasted both in shape 
and in dimensions ; a large space should 
in some places be quite open, in others 
the trees should be so close together as 
hardly to leave a passage between them ; 
and in others as far apart as the con- 
nexion will allow. In the forms and 
the varieties of these groups, these 
lines, and these openings, principally 
consists the interior beauty of a grove." 
— Whateley. 

GROWTH. It may be taken as a 
universal maxim in gardening, that slow 
growth and smallness of size increases 
the intensity of flavour, and that rapidity 
of growth and increase of size render 
flavour more mild. Fruit, therefore, 
should be ripened slowly, and be pre- 



m- 



ferred of a moderate size ; but culinary 
vegetables should be grown rapidly, 
and of as gigantic a size as may be. 

GRYLLOTALPA. See Mole- 
Cricket. 

GUAIACUM. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Rich 
loam. 

GUANO. This now celebrated ma- 
nure has been known as the chief fer- 
tilizer employed by the Peruvians, 
almost as long as that part of the New 
World has been recognized by geo- 
graphers. Its name, in the language of 
that country, signifies the manure — and 
it merits such distinction, as being one 
of the most powerful assistants to vege- 
tation which can be applied to the soil. 
Guano is not peculiar to Peru, but is 
found in immense beds upon many rocks 
and islands of the Atlantic, being the 
excrements of the marine birds fre- 
quenting those ocean solitudes. It has 
been lately analyzed by Dr. Ure, who 
reports it as composed of the following 
proportional constituents :- 
Azotized organic matter, 
including urate of am- 
monia, and capable 
affording from 8 to 17 >50.0 
per cent, of ammonia I 
by slow decomposition I 
in the soil ... .J 

Water 11.0 

Phosphate of lime . . 25.0 
Ammonia, phosphate of") 
magnesia, phosphate of | 
ammonia, and oxalate l , « n 
of ammonia, contain- ( 
ing from 4 to 9 per cent. [ 
of ammonia J 

Siliceous matter ... 1.0 
This analysis explains the source from 
whence failure has been derived to 
many who have tried it. It is the most 
violently stimulating of all the known 
natural manures, and they have applied 
it too abundantly. This is shown by 
the experiments of Mr. Maund. When 
applied to Strawberries once a week in 
a liquid state, (four ounces to a gallon,) 
it made them very vigorous and pro- 
ductive; but sprinkled upon some young 
seedlings of the same fruit it killed them. 
Two ounces per yard, (five cwt. per 
acre,) were sprinkled over Onions, and 
they doubled the untreated in size. 
Potatoes manured with one ounce and a 
half per yard, were rendered much 
more luxuriant than others having no 



GU A 



278 



GYP 



guano. Brussels Sprouts were half 
destroyed by being planted in immedi- 
ate contact with nine parts earth and 
one part guano. Geraniums were 
greatly injured by liquid manure of 
guano, (four ounces per gallon,) but 
" Plants of various sorts in pots, water- 
ed only with guano water, half an ounce 
to a gallon, have flourished astonish- 
ingly; none have failed. These are 
lessons which cannot be mistaken." — 
Auctorium, 223. Mr. Rendle and other 
persons record, as the result of dearly- 
purchased experience, that where guano 
has failed to be beneficial, or has been in- 
jurious, it has been applied in quantities 
too powerful for the plants to bear. In 
a liquid state, half an ounce per gallon, 
and given to growing plants once a week, 
it never fails to be productive of vigour. 

There is reason to fear that all 
the advantages attributed to Guano, 
may not be realized. That it has pro- 
duced striking effects on certain crops 
cannot be questioned — especially on 
grass, wheat and Indian corn ; but we 
are far from subscribing to the opinion 
of those who in their zealous praise of 
this new fertilizer, assert that it is 
cheaper to buy it, than haul manure 
from the barn-yard to the fields! 

There are many crops on which it 
appears to produce but little effect: 
The writer has used over two tons of 
what was reputed to be the best Peruvian 
guano, in experiments, chiefly on 
Kitchen garden vegetables carefully no- 
ting the quantity applied, mode, &c, but 
in nearly every instance without per- 
ceiving any important result. — Doubt- 
less much depends on the soil, and the 
presence or absence of those constitu- 
ents which abound in guano— where 
they already exist in the soil, in suf- 
ficient quantity, no benefit can result 
from its application. 

GUATTERIA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs or trees. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

GUAVA. Psidium. 

GUAZUMA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

GUELDER ROSE. Viburnum opulus. 

GUERNSEY LILY. Nerine sar- 
niensis. 

GUETTARDA. Seven species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

GUILANDJNA. Two species. Stove 



evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or seeds. 
Sandy peat and loam. 

GUINEA-PEACH. Sarcocephalus. 

GUINEA-PLUM. Parinarium excel- 
sum. 

GUM ARABIC TREE. Acacia ara- 
bica. 

GUM CISTUS. Cistus Ladaniferus. 

GUM TREE. Eucalyptus robusta. 

GUMMING. See Extravasated Sap. 

GUSTAVIA augusta. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Rich soil. 

GUZMANNIA tricolor. Stove her- 
baceous perennial. Suckers. Rich 
mould. 

GYMNADENIA. Four species. 
Hardy orchids. Division. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

GYMNEMA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

GYMNOCLADUS canadensis. Hardy 
deciduous tree. Cuttings. Open loamy 
soil. 

GYMNOGRAMMA. Fourteen 
species. Stove herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Loam and peat. 

GYMNOLOMIA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

GYMNOSTACHYS anceps. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. Suckers. 
Peat and loam. 

GYNANDROPSIS. Six species. 
Hardy or stove annuals and biennials. 
Seeds. Sandy loam. 

GYPSUM, or Plaster of Paris, is a 
sulphate of lime, composed of- — 

Sulphuric acid 43 

Lime 33 

Water 24 

It has been employed advantageously 
as a manure to the turnip and potato, at 
the rate of 3 cwt. per acre. Potato sets 
are frequently rolled in it when pulver- ' 
ized. It has been recommended to be 
sprinkled in stables, and to be mixed 
with dunghills, " to fix the ammonia," 
as it is popularly termed. That am- 
moniacal fumes are given out from the 
urine of horses, and from decomposing 
dungheaps, is true ; but it is quite as 
true, that sulphate of lime thus em- 
ployed will not detain a thousandth part 
of them, owing to the sulphuric acid 
having a greater affinity for the ammonia 
than for lime, and carbonic acid having 
a greater affinity for lime than for am- 
monia. And it is also true, that all the 
ammonia lost in fumes from a dunghill 



GYP 



279 

— ♦ — 



HAL 



might be more readily and as cheaply 
restored to it by mixing with it, when 
dug into the soil, a little of the am- 
moniacal liquor from the gas works. 
Gypsum is extensively used in Pennsyl- 
vania and in many cases with the best 
results. For its introduction originally 
we are indebted to the late Judge Peters; 
from a " short notice" of whom, by 
Samuel Breck, Esq., we extract the fol- 
lowing: 

" As a practical farmer, Mr. Peters 
had from time to time communicated 
the results of the experiments made at 
Belmont, to such of his neighbours as 
chose to profit by them ; but he had not 
written much, if anything, upon agri- 
culture, before the year 1797. His first 
publication was then made, and con- 
tained a statement of facts and opinions 
in relation to the use of Gypsum. This 
pamphlet circulated widely, and pro- 
duced such a change in husbandry, by 
introducing the culture of clover, and 
other artificial grasses, as gave, we all 
know, a magical increase to the value 
of farms. Estates which until then were 
unable to maintain stock, for want of 
winter fodder, and summer pasture, 
were suddenly brought into culture, and 
made productive. Formerly, on a farm 
destitute of natural meadow, no stock 
could be supported ; and even where 
natural meadow existed, the barn yard 
was exhausted to keep up sufficient 
fertility, (in the absence of irrigation,) 
to feed a very few horses and black 
cattle. 

" Such was the situation of our hus- 
bandry, for some years after the revolu- 
tion. It is proper to advert to it, that 
we may understand the full extent of 
our obligation to the Judge. In the 
year 1770, he was shown the effects of 
gypsum on clover, in a city lot, occupied 
by Mr. Jacob Barge, on the commons 
of Philadelphia. 

" The secret of its powerful agency 
came from Germany, where it was ac- 
cidentally discovered. Mr. Peters ob- 
tained a small quantity, which he used 
successfully, and gradually promoted 
its consumption, until, by his example, 
and his publications, the importation 
from Nova Scotia alone, into the single 
port of Philadelphia, increased to the 
enormous amount of fourteen thousand 
tons annually. This was before the 
discovery of that fossil in the United 
States. 



" Inquire in the counties of Chester, 
Lancaster, and others around us, where 
clover is so beneficially cultivated, how 
much is due to that excellent man, for 
the great pains he took to extend the 
use of gypsum ? On this subject, I very 
recently transmitted to the Judge, a 
testimonial of gratitude from one of the 
most intelligent persons of Lancaster ; 
who unhesitatingly ascribes to Mr. 
Peters' book on plaster, and his other 
agricultural essays, the merit of having 
produced a good part of the rich culti- 
vation, for which that country is so 
celebrated." 

GYRENIA biflora. Half-hardy bulb- 
ous perennials. Division. Peat and 
loam. 

GYROCARPUS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

HABENARIA. Ten species. Stove 
orchids. Division. Leaf-mould and 
peat. 

HABRANTHUS. Fourteen species. 
Green-house and hardy bulbs. Offsets 
and seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

H^MADICTYON venosum. Stove 
evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

H^MANTHUS. Twenty-one 
species. Green-house bulbs. Offsets. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

H^MILIS. See Tinea. 

H^MODORUM. Two species. 
Green-house herbaceous. Division. 
Loam and peat. 

HA-HA, is a sunk fence, being placed 
at the bottom of a deep and spreading 
ditch, either to avoid any interruption 
to an expanse of surface, or to let in a 
desired prospect. As all deceptions are 
unsatisfactory to good taste, and as 
when viewed lengthwise these fences 
are formal and displeasing, they ought 
never to be adopted except in extreme 
cases. 

HAIR. See Animal Matters. 

HAKEA. Forty-eight species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

HALESIA. Snowdrop Tree. Three 
species. Hardy deciduous shrubs. Cut- 
tings and layers. Common soil. 

HALF-HARDY PLANTS are those 
which require partial shelter, as in a 
cold pit or frame, during the winter. 
Here some attention is required to ex- 
clude from them dampness and frost, 
but especially the first. On these points 



HAL 



280 



HAN 



Mr. W. Wakefield gives these good 
directions : — 

" To prevent dampness there must 
be a free circulation of air; the plants 
must be placed on a dry bottom ; and if 
they are in a situation which will admit 
of a fire occasionally, it will render the 
pits or house dry, but it should be used 
very sparingly, and only when abso- 
lutely necessary. But even with all 
care and attention, damp will attack 
some plants, and generally those that 
are most succulent in their nature, or 
the young and tender tops of others. 
We should therefore watch narrowly 
and remove every leaf or shoot affected, 
as damp not only destroys the indi- 
vidual immediately affected, but ex- 
tends its influence to those in the neigh- 
bourhood of the one so affected. It is 
contagious; it engenders mould, which 
being a species of fungus, is rapidly dis- 
seminated, attacking and destroying 
wherever the damp has prepared the 
leaves for its reception. Neither should 
plants be too much crowded, as that 
obstructs the free circulation of air. 

" Watering should of course be done 
sparingly, but still it will be required 
occasionally. Care, however, should 
be taken to preserve the foliage as dry 
as possible, as, there being but little sun 
in winter, and that not of sufficient 
strength to evaporate the superabundant 
moisture rapidly, it quickly rots the 
leaves, especially of Pelargoniums, and 
similar plants having leaves which form 
a kind of dish in which the water ac- 
cumulates in considerable quantities. 

" When fire is had recourse to for dry- 
ing the house or pits, choose a fine day, 
and give all the air possible, so that 
the moisture dislodged by the heat may 
be dispersed. 

"If the season is likely to be dry, 
first make a hole for the plant, and in 
the bottom of this put some rotten dung, 
or any sort of material that will retain 
water. Water this well, and then put 
in the plant, filling the hole to within 
two inches of the surface ; again water 
well, and then fill up the hole. 

" If obliged to water the plants after- 
wards, cause the beds to be hoed over 
next day as soon as they are dry enough ; 
plants do better under this treatment 
than by watering them so much as is 
usually done when there is no appear- 
ance of damp on the leaves over late in 
the evening." — Gard. Chron. 



HALIMODENDRON. Three species. 
Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers and 
seeds, or grafts on Robinia. Sandy loam. 

HALLERIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
sandy loam. 

HALTICA. See Black Fly. 

HAMAMELIS. Witch Hazel. Two 
species. Hardy deciduous trees. Lay- 
ers. Common soil. 

HAMBURGH PARSLEY. SeePars- 
ley (Hamburgh). 

HAMELIA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

HAMILTONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

HANBURY. SeeAmbury. 

HANDBARROW is best made of 
this form : — 

Fig. 77. 




The cage below is useful for carrying 
leaves and other litter ; and when the 
close moveable cover is on, it serves as 
a conveyance for plants in large pots or 
tubs, which, when in flower or bearing 
fruit, might be too violently shaken in a 
wheelbarrow. 

HAND-GLASS is a portable glass- 
case used for sheltering cauliflowers 
and other plants in winter, and during 
early spring, or to retain a regular 
supply of moisture to cuttings until 
they are rooted. The most durable 
and convenient are made with cast iron 
framing of this form : — 

Fig. 78. 




They are sometimes made with movea- 
ble tops as here represented, but the 
only advantage it affords is, that several 
of the lower portions may be placed 



HAN 



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upon each other to protect any tall 
growing shrub in severe weather, other- 
wise they are more troublesome to move, 
and more liable to breakage than if 
made entire. 

HAND- WEEDING: much of it might 
be banished from the garden, if in the 
kitchen department all crops were in- 
serted in drills. This is most desirable ; 
for the stirring of the surface conse- 
quent to hoeing, is much more beneficial 
to the crops, and cannot be repeated 
too frequently. 

HAPALOSTEPHIUM. Eight species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division and seed. 
Sandy rich soil. 

HARDENBERGIA monophylla is a 
green-house climber, the cultivation of 
which is thus narrated by Mr. G. Wat- 
son : — 

" Train with five leading shoots, one 
from the centre of the pot, to which a 
long, small, neat stick is placed ; the 
other four being fastened to four similar 
sticks at regular distances round the 
edge of the pot. From each of these 
leading shoots proceed numerous side- 
branches which are densely covered 
with flowers. When the plant has done 
blooming, which is by the end of May 
or beginning of June, still allow it to 
remain in the green-house until the 
shoots are well ripened. During this 
time the plant is watered sparingly ; 
for it is only by moderating the supply 
of water that we can imitate those pe- 
riodical seasons of rest to which this, 
as well as all other exotic plants, is ex- 
in its native climate. 
By the first week in August it is 
taken from the green-house and well 
soaked with water, then placed in the 
open air in a sheltered situation, but 
fully exposed to the sun, being double 
potted to prevent the sun's rays from 
destroying the small fibres, which are 
the principal feeding Organs. 

" The whole of the side shoots are 
pruned to one or not more than two 
eyes, and the leading shoots cut back 
according to their strength, so as to call 
into action the whole of the remaining 
buds. As soon as the new shoots are 
from one to two inches in length, the 
plant is taken from the pot and nearly 
the whole of the soil is shaken from its 
roots ; the stronger roots are at the 
same time cut back to smaller fibres. 
It is then repotted in a new or clean 
washed pot, thoroughly drained. 



"The soil in which it thrives well is 
chopped turfy heath-mould, mixed with 
a little sand. After forcing it is placed 
in a shady place for a short time, and 
by degrees exposed fully to the sun, 
being taken into the green-house by the 
end of September." — Gard. Chron. 

HARDY PLANTS are those which 
endure uninjured our seasons without 
protection. Half-hardy Plants are those 
which require a temporary protection 
during the colder portions of the year. 

HAREBELL. Campanula rotundi- 
folia. 

HARES and RABBITS are deterred 
from injuring trees and shrubs by mixing 
night-soil and clay in water, and daub- 
ing it over the stems with a brush, in 
November ; and if the winter proves 
very wet, in February. The November 
dressing is, however, generally suffi- 
cient. This mixture has stopped their 
depredations entirely, even when they 
had commenced operations. — Gard. 
Chron . 

HARE'S-EAR. Bupleurum. 

HARE'S-FERN. Davallia canari- 
ensis. 

HARE'S-FOOT. Ochromalagopus. 

HARONGA madagascariensis. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

HARPALYCE. Four species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seeds. Common soil. 

HARRISONIA loniceroides. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

HARTOGIA capensis. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

HAUTBOY. See Strawberry. 

HAWK FLY. See Scjeva. 

HAWKWEED. Rieracium. 

HAWORTHIA. Sixty-two species. 
Green-house succulents. Suckers or 
cuttings of leaves. Sandy loam and 
leaf-mould. 

HAWTHORN. Cratagus. 

HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY. See 
Pieris. 

HAYLOCKIA pussilia. Half-hardy 
bulb. Offsets. Sandy loam. 

HAZEL. Corylus avellana. 

HEADING, or as it is also termed 
Cabbaging or Loaving, is an inaptitude 
to unfold the central leaves, character- 
izing the various members of the Cab- 
bage tribe. They have their centre or 
bud composed of a larger number of 
leaves than usual, and these, in some 



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HEA 



instances, are so complexly combined 
that the plant has not sufficient power 
to force them open to permit the pro- 
trusion of the seed-stem. The close- 
ness of the heading is regulated by the 
exposure to the light. In a shady situ- 
ation all the leaves are required to ela- 
borate the sap, on account of the defi- 
cient light rendering each less active ; 
therefore they open as they are formed. 
In a free exposure a few leaves are able 
to effect the requisite decomposition ; 
and hence the reason why cabbages al- 
ways have " harder hearts" in summer 
than in spring or autumn, when the 
light is less intense. 

HEADING-DOWN is cutting off en- 
tirely or to a considerable extent, the 
branches of a tree or shrub — a process 
not rashly to be resorted to, and adapted 
only to reduce them when the plant 
seems declining in vigour, or has attain- 
ed an undesirable size. 

HEART'S-EASE. See Pansy. 

HEAT is the prime agent employed 
by the Almighty Creator to call vege- 
table life into existence, to develop 
vegetable form, to effect all vegetable 
changes, and to ripen all vegetable 
produce. All these effects are per- 
formed most efficiently, in the case of 
every plant, at some different tempera- 
ture or degree of heat; and he who 
ascertains most correctly those heats, 
has taken a gigantic step towards ex- 
cellence as a gardener. An uncongenial 
heat is as pernicious to vegetables as to 
animals. Every plant has a particular 
temperature without which its functions 
cease ; but the majority of them luxuri- 
ate most in a climate of which the 
extreme temperature does not much 
exceed 32° and 90°. No seed will 
vegetate — no sap will circulate — at a 
temperature at or below the freezing 
point of water. No cultivation will 
render pi ants, natives of the torrid zone, 
capable of bearing the rigours of our 
winters, although their offspring, raised 
from seed, may be rendered much more 
hardy than their parents. Others are 
capable of resisting the greatest known 
cold to which they can be exposed ; yet 
all have degrees of temperature most 
congenial to them, and if subjected to 
lower temperatures, are less or more 
injured proportionately to the intensity 
of that reduction. If the reduction of 
temperature be only slightly below that 
which is congenial, it only causes the 



growth of the plant to diminish and its 
colour to become more pale ; this effect 
being now produced by the plant's tor- 
pidity, or want of excitement to perform 
the requisite elaboration of the sap, as 
it is by over-excitement when made to 
vegetate in a temperature which is too 
elevated. 

If blossoms are produced at all, they 
are unfertile, and the entire aspect o 
the plant betrays that its secretions are 
not healthy and its functions are dead- 
ened. Mr. Knight says, "that melon 
and cucumber plants, if grown in a 
temperature too low, produce an excess 
of female blossoms; but if the tempera- 
ture be too high, blossoms of the oppo- 
site sex are by far too profuse." The 
drier the air the greater is the amount 
of moisture transpired ; and this be- 
comes so excessive, if it be also pro- 
moted by a high temperature, that 
plants in hot-houses, where it has oc- 
curred often, dry up as if burned. The 
justly lamented Mr. Daniell has well 
illustrated this by showing, that if the 
temperature of a hot-house be raised 
only five degrees, viz. from 75° to 80°, 
whilst the air within it retains the same 
degree of moisture, a plant that in the 
lower temperature exhaled fifty-seven 
grains of moisture, would in the higher 
temperature, exhale one hundred and 
twenty grains in the same space of 
time. 

Plants, however, like animals, can 
bear a higher temperature in dry air 
than they can in air charged with va- 
pour. Animals are scalded in the lat- 
ter if the temperature is very elevated, 
and plants die, under similar circum- 
stances, as if boiled. MM. Edwards 
and Colin found kidney-beans sustained 
no injury, when the air was dry, at a 
temperature of 167° ; but they died in 
a few minutes if the air was moist. 
Other plants under similar circum- 
stances, would perish probably at a 
much lower temperature ; and the fact 
affords a warning to the gardener to 
have the atmosphere in his stoves very 
dry whenever he wishes to elevate their 
temperature for the destruction of in- 
sects or other purposes. 

Some plants, like some animals, are 
able to endure a very high degree of tem- 
perature. Sir Joseph Banks and others 
have breathed for many minutes in an at- 
mosphere hot enough to cook eggs ; and 
I have myself travelled in Bengal breath- 



HE A 



283 

— ♦— 



ing air, without inconvenience, which 
rendered the silver-mountings of my 
green spectacles too hot to be borne 
without their occasional removal. 

So do certain plants flourish in hot- 
water springs of which the temperature 
varies between the scalding heats of 
from ISO to 180° of Fahrenheit's ther- 
mometer ; and others have been found 
growing freely on the edges of volca- 
noes, in an atmosphere heated above 
the boiling point of water. Indeed, it 
is quite certain that most plants will 
better bear, for a short time, an elevat- 
ed temperature which, if long continu- 
ed, would destroy them, than they can 
a low temperature. Thus a temperature 
much above the freezing point of wa- 
ter, to orchidaceous and other tropical 
plants, is generally fatal if endured by 
them for only a few minutes ; whereas 
a considerable elevation above a salu- 
tary temperature is rarely injurious to 
plants. But this is not universally the 
case; for the elegant Primula mar ginata 
is so impatient of heat that, although 
just about to bloom, it never opens a 
bud, if brought into a room in which 
there is a fire. 

The temperature should always be 
regulated, in our hot-houses, with a 
due regard to the light. At night it 
. should be so low as to put the circula- 
tion of the sap into a comparative state 
of rest ; and in dull days the tempera- 
ture should be full 10° lower than in 
those of bright sunshine. 

HEATHS (Ericce). This truly beau- 
tiful tribe is in' the climate of the United 
States of but little interest. Scarcely 
half a dozen of the almost countless 
species and varieties of Erica have 
proved capable of resisting the effects 
of our restless climate. It is a curious 
fact, that, though this genus is diffused 
over Europe, Asia, and Africa, not a 
single species has been found in the 
Western hemisphere. 

Varieties. — Of these the following are 
good selections : — 

HARDY CAPE HEATHS, FOR FLOWERING 
DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS. 

Erica Bowieana, white. 
Grandiflora, yellow. 

■ Ventricosa, pink. 

• Echiflora, purple. 

Beaumontiana, blush. 

Mundula, pink. 

■ Cerinthoides, scarlet. 



HEA 

Erica Ampullacea. 

Aristata, dark crimson and pink. 

— — Aggregata, purple. 

Vindiflora, green and pink. 

Phrysodes, white. 

USEFUL KINDS ARE : 

Hartnelli, pink. 

Aristata Major, red. 

Acuminata longiflora, purple. 

Tenuiflora, white, with pink 

shade. 

Inflata, white. 

Archeriana, scarlet. 

Depressa, yellow. 

Elegans, light purple. 

Cavendishii, yellow. 

Mutabilis, light purple. 

Retorta Major, pink. 

Lamberti Rosea, flesh-coloured. 

Hyemalis, purple, tipped with 

white. 

Tricolor, red. 

Lirinaeoides Superba, purple, 

with white tip. 

Jasmini, flora alba, white, and 

all the varieties of Ventri- 
cosa. 

VARIETIES BLOOMING BETWEEN NOVEM- 
BER AND MAY. 

Erica Verticillata. 

Mammosa, M. pallida. 

Hyemalis. 

Willmoreana. 

Westcottii. 

Grandinosa. 

— — Arbuscula. 

Umbellata. 

Rubra P., alba. 

Pyramidalis. 

Transparens. 

Regermirans. 

Mr. Reid very justly remarks, "that, 
in small establishments, the green-house 
being generally furnished with vines, to 
keep plants in them in summer is out of 
the question ; he therefore selects three 
or four plants of only the winter flower- 
ing sorts, such as would keep up a show 
of bloom from November till April. 
Early in May the plants might be all 
taken out, and the house should be shut 
up for the purpose of forwarding the 
vines." 

With something like the following 
selection, a very nice show of bloom 
might be kept up during all the time 
that it is necessary to have the plants 
in the house ; and they are, with very 



HEA 



284 



HEA 



few exceptions, strong growers and free 
bloomers, and all can be bought at a 
]ow rate: — 

Erica Westcottii. 

Colorans. 

Arbuscula. 

Hyemalis. 

Picta. 

Transparens. 



Nova. 



Vernix. 

Vernix Coccinea. 

Cerinthoides. 
Superba. 

Mutabilis. 

Bicolor. 

Willmoreana. 

Rubra Calyx. 

Lambertiana. 

Lambertiana Rosea. 

Exsurgens. 
Coccinea. 



Archeriana. 
Prsestans. 

Pyramidalis Verna. 
Autumnalis, 



Tenella. 

Gracilis Autumnalis. 
Verna. 



— — Pellucida. 

Mammosa. 

Pallida. 

Curviflora. 

— — Scabriuscula. 

Propagation. — Mr. Fleming gives the 
following very full and excellent direc- 
tions : — 

" Heaths are propagated in two ways 
— by seeds and by cuttings. Seeds are 
either obtained from the Cape of Good 
Hope, or are gathered from plants 
which have flowered in this country. 
When they are received from the Cape 
they should be sown immediately, un- 
less this should happen late in the au- 
tumn, or in winter ; and in that case 
the sowing should be deferred until 
spring. When seeds of this kind are 
sown late in the year, they either do 
not vegetate at all, or, if they are ex- 
cited into growth, the stimulus is so 
weak, and the days are so short and 
dull, that they get sickly, and frequent- 
ly damp off. For the same reason, 
seeds which are saved in this country 
should either be sown in spring, or very 
early in summer. 

" Some flat pots, or seed-pans, should 
be half filled with potsherds ; and over 



these a layer of turfy peat should be 
placed to prevent the soil from being 
washed down and destroying the drain- 
age. The pots should then be filled to 
within half an inch of the top with fine 
peat, and this should be slightly pressed 
down with the back of the hand, or 
with the bottom of a small flower-pot, 
to make it level and more solid. If this 
is not attended to, the seeds are liable 
to sink too deep in the soil, and are 
prevented from germinating. They 
should then be sown, and slightly co- 
vered with fine peat soil, after which 
they should be watered and removed to 
the seed-house. In all large nurseries 
or gardens, a house, pit, or frame, is 
set apart for raising seeds. It is to a 
place of this kind that the pots contain- 
ing the heath-seed should be removed, 
and as we suppose this to be done in 
spring, no artificial heat will be requir- 
ed, that received from the sun being 
quite sufficient. If the seed has been 
good, the young plants will soon make 
their appearance above ground. As 
they get strong, the shading should be 
gradually discontinued, and more air 
admitted, until they are a little harden- 
ed and ready to pot off. They should 
then be put singly into thumb-pots in 
sandy peat soil well watered, and after- 
wards removed to a close-shaded frame. 
Here they will remain for ten days or a 
fortnight, until their roots establish 
themselves in their new quarters, when 
more air may gradually be admitted, 
and the plants subjected to the same 
treatment as those in the green-house 
or heathery." — Gard. Chron. 

Cuttings. — The same good authority 
says that, " No particular time can be 
specified for striking cuttings of heaths, 
because the plants are in a fit state for 
taking off the cuttings at different times; 
but the earlier in the season the better, 
although many cultivators succeed per- 
fectly so late as the months of August 
and September. The plants from which 
the cuttings are taken must be perfectly 
healthy. The wood should be firm and 
nearly ripe, because if taken when very 
young it is almost certain to damp off. 
The short lateral shoots, about an inch 
or an inch and a half long, should al- 
ways be chosen, and the leaves stripped 
off them to about half their length, and 
the ends cut across with a sharp knife ; 
in this state they are ready for the cut- 
ting-pot. The cutting-pots should be 



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285 

— ♦— 



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prepared in the following manner. Fill 
them about two-thirds with broken pots, 
and cover these with a thin stratum of 
turfy peat, or some other substance to 
prevent the sand with which the pots 
are filled up from choking the drain- 
age. The silver sand, common about 
London, is very well adapted for strik- 
ing heaths ; but almost any sand will 
answer the purpose; it is generally pre- 
ferred as free from the rusty colour of 
iron as possible. The cuttings may 
then be inserted in the sand, not deep- 
ly, but merely deep enough to support 
themselves ; from a quarter to half an 
inch is quite sufficient. They must 
then be well watered ; bell glasses are 
of great service in striking them, but 
certainly not indispensable to success. 
When they are used, they must be fre- 
quently taken off and wiped dry, other- 
wise the moisture will probably rot the 
cuttings. When they are dispensed 
with the cuttings should be placed in 
a situation which is moist and shaded, 
and then they will be surrounded in a 
great measure with the same circum- 
stances as under a bell glass. 

"Very little artificial heat is neces- 
sary in striking heaths, much is certain- 
ly injurious. A cucumber or melon 
frame nearly exhausted, or the shaded 
part of a cool stove, will answer the 
purpose early in spring, and later in 
the season, when the sun-heat is greater, 
a close fence slightly shaded is all that 
is required. The care required after- 
wards is to shade during bright sun- 
shine, to remove into the shade early 
in the afternoon, and also to see that 
the watering is not neglected. 

" More, perhaps, depends upon the 
kind of water which is used, and the 
regularity with which it is given, than 
upon anything else in operation ; if we 
except the selection of proper cuttings. 
Rain or river water is by far the best 
kind to use. After the cuttings have 
struck root they should be gradually 
hardened by exposure to the air before 
they are potted off. Small thumb-pots 
are the best for the first potting, and 
the soil used, should be very sandy peat. 
The greatest care should be taken to 
preserve the young rootless from injury, 
because if this is not attended to, the 
plants will receive a sudden check at 
first, which is very prejudicial. After 
potting, they should be removed to a 
close-shaded frame, and treated in the 



same manner as the young seedlings 
above described." — Gard. Chron. 

Soil. — " The best for the growth of 
heaths is that rich brown turfy peat, 
commonly found on the surface of land 
where the native heath grows. Some- 
times grass will be found growing very 
strong on this soil, as at Shirley Com- 
mon ; but wherever the land is barren, 
it is an indication of poor soil, and 
should not be selected. It is always 
best to have it dug and brought home 
to the compost yard at least a year be- 
fore it is to be used. The fibrous mat- 
ter will then have time to decay, and 
will make excellent manure for the 
roots of the plants. During the winter 
and spring it should be several times 
turned over, and by this means the 
whole will get well mixed and exposed 
to the influence of the frost. Peat soil 
is generally found naturally well mixed 
with fine white sand ; but where this is 
not the case, a small quantity should be 
added to the soil before it is used."— 
Gard. Chron. 

After- Culture, Potting, fyc. — "As 
the young plants grow and fill the pots 
of a larger size, follow the different 
sizes of the pots commonly made in the 
potteries from ' thumbs' downwards to 
those of a larger size. Thus the young 
cuttings or seedlings are first potted in 
e thumbs,' then in sixties, then forty- 
eights, and so on. At every shifting 
the neck of the plant ought to be kept 
a little higher than the soil, and when 
large pots or tubs are used, Mr. M'Nab's 
plan of mixing small pieces of freestone 
with the soil is a most excellent one ; 
of course it is necessary for the health 
of the plants to have the pots properly 
drained and the worms kept out of them. 

" Heaths will not bear their roots 
being cut or destroyed, particularly 
after the plants attain a certain age. 
The shifting may be done at any season 
except winter ; but this must be regu- 
lated in a great degree by the state of 
the plants, as they flower and grow at 
so many different times. Spring, how- 
ever, is the time when the most of 
them ought to be shifted, and if they 
are placed out of doors during summer, 
they will all require to be looked over 
again before they are brought into the 
house in autumn. The kind of water 
which is used for these plants is of the 
greatest consequence in keeping them 
in a high state of health. When the 



HEB 



286 



HED 



pots are properly drained, there is not [ 
much danger to be apprehended from 
over watering; but the plants are sure 
to suffer if the ball is allowed to get ! 
too dry, and hence the great use of; 
small pieces of freestone, recommended | 
by Mr. M'Nab. In the winter season, j 
when there is any danger from frost, 
heaths and all other hardy green-house 
plants should always be watered in the 
early part of the day, as they are much 
more likely to be injured if watered in 
the afternoon. It is the best plan under 
these circumstances to keep them as 
dry as they will bear without injury, for 
wet soil freezes much sooner than dry. 
Frequent syringing is also of great use 
in fine weather; but this must never be 
done when the plants are likely to suf- 
fer from damp, or when the weather 
is cold and frosty. The principal art of 
making fine specimens of heaths, con- 
sists in dwarfing them, and forming 
them into round green bushes. This is 
done by pinching out the points of the 
shoots when the plants are young, and 
continuing the practice whenever the 
stems are inclined to grow long-jointed. 
It must, however, be done in a judi- 
cious manner, otherwise if done at the 
wrong season the flowering will be 
spoiled. The proper time is after the 
flowering season is past, or when the 
plant is growing freely, and before it 
has begun to form its flower buds." — 
Gard. Chron. 

HEBENSTREITIA. Ten species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

HEDEOMA. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

HEDERA. Ivy. Two species and 
several varieties. Hardy evergreen 
climbers. Slips. Common soil. 

HEDGE, properly includes every 
kind of fence, but the present details 
apply for the most part to growing 
fences. Abercrombie says, that " all 
outward hedges designed as fences 
should have a ditch on the outside, three 
or four feet wide at the top, three 
deep, sloping to one wide at bottom, 
raising a low bank on the inside on 
which to plant the hedge, which may 
be planted either on the side of the 
said inner bank in two rows, one above 
the other a foot asunder, planting them 
as you advance in forming the ditch and 
bank, or may be planted entirely on the 
top of the bank, first forming the ditch 



and bank, and leveling the top of the 
bank so as to form a sort of border, 
then plant the sets in one or two rows 
the whole length ; but two rows a foot 
asunder is the most eligible for all out- 
ward fences, as it always forms the 
thickest, strongest, and most effectual 
hedge-fence. Mark out a space for a 
ditch three or four feet wide at top, 
which is to be digged three feet deep 
each side, sloping gradually to a foot 
wide at bottom, forming a bank along 
upon the inner edge on which to bed or 
plant, which should be planted as you 
advance in forming the ditch and bank. 
Having lined out the width of the ditch, 
then along the inner edge lay a row of 
square spit turfs, grass side downwards, 
to form the beginning of the bank, back- 
ing it up with spits of earth from the 
formation of the ditch, and top it with 
a little of the fine mould or crumbs; 
and then upon this proceed to lay the 
first row of plants: first let the sets 
be headed to about five or six inches, 
and the roots trimmed, then lay them 
upon the bed of turf with their tops out- 
ward, in an upward direction, about ten 
or twelve inches asunder, covering their 
roots with mould also out of the ditch ; 
and then lay another row of turf along 
upon the necks of the plants, and more 
mould from the ditch upon, and behind, 
the turf; and when the bank is thus 
raised a foot above the row of sets, 
plant another row in the same manner, 
placing each set against the spaces of 
those of the first row, so covering them 
with more earth from the ditch to the 
depth of three feet, sloping each side to 
one foot width at bottom, and trim up 
all remaining earth, throwing a suf- 
ficiency behind the top of the banking to 
bank up the whole even, in a sort of 
broad border, all the way along the top, 
sloping a little back, so as to correspond 
nearly with the adjoining ground. But 
in planting for an outward fence, some 
form the ditch and bank first as above, 
and plant the sets in two rows along the 
top ; that is, after having formed the 
ditch and bank, then leveling the top 
forming a foot of border all along a 
yard wide; plant the sets along the 
middle thereof upright, in two rows a 
foot asunder, and six inches distant in 
each row, observing the same when in- 
tended to raise a hedge at once from 
seed sowed where you design the hedge 
to be, sowing them along the top in 



HED 



287 

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HED 



drills a foot asunder. Sometimes when 
hedges are designed for middle fences 
lo divide" fields, a two-sided bank is 
raised a yard high, and as broad at top, 
having a slight ditch on each side ; and j 
each side of the bank is formed with | 



Hedge-shrubs are Evergreen Holly; 
Yew; Laurel; Laurustinus ; Phillyrea; 
Alaternus; Bay; and Evergreen Oak: 
but the holly and yew form the best 
hedges for general use. 

Deciduous kinds. — Hawthorn ; Black- 



square spit turfs from the adjoining thorn; Crab; Elder; Hornbeam; Beech; 
ground, and the middle filled up with j Elm ; Lime-tree, and Alder are all 



mould from the ditches on each side 
so that when finished, it forms a yard- 
wide border all the way along the top, 
and along the middle of which plant 
two rows of hedge-sets or seed, in drills, 



proper, either for middling or tall 
hedges, as they may be trained up from 
about six or eight to fifteen or twenty 
feet high, and the elm to double that 
height if required. Privet is also some- 



as before observed. But in places where , times used for moderately high hedges 



no ditch nor raised bank is required, as 
may be the case for middle hedges in 
the interior parts of grounds, especially 
in gardens ; then the place for the hedge 
being marked out on the level ground 
two or three feet broad, dig it along one 
good spade deep at lesst, and then plant 
your sets of any sort in two rows, rang- 
ing along the middle ; or if you design 
to sow seeds, &c, of any sort at once, 
where you intend to have the hedge, 



and for low hedges, the Rose; Sweet- 
briar ; Syringa ; and Berberry. 

All full trained hedges, in order to 
preserve them in proper form, close 
and neat, must be clipped, both on the 
sides and top, once or twice a year, but 
never less than once ; and the best time 
of the year for this work is summer, 
from about the middle or latter end of 
June to the end of August, for then the 
hedges will have made their summer 



sow them in two drills afoot asunder shoots, which should always, if possible, 

be clipped the same season while in 
leaf, and before the shoots become 

general culture of these sorts of hedges hard, whereby you will be able to per- 



the whole length 

[n respect to the training and 



it must be remarked, that all 
are exposed to cattle, must 



such as | form the work more expeditiously and 
soon as j with greater exactness, for regular 



planted be fenced, either with a stake hedges should be cut as even as a wall 
and bush hedge, with hurdles, or with on the sides, and the top as straight as 
rails and open paling, for four or five a line ; observing, after the hedge is 
years, till the hedge grows up, observing formed to its proper height and width, 
not to place the fence too close to the ! always to cut each year's clipping 
hedge to interrupt its growth. The nearly to the old of the former year, 
hedge must also be duly weeded while particularly on the side ; for by no 
young, and this should be particularly I means suffer them to grow above a 
attended to the first two years. And if j foot or two wide, nor suffer them to 
designed to train the hedge regularly by j advance upon you too much at top, 



clipping it with garden shears, it should 
be annually performed in summer; ob- 
serving, however, to top it but sparingly 
while it is young, until arrived at its in- 



where it is designed or necessary to 
keep them to a moderate height. But 
to keep hedges in perfectly good order, 
they should be clipped twice every sum- 



tended height: only just trim off th^ mer ; the first clipping to be about mid- 



tops of the straggling shoots to preserve 
a little regularity, and promote lateral 
wood to thicken it as it advances, and 
cut it in also moderately on the sides; 
but when arrived at nearly its proper 
height of four, five or six feet, or more, 
then trim it close on the sides and top, 
annually, to preserve it thick, and 
within its proper bounds ; in cutting the 
sides always cutting in nearly to the old 
wood of the former year's cut, other- 
wise your hedge will get too broad ; and 
keep always the top narrower than the 
bottom." 



summer, or soon after, when they will 
have made their summer shoots ; and 
as they will shoot again, what may be 
called the autumn shoot, the second 
clipping is necessary towards the mid- 
dle or latter end of August, and they 
will not shoot again that year. How- 
ever, when it does not suit to clip them 
but once in the summer, the clipping 
should not be performed until the be- 
ginning of August, for if cut sooner 
they will shoot again, and appear al- 
most as rough the remainder of the 
summer and all winter as if they had 



HED 



288 

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HED 



not been clipped. Very high hedges are 
both troublesome and expensive to cut. 
The clipping is sometimes performed 
by the assistance of a high machine, 
scaffolding or stage, twenty or thirty 
feet high or more, having platforms at 
different heights for the men to stand 
upon, the whole made to move along 
upon wheels ; it is composed of four 
long poles for uprights, well framed 
together, eight or ten feet wide at bot- 
tom, narrowing gradually to four or 
five at top, having a platform or stage 
at every seven or eight feet high, and 
one at the top of all; and upon these 
the rnan stands to work, each platform 
having a rail waist high to keep the 
man from falling ; and a sort of a ladder 
formed on one side for the man to 
ascend, and at bottom four low wheels 
to move it along; upon this machine a 
man may be employed on each stage 
or platform, trimming the hedge with 
shears, and sometimes with a garden 
hedge bill fixed on a handle five or six 
feet long, which is more expeditious, 
though it will not make so neat work 
as cutting with shears. 

A hedge is not only an imperfect 
screen, but in other respects is worse 
than useless, since nothing can be 
trained to it, and its roots exhaust the 
soil in their neighborhood very con- 
siderably ; as the south fence of a gar- 
den it may be employed, and hawthorn 
is perhaps the worst shrub that could 
be made use of. It is the nursery of 
the same aphides, beetles, and cater- 
pillars, that feed upon the foliage of 
the apple and pear, from whence they 
spread to the trees nearest the hedge, 
and finally overrun the whole garden ; 
evergreen are better than deciduous 
hedges, and more especially the holly, 
which is not so slow a grower as is 
generally imagined. 

In a cloudy day in April or May, the 
wind seems to be actually refrigerated 
in passing through a thick hawthorn 
hedge, and this may be accounted for 
on the same principle that cool air is 
obtained in the houses of India, by 
sprinkling branches of trees with water 
in their verandas. Holly, laurel, and 
most evergreens, exhale but little mois- 
ture from their leaves, except for about 
a month in June, consequently in April 
and May, when we most require warmth, 
and in September and October, the 
leaves of these, when fully exposed to 



the sun become heated to the touch to 
85° or 90°. Added to this, hoar frost 
or a deposition of moisture of any kind 
never attaches so readily or remains 
for so long a time upon the foliage of 
evergreens as upon the sprays of decid- 
uous shrubs, consequently the refrige- 
ratory power is greatly diminished. 
When the garden is of considerable 
extent, three or four acres and up- 
wards, it admits of cross-walls or 
fences for an increase of training sur- 
face and additional shelter. 
• Hedges should always be clipped into 
a conical form, as the diminution of the 
branches towards the top increases their 
developement at the bottom. 

Furze makes one of the best and 
handsomest of hedges, if kept regularly 
clipped. Upon the formation of such a 
hedge, we have the following remarks 
by Mr. Mel. of Hillsborough : — 

" The most ancient and perhaps the 
most simple of all fences are walls 
made of turf. These walls, however, 
are much injured by the atmosphere, 
and the rubbing and butting of the cat- 
tle. To guard against this they should 
be planted or sown with the Ulex Euro- 
pceus or Furze. The roots of this plant 
will soon penetrate the turf, and tend 
to bind the wall. The plants not only 
afford shelter as well as food for the 
cattle, but add to the height of the wall 
and give it a formidable appearance. 
When walls are made for this, the 
foundation should be three feet wide, 
and tapering to fifteen inches at top. 
As the plants advance in growth, they 
should be regularly trimmed with the 
shears ; by proper attention to this they 
will be prevented from growing too tall 
and thin at the bottom. If this is an- 
nually repeated, the plants will be 
longer preserved in a healthy and vig- 
orous state; clipping has also a good 
effect in checking the furze from spread- 
ing over the field. A good and substan- 
tial fence may thus be quickly formed 
over on a soil that will not produce a 
biding fence of any other kind. 

" Sweet Briar (Rosa Rubiginosa) 
makes a good hedge. Its heps may be 
sown in the autumn, as soon as ripe, 
or, which is better, in the month of 
March, having kept them in the mean 
time mixed with sand. But it is far 
more convenient to buy for sweet briar 
layer young plants from the nurserymen, 
and to plant them a foot apart early in 



HED 



HEL 



the month of November. Let them 
grow as they like the first year, and cut 
them down to the ground the second, 
they will then spring up and require 
no more future care, than occasional 
trimming with the pruning knife or 
shears so as to keep the hedge in 
shape. When it gets naked at the 
bottom, it must be again cut down." — 
Gard. Chron. 

The Laurustinus, Phillyrea, Laurel, 
Furze, &c, referred to in the foregoing 
article, are not sufficiently hardy to re- 
sist the winter of the middle states, and 
some of them would, it is presumed, 
scarcely withstand the sun of the South- 
ern. For ornamental hedges it is safer to 
rely on the red and white Cedar, Chinese 
and American Arborvita?, Juniper, Ame- 
rican Holly, Variegated Euonymus, 
Hemlock Spruce, &c. For purposes 
of protection the Madura or Osage 
Orange is unquestionably the best, 
wherever it can sustain the winter — 
which it is able to do so far North as 
New York. The Buck Thorn (Rham- 
nus catharticus) has been highly recom- 
mended, more especially for colder 
climates. The English method of plant- 
ing on an elevated bank with ditch on 
one or both sides, is inapplicable to 
this country, where excess of moisture is 
seldom felt : in other respects the mode 
of treatment detailed in the preceding 
article may be pursued in this climate. 

For an interesting paper on this sub- 
ject see Downing's " Horticulturist." 

HEDWIGIA balsamifera. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

HEDYCHIUM. Twenty-two species. 
Stove herbaceous. Division. Light rich 
soil. 

HEDYSARUM. Twenty species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division or seed. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

H E I M I A. Three species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
dy loam and peat. 

HELENIUM. Eight species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division or seed. Com- 
mon soil. 

HELIANTHEMUM. One hundred 
and twenty-one species. Chiefly hardy 
and half-hardy shrubs or trailers. Cut- 
tings and seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

HELIANTHUS. Thirty-four species. 
Hardy herbaceous and annual. Seed. 
Common soil. See Sunflower and Je- 
rusalem Artichoke. 
19 



HELIOCARPUS americanus. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

HELIOPHILA. Twenty-three spe- 
cies. Hardy annuals and green-house 
evergreen shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

HELIOPSIS. Three species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

HELIOTROPIUM. Seventeen spe- 
cies. Hardy annuals, and green-house 
evergreen shrubs. Seed or cuttings. 
Common soil. 

The following are good directions for 
the culture of the Heliotrope : — 

" Prepare in August as many shallow 
thirty-two sized pots as will be required, 
by filling them to the depth of an inch 
and a half with broken crocks, upon 
which a layer of the rough siftings of 
leaf mould should be laid ; the remain- 
ing space should be filled with a mix- 
ture of finely sifted leaf mould and 
silver sand, previously well incorporat- 
ed, which when pressed down firmly, 
should be exactly level with the border 
of the pots. 

"For cuttings, the tips of the young 
shoots about three inches in length, 
should be chosen, and these should be 
taken off immediately below a joint or 
the base of a leaf bud. 

" After removing two or three of the 
lower leaves, plant the cuttings in the 
pots prepared, about an inch and a half 
deep, and two inches apart ; water them 
well with a fine rose two or three times, 
so that every part of the soil may be 
thoroughly moistened, which may easi- 
ly be known by the water percolating 
through the bottom of the pots. If this 
is not attended to, and the surface soil 
alone is penetrated by the water, cer- 
tain failure will be the result. 

"The cuttings, when planted, should 
be removed to a cucumber or other 
frame, where a tolerably damp heat 
can be supplied ; they should be kept 
shaded from the sun, and air admitted 
in small quantities, only during the hot- 
test part of the day. In about a fort- 
night, the plants will begin to form 
roots, and the shading may be gradually 
diminished during the morning and af- 
ternoon ; the quantity of air given them 
may be increased by degrees, and at 
the end of a month from the time ot 
planting, the cuttings will be ready for 
potting off singly. 

" For this purpose large sized sixties 



HEL 



290 

— • — 



HER 



are best adapted, and the soil should 
be composed of equal parts of loam 
and sandy peat, with small quantities 
of leaf mould and well decayed ma- 
nure. The two latter only should be 
sifted, the loam and peat being left 
rather rough, and a fair portion of 
drainage being used, will allow the 
water to pass off more freely, which is 
of the greatest consequence during the 
winter months ; the tips of the shoots 
should also be pinched off to render the 
plants bushy. 

" When potted, they may be taken 
back to the frame and kept rather close 
for a few days, until they begin to root 
into the fresh soil, after which air may 
be freely admitted to them. About the 
beginning of October they may be re- 
moved to an airy part of the green- 
house, where, if protected from frost, 
and due attention will be paid to wa- 
tering, they will survive the winter un- 
injured." — Gard. Chron. 

The Heliotrope forms an admirable 
border plant ; when plunged or planted 
out entire, the bloom is produced in 
inexhaustible profusion throughout the 
summer, even till the approach of frost; 
when it may be repotted, and removed 
to a place of shelter, again to occupy 
its out door post, on the return of sum- 
mer weather. 

HELLEBORUS. Nine species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
Common soil. 

HELLENIA. Three species. Stove 
herbaceous. Division. Light rich soil. 

HELONIAS. Three species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Moist peat. 

HEMEROCALLIS. Five species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division. Light 
loam. 

HEMICLIDIA Baxteri. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Turfy 
loam, peat, and sand. 

HEMIDESMUS indicus. Stove ever- 
green twiner. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

HEMIMERIS montana. Stove herb- 
aceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

HEMIONITIS palmata. Stove fern. 
Division. Loam and peat. 

HEMLOCK. Conium. 

HEMLOCK SPRUCE. Finns cana- 
densis. 

HEN-AND-CHICKENS. See Daisy. 

HENNA TREE. Lawsonia inermis. 

HEPATICA. Four species. 

Varieties. — 1. Great single Blue. 2. 
Small Blue. 3. Purple. 4. Lesser 



White. 5. Great White. 6. Ash-co- 
loured, or Argentrial. 7. White with 
red stamens. 8. Red. 9. Double 
Purple. 10. Double Blue. 11. Double 
White. 12. Single Yellow. 13. Peach- 
coloured. 14. Single Pink. — Floricul- 
tural Cabinet. 

They are propagated by division of 
the roots ; and grow best in sandy loam, 
on a well-drained or open subsoil. 

HEPIALUS lupulinus. Garden Swift. 
A moth, of which the caterpillar is 
more indiscriminate in its attacks upon 
our plants than is any other ravager of 
the garden. The roots of auriculas, 
snowdrops, bear's-ear, parsnips, let- 
tuces, celery, potatoes, and strawber- 
ries, have all been observed destroyed 
by this larva. The moth, usually, is 
chalky brown, head and thorax woolly, 
and its upper wings dark bright brown, 
with a broad line of white ; but some- 
times this is absent, and at other times 
the upper wings are chalky white. 
These moths appear about the end of 
May, and are very abundant in the 
evening in meadows and other grassy 
places. They deposit their eggs appa- 
rently without discrimination, which 
soon hatch, and the caterpillars pro- 
duced are cylindrical, and yellowish- 
white, with black dots and hairs on the 
upper part and sides of their segments. 
The caterpillar changes to an ochreous, 
shining cylindrical pupa. — Gard. Chron. 

HERACANTHA. Four species. 
Hardy annuals. Seed. Common soil. 

HERBACEOUS PLANTS are those 
perennials which lose their stems an- 
nually, whilst the roots continue alive 
in the earth. 

HERBARIUM, or Hortus Siccus; 
a dry garden ; " an appellation given to 
a collection of specimens of plants, care- 
fully dried and preserved. The value 
of such a collection is very evident, 
since a thousand minutiae may be pre- 
served in the well-dried specimens of 
plants, which the most accurate en- 
graver would have omitted. Specimens 
ought to be collected when dry, and 
carried home in a tin box. Plants may 
be dried by pressing in a box of sand, 
or with a hot smoothing iron. Each of 
these has its advantages. If pressure 
be employed, a botanical press may be 
procured. The press is made of two 
smooth boards of hard wood, 18 inches 
long, 12 broad, and 2 thick. Screws 
must be fixed in each corner with nuts. 



HER 



291 

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If a press cannot easily be had, books 
may be employed. Next, some quires 
of unsized blotting paper must be pro- 
vided. The specimens, when taken 
out of the tin box, must be carefully 
spread on a piece of pasteboard, co- 
vered with a single sheet of the paper, 
quite dry ; then three or four sheets of 
the same paper must be placed above 
the plant, to imbibe the moisture as it 
is pressed out. It is then to be put into 
the press. As many plants as the press 
will hold may be piled up in this man- 
ner. At first, they ought to be pressed 
gently. After being pressed for about 
twenty-four hours, the plants ought to 
be examined, that any leaves or petals 
which have been folded may be spread 
out, and dry sheets of paper laid over 
them. They may now be replaced in 
the press, and a greater degree of pres- 
sure applied. The press ought to stand 
near a fire, or in the sunshine. After 
remaining two days in this situation, 
they should be again examined, and 
dry sheets of paper be laid over them. 
The pressure ought then to be con- 
siderably increased. After remaining 
three days longer in the press, the 
plants may be taken out, and such as 
are sufficiently dry may be put in a dry 
sheet of writing paper. Those plants 
which are succulent may require more 
pressure, and the blotting paper to be 
again renewed. Plants which dry very 
quickly ought to be pressed with con- 
siderable force when first put into the 
press; and, if delicate, the blotting 
paper should be changed every day. 
When the stem is woody, it may be 
thinned with a knife, and, if the flower 
be thick or globular, as the thistle, one 
side of it may be cut away, as all that 
is necessary, in a specimen, is to pre- 
serve the character of the class, order, 
genus, and species. Plants may be 
dried in a box of sand in a more expe- 
ditious manner ; and this method pre- 
serves the colour of some plants better. 
The specimens, after being pressed for 
ten or twelve hours, must be laid with- 
in a sheet of blotting paper. The box 
must contain an inch deep of fine dry 
sand on which the sheet is to be placed, 
and then covered with sand an inch 
thick ; another sheet may then be de- 
posited irt the same manner, and so on, 
till the box be full. The box must be 
placed near a fire for two or three days. 
Then the sand must be carefully re- 



moved, and the plants examined. I 
not sufficiently dried, they may again 
be replaced in the same manner for a 
day or two. In drying plants with a 
hot smoothing iron, they must be placed 
within several sheets of blotting paper, 
and ironed till they become sufficiently 
dry. This method answers best for dry- 
ing succulent and mucilaginous plants. 
When properly dried, the specimens 
should be placed in sheets of writing 
paper, and may be slightly fastened by 
making the top and bottom of the stalk 
pass through a slip of the paper, cut for 
the purpose. The name of the genus 
and species should be written down, 
the place where it was found, nature of 
the soil, and the season of the year. 
These specimens may be collected into 
genera, orders, and classes, and titled 
and preserved in a portfolio or cabinet. 
The method of preserving many of the 
cryptogamous plants is more difficult, 
on account of the greater quantity of 
moisture which they contain, and the 
greater delicacy of their texture." — En- 
cyc. Am. 

HERBARY was a department of the 
garden formerly much more cultivated 
than at present, when the more potent 
medicinal plants of hotter climates are 
so easily procurable. The following is 
a list of the tenants of the herbary, the 
appropriate cultivation of which will be 
found under their particular titles : — 



Angelica. 

Balm. 

Basil. 

Blessed Thistle. 

Borage. 

Burnet. 

Caraway. 

Chamomile. 

Chervil. 

Coriander. 

Dill. 

Hyssop. 

Lavender. 

Liquorice. 



Marigold. 

Marjoram. 

Mint. 

Pennyroyal. 

Peppermint. 

Purslane. 

Rue. 

Sage. 

Savory. 

Scurvy Grass. 

Tansy. 

Tarragon. 

Thyme. 

Wormwood. 



RERBERTIA pulchella. Half-hardy 
bulb. Seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

HERB-GRACE. See Rue. 

HERCULES-CLUB. Xanthoxylum 
clava Herculis. 

HERMANNIA. Forty species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Light rich soil. 

HERMINIUM. Three species. 
Hardy and half-hardy orchids. Divi- 
sion. Chalk and peat. 



HER 



292 

— ♦ — 



HOE 



HERON'S-BILL. Erodium. 

HERPESTIS. Three species. Aqua- 
tic perennials, stove or hardy. Seed 
or division. Rich light soil. 

HERRERIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Division. Loam 
and peat. 

HESPERANTHA. Six species. 
Green-house bulbs. Offsets. Sand, 
Loam, and peat. 

HESPERIS. Rocket. Fifteen spe- 
cies, besides varieties. Hardy herba- 
ceous and annual. Division or seed. 
Rich light soil. 

HESPEROSCORDUM. Two species. 
Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Sandy soil. 

HETERANTHERA. Three species. 
Aquatics, stove, green-house, and har- 
dy. Division. Sandy soil, in water. 

HETEROPTERIS. Eight species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen climbers. Cut- 
tings. Sand, peat, and loam. 

HEUCHERA. Nine species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Light soil. 

HIBBERTIA. Ten species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs and twiners. 
Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

HIBISCUS. Sixty-nine species, be- 
sides varieties. Some annual and bien- 
nial, but chiefly perennials, both hardy 
and tender. Mr. Paxton says, " the 
shrubby stove and green-house kinds 
all grow from cuttings, and thrive in 
loam and peat. H. syriacus, from lay- 
ers or seed, in common soil. The 
hardy herbaceous kinds require a moist 
soil." — Bot. Diet. 

HIDE-BOUND. See Bark-bound. 

HIERACIUM. One hundred and 
nineteen species. Chiefly hardy herba- 
ceous. H. glutinosum is an annual. 
Seed in the open soil. The others by 
division in light soil. 

HILLIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy loam 
and sand. 

HIPPEASTRUM. Two species. 
Stove bulbs. Offsets. Turfy loam and 
peat. 

HIPPION. Three species. Green- 
house biennials. Seed. Light rich soil. 

HIPPOCREPIS. Nine species. Har- 
dy perennial trailers and annuals. Cut- 
tings or seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

HIPPOPHAE. Four species. Har- 
dy trees. Layers or cuttings. Common 
soil. 

HIRJEA. Four species. Stove ever- 
green climbers. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 



HOE. This is the implement which 
should be most frequently in the gar- 
dener's hand, for the surface of the soil 
can never be too frequently stirred. I 
entirely agree with Mr. Barnes in think- 
ing the hoe one of the gardener's best 
friends ; and, as it always must be a 
more frequently used implement than 
any other, what is the best form of its 
construction deserves some considera- 
tion. The handles should never be 
made of heavy wood, for this wearies 
the hand, and is altogether a uselessly 
heavy weight thrown upon the work- 
man. It is merely the fever, and every 
ounce needlessly given to this, dimin- 
ishes, without any necessity, the availa- 
ble moving power. The best woods 
for handles are birch or deal. 

For earthing up plants, broad blades 
to hoes are very admissible, and they 
may, without objection, have a breadth 
of nine inches ; but this permission of 
breadth does not extend to hoes re- 
quired for loosening the soil and de- 
stroying weeds. These should never 
extend to beyond a breadth of six inch- 
es, and the work will be done best by 
one two inches narrower. The iron 
plate of which they are formed should 
be well steeled, and not more than one- 
sixteenth of an inch thick. The weight 
necessary should be thrown by the 
workman's arm and body upon the 
handle, and the thicker the blade, the 
greater is the pressure required to make 
it penetrate the soil. It should be set 
on the handle at an angle of 68°, as 
this brings its edge when used at a good 
cutting angle with the surface of the 
soil, and the workman soon learns at 
what point most effectively to throw 
his weight, and holds the handle fur- 
ther from, or nearer to the blade, ac- 
cordingly as he is a tall or short man. 
Mr. Barnes, of Bicton Gardens, whose 
opinions relative to hoeing I have al- 
ready quoted, has paid considerable 
attention to the formation of this im- 
plement, and has favoured me with a 
letter upon the subject, from which I 
will now give some extracts. 

He employs nine sized hoes, the 
smallest having a blade not more than 
one-fourth of an inch broad, and the 
largest ten inches. The smallest are 
used for potted plants and seed-beds, 
and those from two inches and a half 
to four inches wide are used for thin- 
ning and hoeing among crops generally. 



HOE 



293 



HOE 



These have all handles varying in length 
from eight inches and a half to eighteen 
inches, all the neck or upper part form- 
ed of iron, for the smaller sizes not 
thicker than a large pencil, and that 
part which has to be grasped by the 
workman is only six inches long, and 
" formed either of willow or some other 
soft light wood, which is best to the feel 
of the hand ; for hard heavy wood is 
cumbersome, harsh, and tiring." Each 
labourer works " with one in each hand, 
to cut right and left." " The blade is 
made thin, and with a little foresight 
and activity it is astonishing how much 
ground can be got over in a short 
time." 

Mr. Barnes has all his hoes made 
with a crane neck. The blades broader 
than four inches Mr. Barnes has made 
like a Dutch hoe. 

"The crane neck allows the blade 
to pass freely and kindly under the fo- 
liage of any crop where the earth re- 
quires loosening ; and the blade works 
itself clean, allowing the earth to pass 
through, as there is no place for it to 
lodge and clog up as in the old-fash- 
ioned hoe, to clean which, when used 
of a dewy morning, causes the loss of 
much time in scraping." 

" The draw-hoe" is correctly de- 
scribed by Mr. Loudon as a "plate of 
iron attached to a handle about four 
feet long, at an angle less than a right 
angle. The blade is either broad for 
cutting weeds, deep and strong for 
drawing earth to the stems of plants, 
curved, so as to apt like a double 
mould-boarded plough in drawing drills, 
formed into two strong broad prongs 
for stirring hard adhesive soils, — or it 
is formed to accomplish the first and 
last purposes, as in the double hoe or 
Dutch hoe. 

" The thrust-hoe consists of a plate 
of iron attached somewhat obliquly to 
the end of a handle by a bow, used only 
for killing weeds or loosening ground 
which is to be afterwards raked. As 
a man can draw more than he can push, 
most heavy work will be easiest done 
by the draw-hoe." — Enc. Gard. 

In the island of Guernsey a very ef- 
fective weeding-prong is used, and is 
thus described in the Gardener's Chron- 
icle : — 

" It is something in the shape of a 
hammer, the head flattened into a chisel 
an inch wide, and the fork the same. 



The whole length of this prong is nine 
inches, and it is attached to a staff five 
feet long. Such an implement is light 
and easy to use; it requires no stoop- 
ing, and will tear up the deepest-rooted 
weeds." 

Hoes are made in a great variety of 
forms; the following, figured in The 
Rural Register, are those most gene- 
rally used, and perhaps are all which 
are truly desirable ; they are, when well 
made, of cast steel. 



Square garden Hoe. 




Pronged-back 
Hoe. Fig. 81. 



Forked-back 
Hoe. Fig. 82. 




Dutch or Scuffle 
Hoe. Fig. 85. 



HOI 



294 



HON 



HOITZIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

HOLLY (Ilex aquifolium.) Of this 
hardy evergreen shrub there are eight 
varieties : — 1, silver-edged ; 2, golden- 
edged ; 3, thick-leaved ; 4, prickly ; 
5, yellow-leaved; 6, variegated; 7, 
spotted ; 8, recurvum. It is so desira- 
ble, as an ornamental and as a hedge- 
shrub, that it deserves some more par- 
ticular notice. 

If grown as single ornamental shrubs, 
they "should not be overshadowed by 
other trees ; and if the land is manured 
for it so much the better. As to prun- 
ing it, with a view to make it grow fast, 
the less you do of that the better. All 
that is necessary is to encourage the 
leader, if necessary, by stopping any 
laterals that try to interfere with it. In 
the nurseries, when hollies are stunted 
and bushy-headed, they are headed 
down with a view to obtaining a clean 
straight shoot; but they should not be 
allowed to become stunted, and then 
there would be no need to cut them 
back. In hollies and all other things, 
stop where necessary ; but prune not at 
all if you can help it." — Gard. Chron. 

Large plants will bear moving: "if 
they are shifted in wet weather, as, for 
example, at the beginning of the July 
rains, or at any other period when a 
week or ten days of dull damp weather 
can be calculated upon, they are certain 
to succeed. The season least exposed 
to risk is perhaps the end of autumn, 
in the dull damp part of October or 
November; the worst season is the 
spring." — Gard. Chron. 

Dr. Lindley says that " the most ex- 
peditious way of making holly-hedges is 
to procure large plants from some nur- 
sery ; but, with the smallest expense 
and more time, the following may be 
recommended : — 

" Gather a sufficient quantity of ber- 
ries when ripe; then dig a hole three 
or four feet deep, and throw the berries 
in, crushing and mixing them with some 
fine soil at the same time; close the 
hole with the soil taken out, and throw 
some litter, or other covering, over the 
whole, to prevent the wet or frost pen- 
etrating about them in beds. They 
will make nice little plants the first sea- 
son ; and by transplanting the stronger 
ones, you will have fine plants in about 
three years. The holly will not thrive 



in any poor light sandy soil, or in a 
swampy situation, but likes a strong, 
deep, dry, loamy soil." — Gard. Chron. 

The best season for clipping hollies- 
is early in spring, before they make 
their annual growth. 

The European Holly does not fully 
resist the winter of Pennsylvania, un- 
less on well drained land, and further 
north it is probable it would suffer much 
more, except in the vicinity of the sea, 
where many plants do well that are not 
able to withstand the winter of the same 
latitude in the interior. 

Our ow>n native Holly, (Ilex opaca,) 
is a fine plant too long overlooked. — 
Why do not persons of taste decorate 
their grounds with this noble American 
evergreen, which will grow in any soil, 
and resist the winter's frost and sum- 
mer's sun throughout the length and 
breadth of our continent. 

HOLLYHOCK (Althcea rosea). There 
is also a sub-species. A. R. Biloba. 
This flower has lately gained the atten- 
tion from florists it deserves; and there 
are now many varieties. Dr. Lindley 
justly observes that, " the hollyhock is 
little more than a biennial, and fre- 
quently dies suddenly if sown too early 
in the first season, or if allowed to re- 
main long in the seed-bed before trans- 
planting; therefore the best way to 
keep them in health is not to sow them 
before June, and when large enough to 
transplant them singly where they are 
to remain and flower in the following 
season : afterwards cut them down as 
soon as they have done flowering, and 
remove them to afresh situation, where 
the ground has been well manured, be- 
fore winter. By continuing this treat- 
ment you may keep the same variety 
for years." — Gard. Chron. 

HOMERIA. Ten species. Green- 
house bulbs. Offsets. Loam, peat, and 
sand. 

HONESTY. Lunaria, 

HONEY-BERRY. Melicocca. 

HONEY-DEW. See Extravasated 
Sap. 

HONEY-FLOWER. Melianthus. 

HONEY-GARLIC. Nectaroscordum. 

HONEYSUCKLE. (Lonicera peri- 
clymenum.) This hardy, beautiful, and 
fragrant flowering shrub will grow in 
almost any soil, and will thrive where 
few others will, under the shade of 
trees. There are the following sub- 
species : — 



HON 



295 

— • — 



HOR 



1. Periclymenum Semper virens; 
Perfoliate evergreen ; Virginia Honey- 
suckle, which always flowers, common- 
ly called Trumpet Honeysuckle. 

2. Periclymenum Racemosum, Ho- 
neysuckle with yellowish flowers, grow- 
ing in bunches, and a snowy fruit. 

3. Periclymenum Verticillatum, ano- 
ther .tree-like honeysuckle, with in- 
flected branches, and a coral-coloured 
flower. 

4. Periclymenum Germanicum, the 
German honeysuckle. 

5. Periclymenum Italianum, Italian 
honeysuckle. 

6. Periclymenum Vulgare, honey- 
suckle with a corymbus of flower ter- 
minating the stalks, hairy leaves, grow- 
ing distinct, and very slender branches, 
commonly called English Honeysuckle, 
or Woodbine. 

7. Periclymenum Americanum, the 
evergreen honeysuckle. 

As to the general culture, they require 
very little; the upright sorts in particu- 
lar, require to have only their straggling 
shoots shortened, and dead wood cut 
out ; and the trailing kinds, which are 
trained as climbers, must have their 
branches conducted in a proper man- 
ner upon their respective supports ; 
and every year all rambling shoots 
must be reduced and trained as you 
shall see proper, so as to preserve them 
within due limits; unless you design 
they shall run wild in their own rural 
way, especially those intended to climb 
among the branches of trees, shrubs, 
and bushes; those also intended and 
trained annually, laying the shoots 
along at their length, especially till they 
have covered the allotted space; short- 
ening or clearing out, however, all such 
stragglers as cannot be properly train- 
ed; likewise such of those sorts as are 
trained against walls, &c, must have 
an annual pruning and training, by go- 
ing over them two or three times in 
summer, laying in some of the most 
convenient shoots, some at their length, 
shortening or trenching others, as it 
shall seem necessary to preserve regu- 
Jarity, and the proper succession of 
flowers ; observing, however, to train 
enough, at this time particularly, of 
such as shall appear necessary to con- 
tinue the bloom as long as possible; 
and in winter pruning, thin out all those 
left in summer which may now appear 
superfluous, and shorten all such as are 



too long for the space allotted for them, 
especially all those with weak strag- 
gling tops; and nail in the remaining 
branches and shoots close to the wall. 

Propagation is effected by layers and 
cuttings, more particularly the latter, 
both of which readily emit roots, and 
form plants in one year, fit to trans- 
plant. Some sorts are also propagated 
by suckers and by seed. 

By Layers. — In autumn, winter, or 
spring, lay a quantity of the lower 
young shoots of the former summer, 
shortening their straggling tops; they 
will be Well rooted by the autumn fol- 
lowing, each commencing a good plant, 
and should be taken off, and planted in 
nursery rows, for a year or two, to ac- 
quire proper size and strength for use. 

By Cuttings. — Any time from Octo- 
ber till March, is the proper time for 
this work, but the sooner the better, 
and by which method prodigious quan- 
tities of the plants may be raised, as al- 
most every cutting will readily grow. 

Choose of the young shoots of the 
previous summer, the strongest and 
most robust, which divide into cuttings 
from about six or eight to ten or fifteen 
inches long, plant them in rows in any 
shady border of common earth, a foot 
asunder, and half that distance apart in 
each row, or closer if greater quantities 
are required, putting of each cutting 
two parts out of three of its length into 
the ground ; they will take root freely, 
and shoot at top so as to form proper 
plants by autumn or winter following, 
at which time they may be transplanted 
into the nursery quarters to have more 
room to grow, placing them in rows 
two feet distance, and a foot apart in 
the rows, where let them remain a year 
or two, or till wanted for the shrub- 
bery. 

By Seed. — If sowed in autumn in a 
bed of common mould an inch deep, 
many of the plants will probably rise 
in spring ; but a great part of them are 
apt to remain till the second spring be- 
fore they appear. (Abercrombie.) 

HONEYWORT. Cerinthe. 

HOOP-PETTICOAT. Narcissus bul- 
bocodium. 

HOP-HORNBEAM. Phologophora. 

HOREHOUND. Marrubium. 

HORKELLIA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
mon soil. 

HORMINUM pyrenaicum. Hardy 



HOR 



296 

— • — 



HOR 



herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
mon soil. 

HORN. See Animal Matters. 

HORNBEAM. Carpinus. 

HORN-OF-PLENTY. Fedia. 

HORN-POPPY. Glaucium. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT. JEsculus. 
There are the following species and 
varieties : — 

JE. Hippocastanum. Common horse- 
chestnut. Asia. Seeds sown in March. 
Flowers in May. Height forty feet. 

2E. H. folia aurea. Gold-striped 
horse-chestnut. 

2E. H. folia argentea. Silver-striped 
horse-chestnut. 

These two varieties have the same 
characteristics as the preceding, but 
are propagated by grafting in March. 

JE. jlava. Yellow horse-chestnut. 

JE. pavia. Scarlet horse-chestnut. 

JE. pavia rosea. Pale scarlet horse- 
chestnut. 

All natives of Carolina. June. Grafts. 
Twenty feet. 

Horse-chestnuts all require a light, 
rich, well-drained soil, and a sheltered 
situation, being much injured by violent 
winds. When in blossom they are 
strikingly beautiful, and their round 
heads group well with trees having 
more pointed forms. They may all be 
grafted on the common horse-chestnut, 
which is increased by seed or layers. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT MOTH. See 
Bombyx. 

HORSE-RADISH. Cochlearia Armo- 
racia. Delights in a deep, mouldy, rich 
soil, kept as much as possible in a mo- 
derate but regular degree of moistness. 
Hence the banks of a ditch, or other 
place which has a constant supply of 
water, is a most eligible situation for 
the beds, so that they do not lie so low 
as to have it in excess. If the soil is 
poor, or beneath the drip of trees, the 
roots mever attain any considerable size. 

Manures. — Should the ground require 
to be enriched, leaf-mould, or other tho- 
roughly decayed vegetable substance, 
should be dug into the depth at which 
the sets are intended to be planted. If 
cow or horse-dung be employed, it 
should be in a highly putrescent state. 

Propagation. — Horse-radish flowers 
in June, but in this climate seldom per- 
fects its seed, consequently it is propa- 
gated by sets, which are provided by 
cutting the main root and offsets into 
lengths of two inches. The tops, or 



crowns of the roots, form the best ; 
those taken from the centre never be- 
coming so soon fit for use, or of so fine 
a growth. If the latter are, however, 
unavoidably employed, each set should 
have at least two eyes ; for without one 
they refuse to vegetate at all. For the 
obtaining a supply of the crowns, any 
inferior piece of ground, planted with 
sets six inches apart and six deep, will 
furnish from one to five tops each, and 
may be collected for several successive 
years with little more trouble than 
keeping them clear of weeds ; but the 
times for planting are in October and 
February — the first for dry soils, the 
latter season for moist ones. 

The sets are inserted in rows eighteen 
inches apart each way. The ground 
should be trenched between two and 
three feet deep, the cuttings being 
placed along the bottom of the trench, 
and the mould turned from the next 
one over them, or inserted to a similar 
depth by a long blunt-pointed dibble. 
They should be placed in their natural 
position, which has considerable influ- 
ence over the forwardness of their 
growth ; the surface raked level, and 
kept clear of weeds until the plants 
are of such size as to render it unneces- 
sary. The mould ought to lie as light 
as possible over the sets ; therefore, 
treading on the beds should be carefully 
avoided. The shoots make their ap- 
pearance in May or June, or even ear- 
lier if they were planted in autumn. 

As the leaves decay in autumn, have 
them carefully removed ; the ground 
being also hoed and raked over at the 
same season, which may be repeated 
in the following spring before they be- 
gin to vegetate, at which time eighteen 
inches depth of mould to be laid regu- 
larly and lightly over the bed. 

In the succeeding autumn they mere- 
ly require to be hoed as before, and 
may be taken up as wanted. By having 
three beds devoted to this root, one 
will always be lying fallow and im- 
proving; of which period likewise ad- 
vantage should be taken to apply any 
requisite manure. 

If, when of advanced growth, the 
plants throw out suckers, these should 
be carefully removed, during the sum- 
mer, as they appear. 

In September or October of the se- 
cond year, as before stated, the roots 
may be taken up ; and in November a 



HOR 



297 



HOR 



sufficient quantity should be raised to 
preserve in sand for winter supply. 

Taking up. — To take them up a 
trench is dug along the outside row 
down to the bottom of the upright 
roots, which, by some persons, when 
the bed is continued in one place, are 
cut off level to the original stool, and 
the earth from the next row is then 
turned over them to the requisite depth ; 
and so in rotation to the end of the 
plantation. By this mode a bed will 
continue in perfection for five or six 
years ; after which a fresh plantation is 
usually necessary. But the best prac- 
tice is to take the crop up entirely, and 
to form a plantation annually ; for it 
not only causes the roots to be finer, 
but also affords the opportunity of 
changing the site. If this mode is fol- 
lowed care must be taken to raise every 
lateral root; for almost the smallest of 
them will vegetate, if left in the ground. 

HORSE-RADISH TREE. Moringa. 

HORSE-THISTLE. Cirsium. 

HORTICULTURE (from hortus, 
garden, and colo, I till) includes in its 
most extensive signification, the culti- 
vation of esculent vegetables, fruits and 
ornamental plants, and the formation 
and management of rural scenery for 
the purposes of utility and embellish- 
ment. The earliest effort of man to 
emerge from a state of barbarism was 
directed to the tillage of the earth: 
the first seed which he planted was the 
first act of civilization, and gardening 
was the first step in the career of re- 
finement ; but still it is an art in which 
he last reaches perfection. When the 
savage exchanges the wild and wander- 
ing life of a warrior and hunter, for the 
confined and peaceful pursuits of a 
planter, the harvests, herds, and flocks 
take the place of the simple garden. 
The mechanic arts are next developed ; 
then commerce commences, and manu- 
factures soon succeed. As wealth in- 
creases, ambition manifests itself in 
the splendor of apparel, of mansions, 
equipages and entertainments. Science, 
literature, and the fine arts are unfold- 
ed, and a high degree of civilization is 
attained. It is not until all this has 
taken place, that horticulture is culti- 
vated as one of the ornamental arts. 
Egypt, the cradle of civilization, so far 
perfected her tillage, that the banks of 
the Nile were adorned by a succession 
of luxuriant plantations, from the cata- 



ract of Syene to the shores of the Delta 5 
but it was when Thebes with its hun- 
dred brazen gates, and the cities of 
Memphis and Beliopolis, were rising 
in magnificence, and her stupendous 
pyramids, obelisks, and temples, be- 
came the wonders of the world. The 
hills and plains of Palestine were ce- 
lebrated for beautiful gardens; but it 
was not until the walls and temple of 
Jerusalem announced the power and 
intelligence of the Israelites, and the 
prophets had rebuked their luxury and 
extravagance. The queen of the East 
" had heard of the fame of Solomon ;" 
his fleets had brought him the gold of 
Ophir, and the treasures of Asia and 
Africa ; the kings of Tyre and Arabia 
were his tributaries, and princes his 
merchants, when he " made orchards," 
" delighted to dwell in gardens," and 
planted the " vineyard of Baalhaman." 
The Assyrians had peopled the borders 
of the Tigris and Euphrates, from the 
Persian gulf to the mountainous re- 
gions of Ararat, and their monarchs had 
founded Nineveh and Babylon, before 
we hear of the gardens of Semiramis. 
The Persian empire had extended from 
the Indus to the Archipelago, when the 
paradise of Sardis excited the astonish- 
ment of a Spartan general, and Cyrus 
mustered the Grecian auxiliaries in 
the spacious garden of Celaenae. The 
Greeks had repulsed the invasions of 
Darius and Xerxes, and Athens had 
reached the height of her glory, when 
Cimon established the Academus, and 
presented it to his fellow citizens as a 
public garden. Numerous others were 
soon planted, and decorated with tem- 
ples, porticoes, altars, statues and tri- 
umphal monuments ; but this was dur- 
ing the polished age of Pericles, when 
Socrates and Plato taught philosophy 
in the sacred groves; when the theatre 
was thronged to listen to the poetry of 
Euripedes and Aristophanes; when the 
genius of Phidias was displayed in rear- 
ing the Parthenon and sculpturing the 
statues of the gods ; when eloquence 
and painting had reached perfection, 
and history was illustrated by Herodotus, 
Thucydides, and Xenophon. Rome had 
subjugated the world, and emulated 
Athens in literature, science, and the 
arts, when the superb villas of Sallust, 
Crassus, Pompey, Caesar, Maecenas and 
Agrippina were erected, and the pa- 
laces of the emperors were environed 



HOR 



298 

-• — 



HOR 



by magnificent gardens. The history 
of modern nations presents similar re- 
sults. Horticulture long lingered in 
the rear of other pursuits. Most of the 
common fruits, flowers and oleraceous 
vegetables which had been collected by 
the Greeks and Romans, from Egypt, 



petus to cultivation, which is felt in the 
remotest countries. Its example has 
been followed in the most flourishing 
kingdoms of the eastern continent, and 
many similar institutions have been 
founded in the United States. The ef- 
fect of these is to diffuse through every 



Asia and other distant climes, were country the knowledge and products of 



successively extended over Western 
Europe ; but so gradual was their pro- 
gress, after the dark ages, that, till 



all. The history, literature and science 
of gardening, open a wide field for stu- 
dy and inquiry. The pleasure which 



the reign of Henry VIII., scarcely any j gardens afforded men, even in the ear- 



kitchen vegetables were cultivated in 
England, and the small quantity con- 
sumed was imported from Holland. 
Fuller observes, that " gardening was 
first brought into England, for profit, 
about the commencement of the 17th 
century. Peaches, nectarines, apricots, 
plums, pears, cherries, strawberries, 
melons, and grapes, were luxuries but 
little enjoyed before the time of Charles 
II., who introduced French gardening 
at Hampton court, Carlton and Marl- 
borough, and built the first hot and ice 
houses. At this period Evelyn, trans- 
lated the "Complete Gardener," and a 
treatise on orange trees, by Quintinyne ; 
and, having devoted the remainder of 
his life to the cultivation of his rural 
seat at Sayes court, near Deptford, and 
the publication of his Sylva, Terra, 
Pomona, and Acetaria, he " first taught 
gardening to speak proper English." 
In the Netherlands, France, Germany, 
and Italy, a formal and very imperfect 
system of gardening was practised with 
considerable success; but it was ge- 
nerally in a languishing condition, 
throughout the world, until the com- 
mencement of the 18th century, when 
it attracted the attention of some of the 
first characters of Great Britain ; but 
the establishment of the present im- 
proved style of horticulture is of very 
recent date. "Bacon was the prophet, 
Milton the herald, and Addison, Pope 
and Kent the champions of true taste." 
The principles which were developed in 
their writings, and those of Shenstone, 
the Masons, and VVheatley, were suc- 
cessfully applied by Bridgeman, Wright, 
Brown, and Eames ; the system soon be- 
came popular, and gradually extended 
over Europe, and ultimately reached J 
the United States. But the labours of 
the London Horticultural Society have 
mainly contributed to the perfection and 
present high estimation of gardening. 
That noble institution has given an im- 



liest times, appears from the scriptural 
account of the garden of Eden. The 
garden of Gethsemane, and that of the 
good and just Arimathean, are memor- 
able in the sacred history ofthe Messiah. 
The Elysian fields were the heaven of 
classic mythology, and the devout Mus- 
sulman hopes to renew his existence 
in a celestial paradise. The bards, 
scholars and philosophers ofthe classic 
ages, have transmitted descriptions of 
the gardens of the ancients, from those 
in which Homer places the palace of 
Alcinous and the cottage of Lsertes, 
to the splendid villas of Pliny and 
Lucullus. Among the ancient Greek 
writers, Hesiod, Theophrastus, Xen- 
ophon and JElian treated of gardens to 
a certain extent ; and the works of 
those who wrote after the seat of go- 
vernment was removed to Constantin- 
ople were collected under the title of 
Geoponica, and have been translated by 
Owen. Among the Latins, Varro was 
the first author, to whom succeeded 
Cato, Pliny the Elder, Columella and 
Palladius. Passages are to be found, 
relative to the subject, in Martial, Virgil 
and Horace; but Pliny's Natural Histo- 
ry, and Columella's book on gardens, 
contain the most correct information 
on Roman horticulture. Literature and 
the arts having revived in Italy, that 
country was the first to produce books 
on agriculture and gardening, and that 
of Crescenzia became celebrated. The 
field and garden cultures of Italy are 
so nearly allied, and horticulture and 
agriculture have been so blended by the 
writers, that it is difficult to ascertain 
under which department to include their 
works. The best for general informa- 
tion on the tillage of that delightful 
region is the Annali delP Agricultura. 
The Germans, as in all the branches of 
letters, science, and arts, have an im- 
mense number of books in the depart- 
ment of gardening, especially on the 



HOR 



299 

— ♦- 



HOR 



subject of planting and forest trees. 
Those which furnish the best idea of 
the state of culture in that country, are 
Dietrich's W'orterbuch, with the supple- 
ment of 1820, and Sickler's Deutsche 
Handwirtshaft. The Dutch excel more 
in the practice than the literature of 
gardening. They have no work of very 
recent date ; that of Comelin, which 
was published about the middle of the 
17th century, is among the earliest; 
and those of La Court and Van Osten 
are said to be among the best that have 
appeared. The Journal of a Horticul- 
tural Tour in Holland and Flanders, by 
a deputation of the Caledonian Horti- 
cultural Society, gives the most satis- 
factory account of gardening in that 
part of the continent, in 1817. The 
Transactions of the Stockholm and Upsal 
academies furnish the chief information 
which is to be obtained, in relation to 
the rural economy of Sweden. The 
first author was Rudbeck, who was a 
cotemporary of Commelin. Russia and 
Poland have produced but very few 
original books on horticulture. The 
Agricultural Transactions occasionally 
published by a society in Warsaw, with 
those of the Economical Society of St. 
Petersburg, may be considered as af- 
fording the most accurate intelligence 
as to the culture of those countries. 
In the latter city is an extensive imperial 
botanical garden, which being under the 
direction of able professors, emulates 
those of the more favoured portions of 
southern Europe. The only recorded 
source for obtaining any knowledge of 
Spanish tillage, are the Transactions 
of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
Madrid. The horticultural literature 
of France is of an early date, and the 
authors are not only numerous, but 
many of them in the highest repute. 
Etienne and Belon were the pioneers, 
while Du Hamel, Girardin, D'Argen- 
ville, Rossier, Tessier,Calvel, Noisette, 
Du Petit Thours, Jean and Gabriel 
Thouin, Bosc and Vicomte Haricart de 
Thury, may be considered as among 
the most able of their followers, in the 
various branches of rural economy. 
For a general knowledge of French 
culture, the Nouveau Cours ^Agricul- 
ture, in thirteen volumes, published in 
1810, should be consulted ; but the 
most valuable publications on the exist- 
ing mode of gardening, are the monthly 
Annates de la Societe d> Horticulture, 



the Annates de PInstitut Royal Horti- 
cole de Framont, and the Bon Jardinier, 
an annual publication compiled by pro- 
fessor Poiteau and Vilmorin. The first 
English treatise on rural economy was 
Fitzherbert's Book of Husbandry, which 
was published in 1634. The works of 
Tusser, George and Piatt soon after ap- 
peared, and, early in the 18th century, 
the celebrated treatise of Jethro Tull 
excited much attention ; and several 
new works of considerable merit were 
announced before 1764, when the valu- 
able publications of Arthur Young, 
Marshal, and numerous other authors, 
spread a knowledge of cultivation, and 
cherished a taste for rural improve- 
ments, throughout Great Britain. The 
literature of horticulture rapidly ad- 
vanced ; but as many of the most emi- 
nent writers have been named, in treat- 
ing of the science and art of gardening, 
it is unnecessary to mention them in 
this place. The citizens of the United 
States have been chiefly dependent on 
England for books relating to agricul- 
ture and gardening. Still several have 
appeared by native writers, which are 
highly creditable to the authors and the 
country; especially those which relate 
to the botanical department. Muhl en- 
burg, Bigelow, Eliot, Torry, Colden, 
Bartram, Barton, Hosack, Mitchel, Dar- 
lington, Ives, Dewey and Hitchcock, 
are entitled to great praise for their 
successful attempts to illustrate the 
American flora. One of the earliest 
writers on husbandry was Belgrove, 
who published a treatise on husband- 
ry, in Boston, in 1755; and in 1790 
Deane's New England Farmer appeared; 
but McMahon, Cox, Thacher, Adlam, 
Prince, Buntly, Butler, Nicholson and 
Fessenden, since the commencement 
of the present century, have produced 
works on the various cultures of the 
United States, which are generally cir- 
culated, and held in great estimation. 
The scientific relations of horticulture 
are numerous, and require an extensive 
acquaintance with the various branches 
of natural history and physics. Bota- 
ny, mineralogy, chemistry, hydraulics, 
architecture and mechanics must furnish 
their several contributions, which it is 
the province of the artist to apply. 
After the illustrious Linnseus published 
his system of Nature, botany became a 
popular science, and a variety of in- 
teresting elementary works awakened 



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attention to the beauties of nature, and 
a passion for experimental and orna- 
mental planting was induced, which 
has been productive of great results. 
Mineralogy enables us to obtain ac- 
curate knowledge of terrestrial sub- 
stances, and the mode of distinguishing 
the divers kinds of earths, which con- 
stitute a cultivable soil ; and chemistry 
instructs us as to the nature and pro- 
perties of these various earths, having 
for its objects, when applied to horti- 
culture, all those changes in the ar- 
rangements of matter, which are con- 
nected with the growth and nourishment 
of plants, the comparative value of 
their produce as food, the constitution 
of soils, the manner in which lands are 
enriched by manure, or rendered fertile 
by the different processes of cultivation. 
Inquiries of such a nature cannot but 
be interesting and important, both to 
the theoretical horticulturist and the 
practical gardener. To the first they 
are necessary in applying most of the 
fundamental principles on which the 
theory of the art depends. To the se- 
cond they are useful in affording simple 
and easy experiments for directing his 
labours, and for enabling him to pursue 
a certain and systematic plan of im- 
provement. To hydraulics belong, not 
only the conducting and raising of water 
with the construction of pumps and other 
engines for those purposes, but the laws 
which explain the nature of springs 
and fountains. By the principles of 
that science, artificial lakes, canals and 
aqueducts are formed, irrigations pro- 
jected, and water rendered subservient 
to the useful purposes of life, as well 
as to the embellishments of pleasure- 
grounds by jets d'eau, cascades and 
streams. Architecture, as a branch of 
horticulture, is of the first importance. 
Without its aid, it would be impossible 
to give that propriety and elegance to 
the scenery, and to produce that pleas- 
ing effect, which is the chief object of 
landscape gardening. Mechanics, in all 
its branches, is required for the purposes 
of horticulture. Great improvements 
have been effected in gardening within 
the last half century. During the age 
of Cicero, a formal kind of gardening 
prevailed, characterized by clipped 
hedges and long avenues of trees. 
Pliny the Younger has given an account 
of his villa at Laurentum, and from the 
description, it was rather distinguished 



for its numerous superb edifices, exten- 
sive prospects, and the systematical 
arrangement of the pleasure grounds, 
than for the improvements and decora- 
tions of the surrounding scenery, in 
accordance with those principles which 
are derived from a close observance 
of the pleasing effects of nature. The 
rural residences of the Romans appear 
to have been mere places of temporary 
retreat, and were planted with odorife- 
rous flowers and shrubs and ornamented 
rather by the civil architect than the 
horticultural artist. From the estab- 
lishment of the papal government to 
the commencement of the 1 3th centu- 
ry, the monks were the only class of 
persons who attended to ornamental 
gardening. After that period, the style 
prevalent throughout Europe consisted 
in tall hedges, square parterres fantas- 
tically planted, straight walks, and rows 
of trees uniformly placed and pruned. 
In fact, but little improvement was 
made from the time of the emperors 
Vespasian and Titus until the reign of 
George III. of England. It is true, 
Hampton Court had been laid out by 
Cardinal Wolseyj Le Notre had plant- 
ed Greenwich and St. James's Park 
during the reign of Charles II. ; and, in 
that of George II., Queen Caroline had 
enlarged Kensington Gardens, and form- 
ed the Serpentine river ; but Lord Ba- 
thurst was the first who deviated from 
straight lines, as applied to ornamental 
pieces of water, by following the natu- 
ral courses of a valley. Still, what has 
been emphatically called the Dutch sys- 
tem universally prevailed, and the shear- 
ing of yew, box and holly into formal 
figures of various kinds, and the shaving 
of river banks into regular slopes, went 
on until their absurdity became con- 
temptible, and a better and more natural 
taste was induced. Verdant sculpture, 
regular precision in the distribution of 
compartments and rectangular boundary 
walls, yielded to more chaste designs. 
Bridgeman succeeded to Loudon (not the 
distinguished author) and Wise, and be- 
came a distinguished artist; he rejected 
many of the absurd notions of his pre- 
decessors, and enlarged the bounds of 
horticulture. Other innovators depart- 
ed from the rigid rules of symmetry ; 
but it was reserved for Kent to realize 
the beautiful descriptions of the poets, 
and carry the ideas of Milton, Pope, 
Addison and Mason more extensively 



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301 



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into execution. According to Lord 
Walpole, he was painter enough to 
taste the charms of landscape, suffi- 
ciently bold and opinionative to dare 
and to dictate, and born with a genius 
to strike out a great system from the 
twilight of imperfect essays. He leap- 
ed the fence, and saw that all nature 
was a garden. The great principles on 
which he worked were perspective, 
light and shade. Groups of trees broke 
a too extensive lawn ; evergreens and 
wood were opposed to the glare of the 
champaign, and, by selecting favourite 
objects, and veiling deformities, he re- 
alized the compositions of the great 
masters in painting. Where objects 
were wanting to animate his horizon, 
his taste as an architect could immedi- 
ately produce them. His buildings, 
his temples, his seats, were more the 
work of his pencil than of his science 
as a constructor. He bade adieu to 
all the stiff modes of canals, circular 
basins, and cascades tumbling over 
marble steps. Dealing in none but the 
true colours of nature, and seizing upon 
its most interesting features, a new 
creation was gradually presented. The 
living landscape was chastened or po- 
lished, not transformed. The elegant 
works of Repton, the unrivalled essays 
of Price on the picturesque, and the 
valuable publications of Gilpin, Madock, 
Panty, Sang and Loudon, with those of 
many other writers on landscape and 
ornamental gardening, have had an ex- 
tensive influence in promoting correct 
ideas of natural scenery. The improv- 
ed style of horticulture, every where 
apparent in Great Britain, attracted the 
attention of the other nations of Europe, 
and English gardening became the de- 
signation for all that was beautiful in 
that pleasing art — the synonyme of per- 
fection in rural culture. At the period 
when this new system of laying out 
ground was gaining converts, and be- 
gan to be practically adopted, Viscount 
Girardin, a French military officer of 
high rank, travelled through England, 
and, on his return, he not only improved 
his seat at Ermenonville in conformity 
to that style, but published a work of 
great celebrity on the Composition des 
Paysages sur le Terrain, ou des Moyens 
d'embellir la Nature pres des Habita- 
tions. The French style of laying out 
gardens had been settled by Le Notre, 
during the reign of Louis XIV., and 



continued in repute for upwards of a 
century ; tor it appears to have been in 
vogue as late as 1770. The court and 
nation wished to be dazzled by novelty 
and singularity, and his long, clipped 
alleys, triumphal arches, richly deco- 
rated parterres, his fountains and cas- 
cades, with their grotesque and strange 
ornaments, his groves full of architec- 
ture and gilt trellises, and his profusion 
of statues, enchanted every class of ob- 
servers. His principal works were the 
gardens of Versailles, Meudon, St. 
Cloud, Sceaux, Chantilly, and the ter- 
race of St. Germain. Gray, the poet, 
was struck with their splendor when 
filled with company, and when the 
water-works were in full action ; but 
Lord Kaimes says, they would tempt 
one to believe, that nature was below 
the notice of a great monarch. Le 
Notre was succeeded by Dufresny, who, 
differing considerably in taste from that 
great artist, determined on inventing a 
more picturesque style ; but his efforts 
were rarely carried into full execution. 
He, however, constructed in a manner 
superior to his predecessor, the gardens 
of Abbe Pajot and those of Moulin and 
Chemin creux. After the peace of 1762, 
the English system began to pass into 
France, and portions of ancient gardens 
were destroyed, to make way for young 
plantations a PAnglaise. Laugier was 
the first author who espoused the Eng- 
lish style, and the next in order was 
Prevot. It was at this time that Viscount 
Girardin commenced his improvements 
at Ermenonville, and the change of the 
horticultural taste in France, may be 
referred to the last quarter of the 18th 
century. The English style has gra- 
dually found its way into most civilized 
countries. Only 25 years have elapsed 
since the London Horticultural Society 
was established , and there are now more 
than 50 similar institutions in Great 
Britain, which still maintains the first 
rank in the art ; but France is making 
great efforts to rival her. A horticul- 
tural society was established in Paris 
in 1826, and has already more than two 
thousand members, and the number is 
rapidly increasing. It has been patron- 
ised by the court, and most of the nobles 
and men of distinction in France have 
eagerly united with the proprietors of es- 
tates and practical cultivators to collect 
and disseminate intelligence throughout 
that flourishing empire. In the various 



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provinces where horticultural societies 
have not been founded, those of agri- 
culture, or of the sciences and arts, 
have established departments expressly 
devoted to that interesting pursuit; and 
during the year 1827, a practical and 
theoretical institution was founded at 
Fromont, by the enlightened and mu- 
nificient Chevalier Soulange Bodin, for 
educating gardeners, and introducing 
improvements in every department of 
horticulture. The garden contains about 
130 acres, and is divided into compart- 
ments for every variety of culture. 
Extensive green - houses, stoves and 
orangeries have been erected, and all 
the other appendages furnished, which 
are requisite for rendering the establish- 
ment effectual for instruction and ex- 
periment. The nursery of the Luxem- 
bourg long supplied a great part of 
Europe with fruit trees. The Jardin 
des Plantes, in Paris, includes compart- 
ments, which may be considered as 
schools for horticulture, planting, agri- 
culture, medical botany and general 
economy, and is unquestionably the 
most scientific and best managed estab- 
lishment in Europe. The flower garden 
of Malmaison, the botanical garden of 
Trianon, and numerous nursery, herb 
medicinal, experimental and botanical 
gardens, in various parts of the king- 
dom, are pre-eminent for the variety, 
number and excellence of their pro- 
ducts. Holland has been distinguished, 
since the period of the crusades, for her 
flower gardens, culinary vegetables, 
and plantations of fruit trees. The 
north of Europe and the United States 
are still dependent upon her florists for 
the most splendid varieties of bulbous- 
rooted plants ; and her celebrated nur- 
series, which have long replenished 
those of Europe, have been recently 
fortunate in the acquisition of Van 
Mons and Duquesne. Some of the 
finest fruits of our gardens were pro- 
duced by these indefatigable experi- 
mentalists, and, with the excellent va- 
rieties created by Knight, promise to 
replace those which have either become 
extinct, or are so deteriorated in qua- 
lity, as to discourage their cultivation. 
From St. Petersburg to the shores of 
the Mediterranean, horticulture has 
made a rapid progress, and each nation 
is emulous to perfect its culture, in ac- 
cordance with the most improved prin- 
ciples of science, art and taste. In 



the United States, a like spirit has 
been more recently developed. Horti- 
cultural societies have been instituted 
in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, 
Albany, Geneva, and South Carolina, 
and a zealous disposition evinced to 
compete with the nations of the eastern 
continent. The environs of many of 
the cities are in a high state of cultiva- 
tion, and the markets are beginning to 
be well stocked with numerous varie- 
ties of fruits and vegetables. It is now 
the duty of American cultivators to re- 
ciprocate the benefits which they have 
so long received from their transatlantic 
brethren, and to develope the resources 
of a country, which offers such an ex- 
tensive range of research to the natu- 
ralist. Many of the most useful and 
magnificent acquisitions of the groves, 
fields, gardens and conservatories of 
Europe are natives of the western he- 
misphere. The indigenous forest trees, 
ornamental shrubs, flowers, fruits, and 
edible vegetables of North America, 
are remarkable for their variety, size, 
splendour or value. Extending from the 
pole to the tropics, and from the At- 
lantic to the Pacific, North America 
embraces every clime, and every vari- 
ety of soil, teeming with innumerable 
specimens of the vegetable kingdom. 
With such advantages, most of which 
are included within the United States, 
it is to be expected that the citizens 
will be as distinguished for their ad- 
vancement in rural economy as in civil 
and religious freedom. The natural 
divisions of horticulture are the esculent 
or kitchen garden, seminary, nursery, 
fruit trees, and vines, flower garden, 
green-houses, arboretum of ornamental 
trees and shrubs, the botanical and 
medical garden, and landscape or pic- 
turesque gardening. Each of these 
departments requires to be separately 
studied before it can be managed so as 
to combine utility and comfort with 
ornament and recreation. To accom- 
plish this on a large scale, artists, 
scientific professors, and intelligent and 
experienced practical superintendents, 
are employed in Europe, but they have 
not as yet been much required in the 
United States. The owners of the soil 
have generally designed and executed 
such improvements as have been made 
in the conveniences and embellishments 
of country residences. The kitchen 
garden is an indispensable appendage 






HOR 



303 



HOR 



to every rural establishment. In its 
simplest form, it is the nucleus of all 



mentable negligence of this delightful 
culture. In England, the eye is con- 



others. Containing small compartments tinually struck with cottages embowered 
for the culture of esculent vegetables, j amidst fruit trees, shrubs and flowers, 
fruits and ornamental plants, these may while a neat compartment of esculent 
be gradually extended, until the whole j vegetables supplies much of the food 
estate assumes the imposing aspect of 
picturesque or landscape scenery. The 
details of the several grand divisions 
of horticulture are to be learned from 
the numerous authors who have devoted 
their especial attention to each, and 
those which have been named, with 
many others, should be consulted by 
every gentleman who wishes to parti- 
cipate in the comforts and luxuries of a 
garden. The most valuable and in- 
teresting branches of gardening to the 
citizens of the United States, generally, 
are of course those which include the 
culture of esculent vegetables, fruits 
and ornamental plants. These may be 
enjoyed, in various degrees, by all the 
proprietors of the soil. It is only ne- 
cessary that information should be dis- 
seminated, and examples presented by 
the more intelligent and opulent, to 
remove the too common prejudice, that 
gardens are costly and useless append- 
ages, requiring great expenditure and 
labour, without any adequate profit or 
satisfaction. So far from this, there is 
not a farmer, not an owner of an acre 
of land, who will not be enriched or 
gratified by devoting a portion of his 
industry to the tillage of a garden : 
they may find many hours which can 
be thus profitably and pleasantly em- 
ployed. Personal attention, with judi- 
cious arrangements, and a proper divi- 
sion of labour, will accomplish much. 
Many of the most valuable products of 
agriculture were first introduced, and 
their qualities tested, in the garden. 
" If, therefore," says the learned and 
eloquent Poiteau, " we would ascend 
to the origin of Agriculture, it is in the 
garden that her cradle will be found. 
There, like the young Hercules, she 
first tried her powers, and prepared, 
like him, to overrun the world, which 
she speedily cleared of monsters, and 
bestowed upon man the laws of civil- 
ization." Although commendable ef- 
forts have been made, in several parts 
of the country, to introduce and mul- 
tiply all kinds of esculent vegetables, 
most of the choice varieties of fruits, 
and many of the ornamental trees and 
plants, still there is a general and la- 



for the support of the inmates. In 
Germany, Holland, and a portion of 
Italy, it is the general attention which 
all ranks bestow upon the grounds sur- 
rounding their habitations, that gives 
such a pleasing aspect to those coun- 
tries. But little attention has been paid 
in the United States to the planting of 
forest trees, ornamental shrubs and 
flowers, although the native varieties 
are numerous, highly valued in other 
countries, and constitute the most in- 
teresting exhibitions in those celebrated 
establishments, which are enriched by 
collections from all quarters of the 
globe. Arboriculture claims attention, 
not merely for the purposes of rural 
embellishment, but to replace the valu- 
able timber trees, which are fast disap- 
pearing throughout the Atlantic states. 
The forest trees of North America ex- 
ceed 140, while in Europe there are 
only 37. There are 53 species of the 
oak, 17 of the pine, 15 of the walnut, 
and 8 of the maple. Of those magnifi- 
cent trees which compose the genus of 
the magnolia, but 15 are known, 9 of 
which belong to the United States. In 
all ages and countries, flowers have 
been universally cherished. " Who," 
asks Boursault, "does not love flow- 
ers? They embellish our gardens; 
they give a more brilliant lustre to our 
festivals ; they are the interpreters of 
our affections ; they are the testimonials 
of our gratitude ; we present them to 
those to whom we are under obliga- 
tions ; they are often necessary to the 
pomp of our religious ceremonies, and 
they seem to associate and mingle their 
perfumes, with the purity of our pray- 
ers, and the homage which we address 
to the Almighty. Happy are those who 
love and cultivate them." The ancients 
paid particular attention to flowers. 
They were in great request at the en- 
tertainments of the wealthy ; they were 
scattered before the triumphal chariots 
of conquerors ; they formed the dis- 
tinguishing insignia of many divinities ; 
they glitter as gems in the diadem of 
the seasons, and constitute the mys- 
tical language of poetry. We are told 
that Descartes prosecuted, with equal 



HOS 



304 



HOT 



ardour, astronomy and the culture of 
flowers. The great Conde devoted his 
leisure hours to that delightful pursuit, 
and the vase of flowers was daily re- 
newed upon the table of Lord Bacon, 
while composing the volumes of his 
sublime philosophy. In the cities of 
Europe, flower-markets, for the sale of 
bouquets and ornamental plants, are as 
common as those for fruits. In this 
new world, these delicate daughters of 
the sun have not received that atten- 
tion which indicates the highest state of 
civilization : but a taste for floriculture 
is increasing throughout the Union, 
and ornamental plants embellish the 
country seats of the opulent and the 
dwellings of honest industry. Botani- 
cal gardens have been established in 
several of the states, and the large 
cities can now boast of their marts and 
exhibitions of flowers. One of the 
greatest impediments to the progress 
of horticulture in the United States has 
been the deficiency of nurseries, both 
as to number and extent. They are 
not only requisite for furnishing the va- 
rious kinds of trees and plants which 
are demanded for utility and embel- 
lishment, but to give publicity to the 
most valuable and interesting species, 
as well as to excite a taste for their 
cultivation. These establishments, how- 
ever, have been much increased and 
improved within a few years, and there 
are several in the vicinity of Boston, 
New York, Albany, Philadelphia, and 
in the district of Columbia, which are 
highly creditable to the proprietors and 
to the country." — Encyc. Am. 

HOSACKIA. Four species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division and seed. Com- 
mon soil. 

HOSE-IN-HOSE is a form of double 
flowers, when one corolla is inserted 
within the other, as is frequently the 
case with the primrose. 

HOSTA. Three species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

HOT-BED. When a temperature of 
45°, moisture, and atmospheric air oc- 
cur to deaden vegetable matters, these 
absorb large quantities of oxygen, evol- 
ving also an equal volume of carbonic 
acid. As in all other instances where 
vegetable substances absorb oxygen gas 
in large quantities, much heat is evolved 
by them when putrefying; and advan- 
tage is taken of this by employing 
leaves, stable-litter, and tan, as sources 



of heat, or hot-beds, in the gardener's 
forcing department. 

A hot-bed is usually made of stable- 
dung, of which that made by the best 
fed horses is to be preferred. It should 
be about ten days from the stalls, and 
without too large a proportion of litter. 
After being thrown into a heap, of conic 
form, for five or six days, it must be so 
turned over, that the inner parts are 
brought, to the outside, the clots well 
separated with the fork, the heap being 
re-formed conically as before, and left 
for an equal number of days. By this 
time and treatment the dung in general 
acquires a sufficient and steady heat; 
if, however, it is very dry and fresh, it 
must be moderately moistened, and left 
for five or six days more. At the time 
of forming the heap, as well as at every 
turning, water should be applied if its 
substance appears at all dry>as a regu- 
lar state of moisture is of -first import- 
ance to the obtaining a favourable fer- 
mentation. It should remain until the 
straw in general assumes a dark brown 
colour, when it should be immediately 
formed into the bed. Leaves or tan 
may be mixed with advantage, as heat 
is thereby generated during a greater 
length of time. In cold, wet, or bois- 
terous weather, the heaps should be 
covered to a moderate depth with lit- 
ter. 

In making the beds, they must be so 
situated as to be entirely free from the 
overshadowing of trees, buildings, &c, 
and having an aspect rather a point 
eastward of the south. A reed fence 
surrounding them on all sides isj a shel- 
ter that prevents any reverberation of 
the wind, an evil which is caused by 
paling or other solid inclosure. This 
must be ten feet high to the northward 
or back part, of a similar height at the 
side, but in front only six. The wicket 
or gate must be of sufficient width to 
admit a loaded wheelbarrow. An in- 
closure of this description, one hundred 
feet in length and sixty broad, will be 
of a size sufficiently large for the pursuit 
of every description of hot-bed forcing. 
But for cucumbers, melons, and a few 
inferior articles, a space for six or eight 
lights is sufficient. Fruit may be forced 
slightly by being trained within it on 
the southern aspect ; the fence on that 
side in that case must be of brick or 
wood. 

To prevent unnecessary labour, this 



HOT 



305 



HOT 



inclosure should be formed as near to 
the stable as possible. For the recep- 
tion of the bed, a trench is often dug 
of its determined length and breadth, 
and six inches deep, if the soil is wet, 
or eighteen or more if it is dry. In a 
dry soil and climate this cannot be pro- 
ductive of much injury, but otherwise 
it almost always chills the bed: at the 
same time it is to be observed, that it 
is never productive of benefit, further 
than not being so high ; it is easier of 
access, but gives much additional trou- 
ble, both at the time of founding and 
afterwards, when linings are to be ap- 
plied. 

The site of the bed being determined, 
a stake should be driven perpendicu- 
larly at the four corners as a guide for 
its rectangular construction. The dung 
must be thoroughly mixed just before it 
is used, and as carefully separated and 
spread regularly with the fork, as the 
bed is formed with it. It is beneficially 
settled down in every part alike by 
beating with the fork as the work pro- 
ceeds, rather than by treading ; for if 
too much compressed, a high degree of 
heat is generated but is soon spent: a 
contrary phenomenon is often caused 
if trod to a still greater excess, namely, 
that no heat at all is engendered. 

The longest or littery part of the 
dung should be laid at the bottom of 
the bed, and the finer fragments of the 
dung upon the top. If it is not regu- 
larly and moderately moist throughout, 
it should be sprinkled over with water. 
As the surface on which the bed is 
founded is usually horizontal, so is the 
dung laid perfectly parallel with it. Mr. 
Knight recommends it, on the contrary, 
to be equally inclined with its founda- 
tion, that it may associate well with the 
new form, which he recommends for 
frames. See Frame. 

The breadth of a bed must always be 
five feet, and in the depth of winter 
four and a half feet high when firmly 
settled ; to form it of this size, about 
twelve barrow loads of dung are re- 
quired to a light. 

In early spring, a height of three and 
a half feet is sufficient, and as the sea- 
son advances, it may decline to three 
or two and a half feet. In May or 
early summer, when the only object is 
to hasten the germination of seeds, two 
feet or eighteen inches is not less than 
the necessary height. The length of 
20 



the bed in all cases must be guided by 
the size of the frame. 

To prevent the sudden changes of 
temperature in the external air affect- 
ing the heat of the bed, coat the sides 
of the bed with sand ; coal-ashes or 
earth might be substituted, to a thick- 
ness of two feet. 

As the heat declines, linings, or as 
they might be more properly called, 
coatings, are made use of, which con- 
sist of hot fermenting dung laid from 
eighteen to twenty-four inches, in pro- 
portion to the coldness of the season, 
&c, all round the bed to the whole of 
its height, and if founded in a trench, 
one equally deep must be dug for the 
coating, it being of importance to re- 
new the heat as much as possible 
throughout its whole mass ; if, after a 
while, the temperature again declines, 
the old coating must be taken away, 
and a similar one of hot dung applied 
in its place. As the spring advances, 
the warmth of the sun will compensate 
for the decline of that of the bed ; but 
as the nights are generally yet cold, 
either a moderate coating, about nine 
or ten inches thick, is required, or the 
mowings of grass, or even litter, may 
be laid round the sides with advantage. 

The depth of earth, as well as the 
time and manner of applying, vary con- 
siderably ; it should never be put on 
until four or five days after the bed is 
formed: before it is applied, the edges 
of the bed should be raised full eight 
inches higher than the middle, as from 
the additional weight of the frame they 
are sure to sink more and quicker, 
thereby often causing the earth to crack 
and injure the roots of the plants. 

The roots of plants being liable to 
injury from an excessive heat in the 
bed, several plans have been devised 
to prevent this effect. If the plants in 
pots are plunged in the earth of the 
bed, they may be raised an inch or two 
from the bottom of the holes they are 
inserted in by means of a stone. But a 
still more effectual mode is to place 
them within other pots, rather larger 
than themselves ; a space filled with 
air being thus interposed between the 
roots and the source of heat, an effect- 
ual security is obtained. To prevent 
the same injury occurring when the 
plants are in the earth of the bed, a 
moderate layer of neats'-dung laid be- 
tween the earth and the fermenting 



HOT 



306 

— • — 



HOT 



mass, is an efficient precaution, and is 
much preferable to a similarly placed 
layer of turf, which interrupts too much 
the full benefit of the heat. A plan re- 
commended by Bradley is well worthy 
of notice. A woven hurdle somewhat 
larger than the frame being placed 
upon the dung, on this its woodwork 
can rest, and the earth is laid within 
it, thus the whole can be moved to- 
gether without disturbance. This would 
especially be of advantage when bark 
is employed, which requires occasional 
stirring to renew its heat in case of 
emergency, when time cannot be al- 
lowed for the bed becoming regular in 
its heat before the plants are inserted. 
Besides these precautions, vacancies 
should be left in the mould, and holes 
bored with a thick pole into the bed, 
which must be filled up with hay or 
dung when the danger is passed. 

For ascertaining the internal temper- 
ature of the bed, the thermometer is 
the only certain guide, as it also is for 
judging of the temperature of the air 
within the frame ; the mode of intro- 
ducing it into the body of the bed, is to 
have the thermometer inclosed in a 
wooden case of the size and form of an 
ordinary dibble, which is to be lined 
with baize and fitted with a cap of 
thinned iron to exclude the exterior 
temperature. The end which enters 
the earth is shod with perforated cop- 
per. In conjunction with the ther- 
mometer, trying sticks may be employ- 
ed for occasional observation ; these 
are smooth laths of wood, about two 
feet in length, thrust into different parts 
of the bed, which, being drawn out and 
grasped quickly, afford a rough esti- 
mate of the heat of the bed. 

The small extent of the frame, and 
the rapid deterioration of the air within 
it by the plants, render its frequent re- 
newal necessary. To effect this, the 
common practice is to raise the glasses 
in proportionate heights according to 
the state of the air; and to prevent any 
injury arising when necessarily admitted 
during inclement weather, mats are 
hung over the opening ; but notwith- 
standing these precautions, the supply 
of air can seldom be regular; hence, 
and from sudden chills, the plants are 
often checked, and sometimes essen- 
tially injured. It may be remarked 
here, that raw foggy days, if anything, 
are more unfavourable than those that 



are frosty for the admission of air. A 
complete remedy for all these difficul- 
ties is afforded by a plan, which suc- 
ceeds on the principle that warm air 
ascends, and simply consists of a pipe 
passed through the body of the bed, 
and one end communicating with the 
exterior air, the other opening into the 
frame, at one of the top corners of 
which an aperture must be made ; the 
heated air of the frame will constantly 
be issuing from this aperture, and its 
place supplied by that which rises 
through the pipe. A pipe of lead may 
be used, about two or three inches in 
diameter, bent nearly at a right angle, 
and each limb being three feet long, 
one of these to be placed horizontally, 
as the bed is forming, with its mouth 
extending in the open air, that of the 
other opening into the frame ; a cap 
should be fitted to the first, and by a 
slit on its under side, the quantity of 
air admitted can be regulated. 

Although stable manure is generally 
employed for the constructing of hot- 
beds, yet there are several other vege- 
table matters that are also in use for 
the same purpose. Tanner's bark, 
from its long continuance and regu- 
larity of heat, is much to be preferred, 
especially for very tender exotics. In 
many situations it can be obtained at a 
cheaper rate than stable dung ; it should 
be employed when fresh drawn from 
the vats, or at most when a fortnight or 
three weeks old ; it must lay in a heap 
for six or eight days to allow the escape 
of the superfluous moisture : in summer 
this is not of such material consequence, 
as an excess of wet is, at that season, 
not so liable to prevent fermentation. 

If the ground is dry, a pit three feet 
deep may be dug, and is better lined 
with slates, boards, or brickwork, but 
whatever may be the nature of the soil, 
it is best to form this case or bin of a 
similar height upon the surface. With- 
out some support the tan will not form 
a solid bed, and if mould becomes 
mixed with it, the fermentation is re- 
tarded or entirely prevented. The 
breadth must not be less than five or 
six feet, or of a length shorter than ten 
or twelve, otherwise the heat will not 
be lasting. When the bark is laid, it 
must be gently settled with the fork, 
but never trodden upon; for if violently 
compressed, it loses the power of fer- 
menting ; if the bark is fresh and not 



HOT 



307 



HOT 



ground very small, it attains a sufficient 
warmth in a fortnight for the insertion 
of the plants, and will continue in heat 
for two or three months ; the larger the 
fragments of the bark are, the longer 
time it requires to ferment, but in an 
equal proportion it attains a higher 
temperature and preserves it much 
longer; a middle sized bark is, there- 
fore, in general to be preferred ; and 
added to the above consideration, it is 
to be remarked that, when made of 
large fragments, violent and sudden 
excesses often arise, even after the bed 
has been constructed two or three 
months : on the contrary, if very small, 
the fermentation soon passes off. 

When the crops are removed, and 
the heat declines, if well stirred, and a 
load or two of fresh bark mixed with it, 
the bed will acquire and continue in 
heat for an equal further lapse of time : 
this may be repeated throughout the 
year as often as the heat is found to 
decline. But it is necessary every 
autumn, entirely or nearly so, to re- 
construct the bed with fresh bark ; for 
when the old is far advanced towards 
putrefaction, it will no longer generate 
heat. 

The leaves of the oak and sweet 
chestnut, and doubtless of many other 
trees, answer for hot-beds as well or 
even better than tanner's bark, since 
they will continue to afford a moderate 
heat for nearly twelve months without 
any addition or stirring. They are to 
be collected as they fall in autumn, and 
carried to some situation, or be so hur- 
dled in, that they may be preserved 
from scattering by the winds; the heap 
should be six or seven feet thick, trod 
firmly down, and moderately watered 
if dry. In a few days, a very powerful 
heat is produced, and in five or six 
weeks will have become so regular, 
that it may be broken up and the beds 
constructed with its materials, water 
being again employed if dryness ap- 
pears, and they must be well trod down 
as before. There are many other sub- 
stances that generate heat during fer- 
mentation ; there is perhaps no vegeta- 
ble substance that does not; even a 
heap of dry sticks acquires a strong 
accession of temperature if moistened. 
Mr. Burnet recommends the trial of the 
refuse matter thrown off in dressing 
flax, for constructing hot-beds : this re- 
fuse he says he has observed, when 



left undisturbed, continue at a temper- 
ature of 64° for many months, he seems 
to intimate as long as fourteen. This 
material is, however, to be had in very 
few districts. Grass and other green 
herbage, and even wetted straw mixed 
with coal-ashes, have been used on an 
emergency with success. Instead of 
forming hot-beds with open sides, as has 
been hitherto described, pits of brick- 
work and other materials, are very 
generally constructed for containing 
the fermenting mass. It may be laid 
down as a fundamental principle, that 
in applying heat, it should always be 
brought to the bottom of the body to 
be heated. 

Mr. Flanagan only allows the heat of 
fermenting dung to be employed, the 
steam being prevented entering the 
frame. One advantage arising from this 
he states to be, that fresh made dung 
may be employed, and consequently the 
loss sustained by any preparation is 
prevented. If, however, it be a fact 
that the steam of dung is rather bene- 
ficial than otherwise, fresh fermenting 
dung can be used without any detriment 
that I am aware of in other pits of 
which we have plans. Mr. F. describes 
his pit as follows : — " It is four feet deep 
within, the lowest ten inches of solid 
brickwork sunk in the earth ; the re- 
mainder is a flue three inches wide in 
the clear, carried entirely round the pit, 
the inner wall of which, forming the 
sides of the pit, is four inch work, well 
bedded in mortar, and pointed to pre- 
vent the steam penetrating ; the outer 
wall of the flue is also four inch, but 
open work to admit the steam, and that 
of dung coatings into the flue, the top 
of which is rendered tight by a covering 
of tiles, &c. The frame rests on the 
external wall of the flue. The cavity 
of the pit, which is kept dry by means 
of drains, is nine feet two inches long, 
two feet eight inches wide, and four 
feet deep. It is filled with broken 
bricks to within eighteen inches of the 
top, then a foot of short cold dung, six 
inches of very rotten dung trod down 
so as to admit half an inch depth of 
coal-ashes, for preventing the intrusion 
of any worms that may be in the dung, 
completes the structure." 

The accompanying sketch and refer- 
ences will fully explain the plan of Mr. 
West. D D, chamber in which the dung 
is placed, three and a half feet deep, 



HOT 



Fig. 86. 



308 

— ♦ — 



HOT 




surrounded by nine inch brick work. 
One half of this is filled longitudinally 
with dung at the commencement, which, 
if kept close shut up, will last twelve or 
eighteen days, according to the quality 
of the dung. As the heat declines, the 
other side is filled, and the temperature 
is further sustained by additions to the 
top of both as the mass settles. When 
this united heat becomes insufficient, 
the side first filled being cleared, the old 
manure must be mixed with some fresh, 
and replaced, this being repeated alter- 
nately to either heap as often as neces- 
sary. A A, are the doors, two of which 
are on each side for the admission of 
the dung. They are two and a half feet 
square, fitted into grooves at the bottom, 
aud fastened by means of a pin and 
staple at the top. B B, are small areas 
sunk in front, surrounded by a curb of 
wood ; G G G, are bars passing longi- 
tudinally as a guide and support in pack- 
ing the dung; C, represents a bar of 
cast-iron, two inches wide and three 
quarters of an inch thick, placed on the 
edge of which there is a row, a foot 
asunder across the chamber to support 
a layer of small wood branches and 
leaves, H, for the pupose of sustaining 
the soil, K, in the upper chamber ; E E, 
represents the orifices of which there 
are a series all round the pit, communi- 
cating with the flue F F F, which sur- 
rounds the beds : the exterior wall of 
this flue is built with bricks laid flat, the 
inner one of bricks set on edge. The 
flue is two inches wide, and for the sake 
of strength, bricks are passed occa- 
sionally from side to side as ties. The 
top of the flue, and the internal part of 
the wall, which rises at the back and 
front to the level the earth is meant to 
stand, are covered with tiles, over the 
joints of which slips of slate bedded in 
mortar are laid to prevent the escape of 



the steam of the dung ; T, represents 
one of two plugs, which stop holes left 
to regulate the heat and steam as may 
be necessary. The outer wall supports 
the lights. For the convenience of 
fixing the dung, it is best to fill the half 
of the chamber at the commencement, 
before the branches, mould, &c, are 
put in. 

Hot-water is a much more manage- 
able source of heat for a hot-bed than 
fermenting vegetable matter, and for 
plans see the title Hot-Water. 

HOT-HOUSE. See Stove. 

HOTTENTOT CHERRY. Cassine 
maurocenia. 

HOTTENTOT-FIG. Mesembry- 
anthemum edule. 

HOTTONIA palustris. Hardy 
aquatic. Division. Still water. 

HOT- WALL is a hollow wall, the 
interior air being so heated by flues or 
hot water, as to keep the bricks of which 
its faces are composed so warm as to 
promote the ripening of the wood and 
fruit trained against them. 

Mr. Loudon observes, that " the flued 
wall or hot wall is generally built of 
brick, though where stone is abundant 
and more economical, the back or north 
side may be of that material. A flued 
wall may be termed a hollow wall, in 
which the vacuity is thrown into com- 
partments to faciliate the circulation of 
smoke and heat from the base or surface 
of the ground to within one or two feet 
of the coping. They are generally 
arranged with hooks inserted under the 
coping to admit of fastening some de- 
scription of protecting covers, and 
sometimes for temporary glass frames. 
A length of forty feet, and from ten to 
fifteen feet high, may be heated by one 
fire, the furnace of which, being placed 
one or two feet below the surface of the 
ground, the first course or flue will com- 
mence one foot above it, and be two 
feet six or three feet high, and the 
second, third, and fourth courses nar- 
rower as they ascend. The thickness 
of that side of the flue next the south 
or preferable side, should, for the first 
course, be four inches, or brick and 
bed ; and for the other courses it were 
desirable to have bricks cast in a smaller 
mould ; say for the second course, three 
inches ; for the third, two and three 
quarter inches; and for the fourth, 
two and a half inches in breadth. This 
will give an opportunity of leveling the 



HOT 



HOT 



wall, and the bricks being all of the 
same thickness though of different 
widths, the external appearance will be 
everywhere the same." — Enc. Gard. 

Hot walls are generally overheated 
opposite the first turn of the flue, and 
not heated enough at a distance from 
the fire. Mr. Hay has obviated this, by 
having a hollow in the interior of the 
wall, serving as a general heat-chamber 
for diffusing and retaining warm air, 
and also smoke-flues for conveying heat 
throughout. — Hort. Trans.; Gard. Mag. 

The Rev. J. A. H. Grubbe, of Stan- 
ton St. Bernard, Wiltshire, has taken 
out a patent for a Transmitting-heat 
wall. The intention is to erect this 
partition in gardens, as a substitute for 
walls, against which fruit trees may be 
trained, and through which the warmth 
of the sun may, by reason of their thin- 
ness, be transmitted, which will greatly 
promote the ripening of the fruit, and 
improve its flavour. The material pro- 
posed to be employed for constructing 
these walls or partitions, is slate of the 
ordinary quality, in slabs, of the kind 
usually applied to the roofing of houses. 
Iron frames are proposed to be pre- 
pared for the reception of the slates, 
like the frames of windows, (with holes 
in both sides for inserting wires to serve 
as a trellis,) and the slates being cut to 
proper shapes and dimensions, may be 
secured in the rebates of the frame by 
putty, in the same way as glass. These 
frames are to be from six to eight feet 
wide, and of a suitable height, and may 
be joined together side by side, by re- 
bates or flanges, and held fast by screws, 
bolts, pins or staples: or in any way 
that may be found desirable to secure 
them firmly. Temporary blocks of 
stone may be placed along the ground 
to support the partitions, with cross 
pieces to receive standards or slight 
buttresses to keep the wall or partition 
perpendicular, and against the face of 
the wall, trellis work of wood or other 
fit material may be placed for the sup- 
port of the branches of the trees. Walls 
or partitions for gardens formed in this 
way will transmit the heat of the sun 
through them, and hence fruit which 
may be growing against these walls 
having a northern aspect, will receive 
the benefit of the sun's warmth trans- 
mitted through the slates. In the con- 
struction of these transmitting wall 



to slate, but considers that plates of 
iron, applied in the same way, might 
answer the purpose nearly as well, 
provided that their surfaces were black- 
ened, which would cause them to ab- 
sorb more of the solar rays. Even 
frames of glass might answer the pur- 
pose applied in the same manner, and 
perhaps some other materials might do ; 
but it is desirable that the frames should 
be light enough to admit of their being 
removed without difficulty, in order 
that these partitions may be shifted 
from place to place, (put under cover 
during winter,) and set up in different 
parts of the garden, as convenience 
may dictate. — Nicholson's Journ.; Gard. 
Mag. See Wall. 

HOT-WATER as a source of heat 
for gardening purposes is preferable to 
any other. It is less expensive, more 
manageable, and less troublesome than 
any other. See Tank System and 
Stove. The following are some of the 
best modes of its application to various 
structures. 

Pine-Pit. — The best that has been 
constructed is thus described by Mr. G. 
Fleming: — 

In " a pine-pit recently erected at 
Trentham, the tank system of bottom- 
heating and that of hot water pipes for 
top-heat are combined ; and for keep- 
ing a sufficient and steady heat with a 
small consumption of fuel, nothing can 
be more satisfactory. The pit is seven- 
ty-seven feet long, and twelve feet 
wide inside, and is heated by what is 
called a saddle boiler. Under the bed 
are four tanks, into which the water is 
delivered from the boiler by a four 
inch pipe, and after pursuing its course, 
is again received by another pipe. The 
advantage of two deliveries is, that the 
water not having so far to go does not 
get so cold before it is returned to the 
boiler, and the heat is more regular in 
all parts of the house. The depth of 
water in the tanks is about three inches. 
The tanks are made of brickwork coat- 
ed with Roman cement. They are 
arched over with brickwork also, which 
we find cheaper than covering them 
with slates, and by leaving interstices 
between the bricks of which the arch 
is composed the steam is allowed to 
escape, and penetrating the stratum of 
rubble above, to keep the tan in a pro- 
per state of moisture. The same boiler 



the patentee does not confine himself | also supplies a range of four inch pipe 



HOT 



310 

— ♦ — 



HOT 



which goes round the pit. There are 
cavities in the wall to permit the steam 
from below to pass to the top of the 
pit. The aperture to these can be 
closed at pleasure, thus insuring a per- 
fect command over the moisture of the 
atmosphere. There is a chamber which 
formerly contained a flue belonging to 
the house that occupied the place of 
the one I am now describing. This 
chamber has been left with the view of 
its being useful for filling with hot dung 
either for the purpose of assisting to 
maintain the heat of the house, or for 
destroying insects. The tanks and 



pipes cannot both be worked at the 
same time, but they are fitted with 
stop-cocks, so that either can be work- 
ed at pleasure, and a few hours in the 
middle of the day, when the pipes are 
not wanted, is found amply sufficient to 
keep up the bottom-heat, as the mass 
of material when once heated retains 
its heat for a considerable time." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Melon and Cucumber Pit. — For this, 
Mr. Glendinning, the scientific nursery- 
man, of Turnham Green, has given the 
following plans and description. 



Fig. 87. 



JZleuatlon, of the 
Tine A A 




2 3 4- S 



\/0J?F 






--^~^-_Z==.-^>=_ »» Sx fcrZ^O 




Explanation of the Plan. — a, Bur- 
bidge and Healy's boiler ; b 6, iron 
troughs; c c, pipes; d d, iron troughs 
as at 6 & in plan ; e e, pipes as at c c in 
plan ; //, copper tubes fastened to the 
troughs to admit steam when required ; 
g } wire trellis ; hhh, convenient places 

Fig. 88. 




for the growth of sea kale, rhubarb or 
asparagus, or keeping tubers of any kind 
during the winter. 

" This pit is intended for melons in 
summer, and to preserve pelargoniums 
or other plants in winter. As the ob- 
ject in constructing it is more for the 
purpose of experiment than the perma- 
nent culture of melons, I have designed 
it so that pines may be substituted with- 
out any alteration whatever; indeed 
any kind of plant which such a structure 
is capable of receiving, and at the same 
time requiring protection, and in a 
warm temperature, may be very advan- 
tageously introduced, the hot-water ap- 
paratus being so contrived as to com- 
mand both bottom and surface-heat, 



HOT 



311 



HOT 



either separately or conjointly. For 
the purpose of supplying soft water for 
the plants, I have placed a slate cistern 
at one end of the pit, in order to collect 
the rain water from the roof. The soil, 
if permitted to come in contact with the 
iron troughs, would, of necessity, be- 
come dried and totally unfit for the 
roots of any plant: with a view to ob- 
viate this, I have placed rough flint or 
other stones over the bottom of the bed 
and round the troughs to prevent im- 



mediate contact, and at the same time 
to admit of a more uniform diffusion of 
heat over the bottom of the pit, so that 
the soil which rests upon it may be 
more regularly heated. The other ad- 
vantage and conveniences of this pit 
will be apparent from the above plan 
and section without further remark." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Hot-house. — A hot-water system of 
heating this structure has been thus de- 
tailed by an anonymous writer. 



Fig. 89. 




"It will be seen that there is a parti- 
tion across the house, dividing off about 

Fig. 90. 




Section of Hot-house. 



Fig. 91. 




Section of Pit. Sluice 

for Pit. 
one-third nearest to the boiler as a hot- 
house, which can easily be kept at much 
higher temperatures when required than 
the remainder of the range, which is 
intended for a vinery. The circulation 
may be confined to that exclusively, or 
suffered to extend throughout the range, 



HOT 



312 

— ♦ — 



HOT 



for a longer or shorter period as may be 
desired. Under the paved walk in the 
hot-house, a reservoir is formed in brick 
and cemented, into which all the rain 
which falls on the roof of the house is 
collected. A moveable pump is in- 
serted in one end through a hole cut 
into the stone, for raising the water for 
use in the house. The gutters are fif- 
teen inches wide and five inches deep, 
and formed in fifteen inch lengths ; 
simple open troughs, as shown in sec- 
tion, excepting at angles, where there 
are three pieces, one for each angle, 
formed in a different mould, there being 
no joint at the angles, and the two end 
pieces which are formed with projecting 
collars to receive the pipes from the 
boiler. The gutters are covered with 
tiles, one and a quarter inch in thick- 
ness. It will be seen that the flow and 
return gutters are connected at two 
points, in order that the circulation may 
be confined between either and the 
boiler. At these points the gutters are 
covered by a wooden frame instead of 
a tile, in which is fixed a movable 
cover, which exposes the plugs by 
means of which the circulation is di- 
rected across the house, or extended at 
pleasure along the entire range. If it 
is desired to confine the circulation to 
the stove, the plugs at 1 are inserted, 
and those at 2 withdrawn. On refer- 
ence to the section of the house, it will 
be seen that the back wall is carried 
down considerably under the level of 
the ground to admit of a bed -of earth 
on the inside about four feet deep ; then 
comes the reservoir about three feet 
deep, three wide, and sixteen in length, 
covered by pavement. The earth on 
which the gutters are placed has not 
been moved ; but in order to make it 
level and firm, it was covered with a 
thin coat of concrete at every fifteen 
inches, where the joints occur, they are 
laid on two bricks, in order that the 
under as well as the upper surface 
should radiate heat : every foot run 
of gutter presents a surface of forty 
inches radiating heat. The potter can 
deliver these gutters and covers at 
some distance from the pottery, at Is. 
6d. per foot run ; whereas an iron pipe 
with a four inch bore, which affords but 
twelve inches of radiating surface, I 
believe is usually sold at Is. per foot at 
the factory. There are two slate tables 
the whole length of the house, with 



room for the gardener to walk between 
them, to hold the plants, which it is ex- 
pected will do very well even in the 
vinery, as there are front sashes, and 
the vines will be confined to the rafters 
in the roof. One table rests on one 
side on the front wall, and on iron legs 
on the other ; the other table is sup- 
ported entirely by iron legs lying close 
against the gutters. By this arrange- 
ment the gutters are secured against 
being broken or disturbed by any 
chance accident. The boiler is of cop- 
per, having a pipe at the top through 
which the hot-water rises, with a cross 
pipe having two cocks in it with a brass 
union on each side at the bottom to re- 
ceive the return pipes ; so that the cir- 
culation may be carried on throughout 
the house and the pits at the same time, 
or confined to either at pleasure by 
means of the two cocks in the upper 
pipe. 

" The construction of the pits is as 
follows: — The floor is formed of bricks 
laid flat on a bed of concrete and set in 
cement. The tanks are then formed 
by carrying tiles made of pottery, one 
inch and a quarter thick and five inches 
deep, round the outer edge, and on the 
top of the brick floor, a double row be- 
ing carried along the centre to support 
the covering tiles which form a floor, 
and return tanks about two feet six 
inches wide; these are covered with 
tiles the same as the gutters in the 
house upon which the earth rests. It 
will be seen on reference to the section 
of the pits, that the front tank is fin- 
ished so as to leave a space of about 
three inches between it and the front 
wall; slate slabs, two feet six inches 
deep, rest on the tank to keep up the 
earth, and at every five or six feet, 
where the joints in the slabs occur, 
there is a single brick carried up be- 
tween the joints and the front wall to 
support the slabs against the pressure of 
the earth. The object of this and also 
of round pipes of pottery which rest on 
the surface of the tanks at a, and pass 
up through the earth, is to furnish dry 
heat and to promote a free circulation 
on the surface, which is found advan- 
tageous for propagating. At the points 
marked 8 are similar pipes, which pass 
through the tiles covering the tank, 
which are formed with an opening for the 
purpose into the tanks ; these are fitted 
at the top with wooden plugs for the 



HOT 



313 

— ♦— 



HUM 



purpose of steaming the pits when re- 
quisite. If it is required that the circu- 
lation should be confined to the first or 
second pit nearest the boiler, the sluices 
3, are closed, and those at 4 are 
opened. These sluices are formed by 
a metallic frame being substituted for 
the tile at those points in which a small 
metallic door works on a spindle. This 
is attached to a rod passing up through 
the earth, having a handle at the top, 
just above the earth. In the winter, 
when the thermometer stood at 23°, 
there was a bottom-heat of 90°, and of 
80° on the surface of the pits then in 
action, and of 73° in the stove." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Open Gutters. — Mr. Griffin, gardener 
to Mrs. Wells, of Cowley, near Exeter, 
has published the following remarks 
upon this mode of circulating hot- 
water. 

" The open trough, or gutter, may 
be applied to a boiler of any construc- 
tion. The water flows from the top of 
the boiler, through a four-inch pipe, 
into troughs made of cast iron, of the 
following dimensions; inside measure 
six inches wide at the top, three inches 
and a half at the bottom, and seven 
inches deep; the trough is constructed 
in lengths three feet long, neatly fitted 
together by a rivet in the bottom, and 
one on each side near the top. The 
water returns in a cast-iron pipe, three 
inches in diameter. There are thin iron 
lids or covers, of the same length at 
each portion of the trough, to fit upon 
the whole length of the apparatus, so 
that the degree of humidity may be 
regulated by making up some portions 
of the covers, without disturbing the 
others. The troughs or gutters might 
be made of various materials, but I 
prefer iron. The heat is diffused from 
the surface of the trough or pipes, 
nearly as quickly as it would be from 
copper or zinc, and retains the heat 
much longer. The width and depth of 
the troughs should be varied according 
to the plants intended to be grown in 
the house. An orchidaceous house re- 
quires a wider surface on the top than 
those intended for the growth of erica? 
and green-house plants generally. Dur- 
ing the resting season of orchidaceous 
plants, the atmosphere of the house is 
easily kept less humid, by not removing 
the whole or any part of the lids. 

" For vineries and peach-houses, it 



would answer exceedingly well, and 
entirely eradicate the red spider; for 
the trough can be covered when the 
trees are in flower, and when the fruit 
is approaching towards maturity. On 
the other hand, during the growing 
season you may maintain a regularly 
humid atmosphere with less trouble 
than by any other means. In a pine- 
stove, forty feet long, with a walk be- 
tween the back wall and bark bed, the 
trough being two feet from the level of 
the walk, Mr. Griffin says, ' I can com- 
mand any degree of heat with much less 
attention than is required for some 
houses with a boiler of the same de- 
scription, and equal power as regards 
pipe.' " — Gard. Chron. 

HOUND' S-TONGUE. Cynoglossum. 

HOUSELEEK. Sempervivum. 

HOUSTONIA. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Peat. 

HOVEA. Sixteen species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

HOVENIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

HOYA. Eight species. Stove ever- 
green twiners. Cuttings. Light loam 
and peat. 

HUDSONIA. Three species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings 
and layers. Shaded peat soil. 

HUERNIA. Eleven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, dried for 
a few days. Sandy loam and lime rubbish . 

HUGONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

HUMBLE-PLANT. Mimosa pudica. 

HUMffiA elegans. Green-house bien- 
nial. Seed. Common soil. 

HUMUS. When the putrefactive 
process of plants is completed, there 
remainsta soft black mass, known as 
vegetable mould, or humus. One hun- 
dred parts of the humus of wheat 
straw have of extractive or apotheme, 
rather more than twenty-six parts, and 
the residue is lime, peroxide of iron, 
phosphate of lime, and carbonaceous 
matter. This apotheme is identical 
with the humic acid of Liebig, the ulmic 
acid of Braconnot, and the geic acid of 
Berzelius. It contains — 

Carbon 46.6 

Hydrogen 20.0 

Oxygen 33.4 

It was once believed, indeed is still 



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314 



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believed by a few men of science, that 
this apotheme is the immediate fertil- 
izing component of organic manures, 
being soluble under some circum- 
stances, and entering at once into the 
roots of plants, dissolved in the mois- 
ture of the soil. But every relative 
research of more modern chemistry is 
against this conclusion, and it is now 
tolerably certain, that a chief nutritive 
portion of vegetable manures are their 
carbon converted into carbonic acid, 
absorbed either in solution with the 
earth's moisture, or in gaseous form by 
the roots. Apotheme is only one of 
the products formed during the progress 
of putrefaction, and is in its turn a 
source of carbonic acid. Carbonic acid 
has been long since shown to be bene- 
ficial if applied to a plant's roots. It 
abounds in the sap of all vegetables, 
though this be drawn from their very 
lowest parts, whereas apotheme is in- 
jurious to them if they are grown in a 
solution of it, and minutest analyzers 
have failed to detect it even within the 
extreme vessels of roots. — Prin. of 
Gard. 

HUNGARIAN LOTUS. Nymphcea 
ther malts. 

HUNNEMANNIA fumariafolia. 
Half hardy herbaceous. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

HURDLES of iron are the most eli- 
gible modes of fencing, whether for 
permanency or temporary purposes. 
They are invisible at a short distance, 
elegant and durable. 

HUTCHINSIA. Seven species. 
Hardy herbaceous alpines. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

HYACINTHUS. Hyacinth. Five 
species and as many varieties. Hardy 
bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam. The spe- 
cies most commonly known is H. orien- 
talis, the varieties of which are so 
conspicuous in our borders and water 
vases. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — "A 
well grown hyacinth should be of a 
compact pyramidal form, with a strong, 
tall, and upright stem, supporting nu- 
merous large bells, each attached by a 
strong foot-stalk in a horizontal position 
to the stem. 

"The bells should be perfectly dou- 
ble, composed of broad, thick, waxy 
petals, with the centre of the flower 
raised, rendering the form convex. 



" The bells should occupy about one 
half the length of the stem, with the 
uppermost bell erect. 

" The flowers, whether whole-colour- 
ed or striped, should be clearand bright; 
those having a contrast of colour in the 
centre are most esteemed." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Offsets. — " The hyacinth is increased 
by offsets ; but to multiply the number 
of offsets, cuts are made in the under 
part of the bulb, which, by proper 
management and a little care, will be 
found filled with offsets next year." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Soil. — Mr. Mooy, of Haarlem, from 
whose communication to the Garden- 
er's Chronicle this treatise on the cul- 
ture of the hyacinth is principally taken, 
says — "They require a fresh, well 
drained sandy soil, free from lumps or 
stones, and not mixed with any vege- 
table matter." — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Home, an equally good authori- 
ty, adds, that " the hyacinth must never 
be planted again in the same soil ; but 
the ground should be allowed to rest 
for at least two or three years, or 
should be cultivated with greens during 
that time ; it should also be well mixed 
again, before planting, with some old 
cow-dung, especially if the soil is light 
or sandy, as hyacinths are very fond of 
that manure." — Gard. Chron. 

Moisture. — This being the most de- 
structive agent against which the ama- 
teur has to guard, great care should be 
taken to protect hyacinths from it, by 
selecting the most elevated spot in his 
garden. If this is surrounded by a 
shallow trench, a little distance off, it 
will be useful, and the bed should also 
be raised seven or eight inches above 
the ground level. 

Planting and Culture. — " The roots 
are planted in October, the soil being 
prepared by having pure cow-dung 
mixed with it one year previously to 
the time of planting. We use a bar- 
rowful of dung per ten yards square. 
The ground being measured into beds, 
the soil is taken out of the first to the 
depth of five inches, and the bulbs are 
planted firmly on it, so that the under 
part is well surrounded with the mould, 
after which they are covered over with 
the earth taken out of the next bed to 
the same depth, which is then ready to 
be planted, and this is pursued until the 
whole of the beds are completed. 



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315 

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" As soon as severe weather com- 
mences, all the beds are covered over 
about eight inches deep with reeds, so 
as to prevent the frost penetrating them. 
As soon as the frost is gone, the reeds 
are taken off, and the beds are coated 
with a mixture of cow-dung and water, 
to prevent the light sandy soil being 
blown away by the wind. 

" The flowers having opened, and 
being in perfection, are all cut off, to 
give greater strength to the bulbs. 

Taking up and Storing. — " In July, 
the bulbs are taken up, and the leaves 
being pulled off, they are laid down 
regularly, each bulb on the side, so as 
to prevent the roots growing again ; 
after this they are covered over with 
dry soil, one inch above the bulbs, and 
remain in this state for about a fort- 
night, to separate the roots and loose 
skins easily from the bulbs. Great 
care must be taken during this time 
that no injury be done to the bulbs by 
the sun ; attention should therefore be 
paid to keep them well covered over. 
When taken from this situation, the 
bulbs are exposed for a few hours to 
the sun, and kept continually moving 
with a large brush, to prevent their 
being scorched ; by which means they 
get that glossy appearance always ob- 
served in imported bulbs." — Gard. 
Chron. 

" After this management the bulbs 
require a few weeks' drying in the 
warehouse ; for which purpose they 
are laid out on platforms, raised a foot 
and a half above each other, which 
enables us to look them over occasion- 
ally, though this is done principally 
that they may have a good circulation 
of air between them. The windows 
are opened every day on both sides of 
the warehouse — for the more air and 
wind we are able to give, the better — 
that they may be dried and be ready to 
be packed." — Gard. Chron. 

Frost. — "Frost," says Mr. Home, 
" is detrimental only when it comes in 
contact with the bulbs ; therefore they 
should be protected in proportion to its 
intensity. Those who have bulbs of 
great value may lay thin planks of 
wood over the surface when the frost is 
very intense ; but care must be taken not 
to cover them too deep, especially with 
the leaves of trees, because these co- 
verings retain the vapour which arises 
from the soil, and hinder the air from 



entering and purifying it." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Growing in Pots. — The latest and 
best directions we have on this point 
are the following : — '"Give them enough 
space to grow in, without starving their 
roots. The easiest way to do this is to 
have pots made of a deeper shape than 
those in common use. 

" By this simple arrangement the 
roots have sufficient nourishment, while 
the pots take up no more space on the 
stand than at present. An inch or two 
of very rotten cow-dung may be put at 
the bottom of the pots to promote the 
richness of colours and perfume of the 
flowers. Three or four bulbs may be 
planted in the same pot ; but the latter 
should be sufficiently large, and of the 
requisite depth ; twice the diameter of 
the top is a good proportion. 

Fig 92. 




" Lastly, after the bloom is over, put 
those which are fine varieties, and worth 
preserving, in some warm and light 
place; the top shelf of a hot-house, 
green-house, or vinery, close to the 
glass, is the most preferable. There 
they will require no more care nor 
watering ; and after the leaves wither, 
they may be sorted, and lie by until 
the planting season returns. 

"If these points are attended to hya- 
cinths will suffer but little from forcing, 
and will flower again the next year." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Another equally good authority says 
— « Grow three bulbs in each pot — up- 
right pots, at least six inches clear in- 
side. After planting, put them in a 
frame properly drained at the bottom, 
and slightly protected at the sides, and 
plunge them in rotten tan, covering the 
tan over them at least four inches. In 
very hard weather, a mat to be thrown 
over them, otherwise no covering at 



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316 

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all ; in this state they remain until the 
flower-stem heaves up the tan. Every 
pot, as this occurs, to be taken to the 
green-house, and put at the back of the 
stage, and shaded by a mat until the 
stem and leaves become greenish, when 
gradually brought to more light and air. 
In this state examine each spike of 
flowers, and cut out any decaying blos- 
som. 

" Water freely, and give as much air 
as possible during the day; never omit 
to turn the pot daily, so as to insure 
that regular pyramidal shape which is 
so essential to the beauty and symmetry 
of the spikes of flowers when in blos- 
som." — Gard. Chron. 

In Water-Glasses. — In the last week 
of August, or the first week of Septem- 
ber, hyacinths, after being kept for a 
few days in slightly damped sand, 
should be placed in their water-glasses. 
At first the water should only just touch 
the base of the bulbs, and the glasses 
should be kept in a dark closet until 
the roots have attained the length of an 
inch. Two drops of spirit of hartshorn 
may be added to the water in each glass, 
when the bulbs are first put in, and 
whenever the water is changed. Dark- 
coloured glass is always to be preferred, 
as the absence of light is natural to all 
roots. By keeping the glasses in a dark 
closet until the roots are full an inch 
long, the hyacinths will not get top- 
heavy, but the roots being in advance 
of the leaves, will preserve the plant 
balanced erect. The bloom will also 
be finer, as the roots will be in a state 
to nourish the leaves before these are 
prematurely advanced. Dr. Lindley 
recommends a piece of charcoal to be 
put into each glass, to feed the plant, 
and prevent putridity in the water. — 
Gard. Almanac. 

Forcing. — Mr. Shearer directs that 
li In the beginning of October a few 
bulbs be placed in pots and glasses ; the 
single sorts are best for early forcing, 
which, if required, could be flowered 
at Christmas; others are planted at the 
end of October, and another lot about 
the middle of November. The pots 
used are upright thirty-twos, about 
seven inches deep and four inches wide; 
the soil half road sand and half leaf 
mould, with good drainage, and the 
bulb is placed on coal ashes, in any 
open part of the garden, and covered to 
the depth of eight inches with old tan 



' or leaf mould, as a rustiness or canker 
is produced on the young leaves and 
flowers if they come in contact with 
coal-ashes. In eight or ten weeks they 
will generally be found in a fit state to 
be removed to the green-house or cold 
pit ; from thence the most forward are 
taken to a house in which the tempera- 
ture is kept from 60° to 65°, and placed 
about eighteen inches from the glass. 
If any show indication of expanding 
their flowers before the stem is of suffi- 
cient length above the bulb, a piece of 
brown paper of the desired length of 
the stem, is wrapped around the pot, 
and then placed in a cucumber frame, 
with the temperature from 70° to 75°. 
In the latter end of December, or early 
in January, they rise six or eight inches 
in about ten days ; if later in the season, 
they advance quicker. When fully 
expanded, the plants are taken to a 
house where the temperature is 60°, 
and finally to the green-house. The 
same practice is adopted when hya- 
cinths are grown in glasses, first placing 
them in a dark room to encourage the 
protrusion of roots, with a change of 
water once a week, until they are re- 
moved into the frame, or forcing-house, 
when a fresh supply must be given every 
day." — Gard. Chron. 

"Hyacinths," says Dr. Lindley, "after 
having been forced, are three years be- 
fore they recover themselves. After 
they have done flowering both in pots 
and glasses, they should be planted out 
in the open ground in a bed properly 
prepared, taking care not to injure the 
leaves but removing the flower stalk. 
When the leaves have died away, the 
roots may be taken up and laid by in 
some dry place till November, when 
they should be again planted in a bed 
in the open ground ; this should be re- 
peated the following year ; and the year 
after that, they may be again forced, 
and will produce as good flowers as 
they did the first year they were im- 
ported." — Gard. Chron. 

Diseases. — The hyacinth bulbs are 
very liable to ulceration, occasioned 
usually by being treated with too much 
water. 

HYBRIDIZING, or CROSS-BREED- 
ING, though not quite identical, have 
with the gardener similar objects, viz., 
either improving the beauty of his 
flowers, or the flavour and prolificacy 
of his fruits and culinary products. 



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317 



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Hybridizing, strictly speaking, is ob- 
taining a progeny between two different 
species ; and cross-breeding is obtain- 
ing a progeny between varieties of the 
same species. The progeny of hybrids 
cannot produce seed ; but cross-breeds 
are fertile. My own observations, and 
those of others, justify the following 
statements, as affording some guide to 
the raiser of varieties: — 

1. The seed-vessel is not altered in 
appearance by impregnation from an- 
other plant; therefore, no hasty con- 
clusion of failure is justified by that 
want of change. 

2. The colour of the future seed, not 
of that first hybridized, seems to be 
most influenced by the male plant, if 
its seeds and flowers are darker than 
those of the female. Mr. Knight found, 
that when the pollen of a coloured- 
blossomed pea was introduced into a 
white one, the whole of the future seeds 
were coloured. But when the pollen of 
a white blossom was introduced to the 
stigma of a coloured blossom, the whole 
of the future seeds were not white. Capt. 
Thurtell, from his experiments on the 
pelargonium, also informs me, that he 
has always found the colour and spot of 
the petals to be more influenced by the 
male than by the female parent. In- 
deed, all experience proves that the 
progeny usually, though not invariably, 
most resembles in colour the male 
parent.! 

3. Large stature and robustness are 
transmitted to the offspring by either 
parent. It does not absolutely matter 
for obtaining this characteristic, whether 
it be the male or female which is large ; 
but Mr. Knight generally found the 
most robust female parent produced the 
finest offspring. 

4. Capt. Thurtell, from lengthened 
observation and experiment, has ascer- 
tained that the form of the petals 
follows most closely that of the female 
parent. 

5. Mr. Knight says that the largest 
seed from the finest fruit that has ripened 
earliest and most perfectly, should 
always be selected. In stone-fruit if 
two kernels are in one stone, these give 
birth to inferior plants. 

6. The most successful mode of ob- 
taining good and very distinct varieties, 
is to employ the pollen from a male in a 
flower grown on another plant than that 



bearing the female parent. To avoid, 
previous and undesired impregnation, 
the anthers in the female parent, if they 
are produced in the same flower with 
the pistils, must be removed by a sharp- 
pointed pair of scissors, and the flower 
inclosed in a gauze bag, to exclude in- 
sects, until the desired pollen is ripe. 
Another effectual mode of avoiding un- 
desired impregnation, is bringing the 
female parent into flower a little earlier 
than its Congeners, and removing the 
anthers as above described : the stigma 
will remain a long time vigorous if un- 
impregnated. 

7. Although the fertility of all the 
seed in one seed vessel may be secured 
by applying pollen only to one style, 
even where there are several, yet the 
quantity of pollen is by no means a 
matter of indifference. Koelreuter 
found, that from fifty to sixty globules 
of pollen were required to complete the 
impregnation of one flower of Hybiscus 
Syriacus ; but in Mirabilis jalapa, and 
M. longiflora, two or three globules 
were enough ; and in the case of pelar- 
goniums, Capt. Thurtell says two or 
three globules are certainly sufficient. 

8. M. Haquin, a distinguished horti- 
culturist at Liege, has impregnated 
flowers of the Azalea with pollen kept 
six weeks ; and Camellias with pollen 
kept sixty-five days. He gathers the 
stamens just previously to the anthers 
opening, wraps them in writing-paper, 
places them in a warm room for a day, 
collects the pollen they emit, and pre- 
serves it in sheet lead in a cool dry 
place. M. Godefroy suggests, that two 
concave glasses, like those employed 
for vaccine virus, would be better. The 
globules of the pollen must not be 
crushed. M. Haquin thinks the pollen 
of one year will be effective if preserved 
until the year following. Mr. Jackson, 
of Cross Lanes Nursery, near Bedale, 
says, he has found the pollen of the 
Rhododendron Smithii tigrinum retain 
its fertilizing power even for twelve 
months. 

9. It is easy to discern whether im- 
pregnation has been effected, as in such 
case the stigmas soon wither. The stig- 
mas which have not received the pollen 
remain for a long time green and vigor- 
ous. "By the aid of the Stanhope 
lens," observes Capt. Thurtell, in a let- 
ter now before me, "I fancy I can dis- 
cover the seed of the pelargonium being 



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closed over in the space of four hours 
after impregnation." 

10. When double flowers are desired, 
if a double flower should chance to have 
a fertile anther or two, these should be 
employed for fertilization, as their off- 
spring are almost sure to be very double. 

11. Many analyses of the pollen of 
various plants have been made by che- 
mists, without throwing any light upon 
hybridizing. M. Grotthus found the 
components of twenty-six grains of the 
pollen of the tulip were — 
Vegetable albumen .... 20.25 

Malates of lime and magnesia 3.50 

Malic acid ....... 1.00 

Malate of ammonia, colouring) . ap. 

matter, nitrate of potash J " 

12. Superfcetation has been doubted ; 
but as it occurs in the dog, we see no 
reason for disbelieving its possibility in 
plants. Capt. Thurtell thinks it may be 
done by the bee introducing mingled 
pollens at the same instant. Then why 
not if a similar mixture is inserted by 
the camel's-hair pencil of the culti- 
vator ? 

13. Plants nearly related, that is, 
closely similar in the structure of their 
various parts, are those only which will 
immediately impregnate each other ; 
but it is impossible, at present, to say 
what families of plants may or may not 
be brought into fertile union through 
intermediate crosses. A very short 
time ago, the azalea and rhododendron 
were thought incapable of such union ; 
but this opinion is now exploded, for 
rhododendron ponticum has been fertil- 
ized with the pollen of azalea sinensis, 
and the progeny between that evergreen 
and this deciduous shrub, is the pre- 
viously unknown phenomenon, a yellow 
rhododendron. Though such unions 
may be effected, I entirely agree with 
Mr. Knight in anticipating that the pro- 
geny will be mules, incapable of pro- 
ducing offspring. 

HYDRANGEA. Six species. Hardy 
deciduous shrubs. Ripe Cuttings. Com- 
mon soil. The species most common 
in our gardens is H. hortensis. To ob- 
tain of this very large flowers on a very 
small stem, strike cuttings; do not let 
them branch: grow them in rich soil, 
and bloom them the following season. 

" To get large bushes of hydrangeas 
in the open air, plant them in good rich 
soil; form a basin of clay all round them, 
six inches deep, and in dry weather fill 



it with water every evening, after they 
have got fairly into leaf. Towards au- 
tumn withhold watering altogether. Get 
their wood ripe. For winter, stuff straw 
between their branches, wrap them well 
in it, and mat them up." — Gard. Chron. 

Hydrangeas are best preserved 
through the winter out of doors, by 
taking off their leaves in autumn, and 
putting over each one of the Shelters 
made of straw, as described under that 
title. 

HYDRASTIS canadensis. Hardy 
tuber. Tubers. Loam and peat, in a 
moist place. 

HYDRAULIC RAM. This is a use- 
ful machine, the principle of which is 
but partially understood and valued. 
To bring the hydraulic ram into opera- 
tion, it is necessary that there should be 
a head or body of water, as a pond, sup- 
plied by a running stream, from which 
a fall can be obtained. The ram is an 
hydraulic machine composed of a body 
at the end of which is a valve called a 
pulse-valve, which is closed by the mo- 
mentum of a running stream of water. 
On the top of the body is an air-vessel, 
in the neck of which is another valve 
which admits the water into the air- 
vessel upon the closing of the pulse- 
valve. The water meeting with an ob- 
struction in the closing of the pulse- 
valve, immediately makes its way 
through the valve into the air-vessel. 
The air in the air-vessel becoming 
compressed, the valve leading into it 
closes, and thus liberates the pulse- 
valve. The same action takes place 
again with the pulse-valve, and also 
with the valve that leads to the air-ves- 
sel this continuous action takes place; 
and at each time a portion of water is 
forced into the air-vessel. When the 
air in the vessel is compressed so as to 
overcome the resistance in the pipe 
leading to the cistern, which it is in- 
tended to supply, the water flows over, 
and continues to do so, as long as the 
ram remains in action. 

There is also a small valve in the 
neck of the air-vessel, introduced by 
Mongolfier's son, to supply the vessel 
with fresh air. Persons acquainted with 
hydraulics are aware that a column of 
water is equal to its base ; that is to say, 
a pipe resting on a base four inches 
square is equal to sixteen times, though 
it rested on an inch square. This is 
the principle of the ram, as the falling 



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319 

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H YG 



column, forcing up the pulse-valve, 
shuts it. Practice shows that a ten-feet 
fall will raise a column of water one 
hundred and fifty feet high, at the rate 
of five quarts per minute, or one part 
raised to eleven wasted, where the ram 
is only supplied by a two-inch pipe. I 
may further add, that theory teaches 
that a ten-feet fall will raise water three 
hundred feet high — of course, in a very 
small quantity. Mr. H. P. M'Birkin- 
brine, of Philadelphia, has been very 
successful in the construction of this 
valuable power. 

HYDROCHARIS morsusrance. Hardy 
aquatic. Seed and runners. Stillwater. 

HYDROLEA. Two species. One 
stove evergreen shrub, and the other 
stove herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

HYDROPELTIS purpurea. Half- 
hardy aquatic. Offsets. Still water. 

HYGROMETER is an instrument 
deserving of employment in the stove, 
green house, and conservatory nearly 
as much as the thermometer ; for the 
correct degree of dampness of the air is 
of very great importance in the cultiva- 
tion of plants, and scarcely less than 
that of the temperature in which they 
vegetate. 

The perspiration from the leaves of 
plants increases with the air's dryness, 
and decreases with its moistness. If it 
be excessive, not only are their juices 
too much reduced, but the very texture 
of the leaves is destroyed. If, on the 
other hand, the perspiration is prevent- 
ed, the juices are too watery, and the 
secretions and assimilations are devoid 
of consistency, rendering the plants too 
succulent and weak. 

" It is impossible for any one to know 
what degree of moisture he really main 
tains in a forcing-house without an in- 
strument by which to measure it : that 
instrument is the hygrometer, which 
might as well be called the 'water- 
gauge,' which is what the first word 
really means. Of the many contriv- 
ances to effect this end, the best for all 
practical purposes, is Daniell's Hygro- 
meter, of which the annexed cut (Fig. 
93) exhibits the general appearance. 
It measures the moisture in the air 
quickly and precisely, and is not sub- 
ject to get out of order. 

" If moisture is brought into contact 
with a substance sufficiently cold, a part 
of the moisture is condensed, and is so 



converted from a state of invisible va- 
pour into water. 

" Thus, in a cold day, the glass roof 
of a green-house may be seen streaming 
with water, which runs down and forms 
'drip;' and in this often unsuspected 
manner air is rendered dry, notwith- 
standing the operations of syringing, 
steaming, &c. Daniell's Hygrometer is 
constructed with reference to this cir- 
cumstance. The figure represents two 
hollow glass balls containing ether, and 
communicating by the glass tube which 
rests on the support. The ball which 
forms the termination of the longer 
leg is of black glass, in order that the 
formation of dew on its surface may be 
the more perceptible. It includes the 
bulb of a delicate thermometer dipping 
in the ether, its scale being inclosed in 
the tube above the ball ; and whatever 
change takes place in the temperature 
of the ether is indicated by this thermo- 
meter. The other ball is covered with 
muslin. In making an observation it is 
first necessary to note down the temper- 
ature of the air ; next turn the instru- 
ment, so that when the muslin-covered 
ball is held in the hand, the ether may 
escape into the blackened ball ;,and it 
should also be held till the included 
thermometer rises a few degrees above 
the temperature of the air, when it 
should be replaced on the support. 
Then drop, or gently pour, a little ether 
on the muslin. The evaporation of this 
extremely volatile substance produces 
cold ; and attention must be instantly 
directed to the black glass ball and in- 
cluded thermometer. The latter will 
be seen falling rapidly ; and at length 
a ring of dew will appear at the line 
which runs across the black ball — 
quickly, if the air is very moist, slowly, 
if the air is dry. If the air is very dry, 
no moisture will be thus deposited till 
the thermometer falls to, perhaps, 10°, 
20°, or 30o below the temperature of 
the air. But at whatever temperature 
the dew forms, that temperature should 
be noted as the dew-point; and the dif- 
ference between it and the temperature 
of the air, at the time, is the degree of 
dryness according to the indications of 
this hygrometer. Thus, in a moderately 
dry day, let it be supposed that the 
temperature of the air is 65° in the 
shade, and that the muslin requires to 
be kept moist, before dew is formed, 
till the blackened ball containing the 



H YG 



320 



HYG 



ether has its temperature reduced to 
50°, as indicated by the included ther- 
mometer, there are then said to be 15° 
of dryness. 

" Again, supposing the temperature 
is 85°, and the dew-point found, as be- 
fore, to be 70°, the degree of dryness 
is still expressed by 15° ; but the quan- 
tity of moisture diffused in the air is, 
notwithstanding, somewhat greater in 
the latter case than in the former. 

" If 1000? represent complete satu- 
ration, the quantity of moisture, when 
the temperature is 65° and the dew- 
point 50°, will be 609 Q ; but. when the 
temperature is 85^ and the dew-point 
70°, the moisture will be represented 
by 623 ; these numbers being ascer- 
tained by tables prepared for the pur- 
pose. The difference, however, in such 

Fig. 93. 



cfe 



a case is so small it is not worth taking 
into account in a horticultural point of 
view. But as these numbers can only 
be ascertained by calculation it is more 
convenient to reckon by the degree of 
dryness, bearing in mind that the dry- 
ness of the air is indicated by the differ- 
ence between the temperature of the 
air and of the dew-point. Thus, if the 
ring of dew is formed as soon as ether 
is applied, and only 1° difference is 
observable, the air is nearly saturated ; 
if the difference is 5° to 10°, the dry- 
ness is very moderate ; while 15° to 20° 
of difference indicate excessive dryness, 
and beyond this the air is parching." — 
Gard. Chron. 

" The instrument," says Mr. Ross, 
<c should be held so as to obtain a por- 
tion of bright reflection where the dew 



is expected to appear; because the dew 
is most easily seen where the line di- 
vides the bright and black reflections on 
the bulb ; and inasmuch as the change 
may not be noticed the very instant that 
it occurs, it is well to make a second 
observation of the temperature at which 
the dew clears off, and then take the 
mean of two. If they are both taken 
equally late, the errors will balance 
each other ; because in one case the 
mercury is falling, and in the other 
rising." — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. J. W. Harris, writing on the same 
subject, says : — 

" As I have for the last three months, 
used an instrument for the purpose of 
regulating the moisture of the air in my 
orchidaceous house which has perfectly 
answered my purpose, I am induced to 
offer it to your notice. It consists of an 
old-fashioned instrument commonly sold 
in the opticians' shops as Leslie's Dif- 
ferential Thermometer. It is arranged 
so that, when not in use, the fluid stands 
at zero in the stem ; over the bulb of 
the opposite stem I place a piece of 
muslin, which has been well soaked in 
a strong solution of common salt in wa- 
ter. The muslin having been cut into 
a circular shape, is laid on the bulb 
whilst wet ; and the moisture will make 
it adhere sufficiently. A shelf, or brack- 
et, with sides, top, and back, is made 
for it to stand in, to seclude it from the 
sunshine — which is of course essential 
— and also to prevent the damp wall 
from having effect upon the muslin, so 
that it may draw all its moisture from 
the atmosphere alone. It will be found 
convenient to have a thermometer hung 
on the same stand, as in all hygrometric 
observations the state of the thermome- 
ter must be attended to. The rationale 
of its action is simple. If the absorp- 
tion of moisture exceeds the evaporation 
from the muslin, heat will be generated, 
which will expand the air in that bulb, 
and drive the fluid up the opposite stem, 
indicating the degree by its rise. On 
the contrary, if the evaporation exceeds 
the absorption, cold will be produced, 
causing the fluid to fall. The general 
range of the scales made is from zero 
to 40°. I believe, in my stove, under 
the general treatment of orchidaceous 
plants, temperature ranging from 78° 
to 95°, the hygrometer has ranged from 
15° to 30°. Of course, if the instru- 
ment were found to require it, it would 



H YG 



321 

— ♦— 



ICE 



be lengthened in the stem, so as to 
range to any degree required ; but I 
do not anticipate that a greater range 
would be required for the coldest pit 
or green-house. As I have found it very 
useful in my own stove, I hope it may 
be of service to your readers; and as it 
is self-acting, so I trust it will be found 
on trial, < simple, economical, and ef- 
fectual.'" — Gard. Chron. 

HYGROPHILA ringens. Stove 
evergreen trailer. Cuttings. Rich light 
soil. 

HYLESINUS PINIPERDA. A spe- 
cies of beetle which preys upon the pith 
of young shoots of sickly or recently 
felled Scotch and spruce firs. It is not 
very injurious in this country. 

HYLOTONIA rosce. A saw-fly which 
injures rose-trees seriously by punctur- 
ing in rows their young shoots, and de- 
positing in the holes its eggs. The 
best remedy is spreading a cloth be- 
neath the trees in the evening, and 
killing the insects shaken down upon 
it. — Gard. Chron. 

HYMEN^A. Locust-tree. Three 
species. Stove evergreen trees. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

HYMENANTHERA dentata. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

HYMENOPHYLLUM. Two spe- 
cies. Hardy ferns. Seed and division. 
Loam and peat. 

HYOSCYAMUS. Henbane. Four 
species. Two half-hardy evergreen 
shrubs ; one hardy annual ; and the 
fourth biennial. Cuttings or seed. 
Common soil. 

HYPECOUM. Three species. Har- 
dy annuals. Seed. Common soil. 

HYPERICUM. Seventy-three spe- 
cies. Hardy, half-hardy, and green- 
house. Mr. Paxton says the two latter 
thrive in loam and peat, propagated by 
young cuttings; the hardy shrubs and 
herbaceous grow from seed or division 
in any soil; and the annuals may be 
sown in spring in the open ground. 

HYPH(ENE coriacea. Stove-palm. 
Seed. Sandy loam. 

HYPOCALYPTUS abcordatus. 
Green-house evergreen shrub. Young 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

HYPOESTES. Five species. Stove 
plants of various character ; chiefly 
evergreen shrubs. These, and the 
herbaceous species, propagate by cut- 
tings in a light soil. 
21 



HYSSOP. Hyssopus officinalis. 

Varieties. — There are three varieties, 
the white, red, and blue ; the last of 
which is most commonly cultivated. 

Soil and Situation. — A dry soil is the 
one most appropriate for it. If on a 
rich or wet one, it is generally destroy- 
ed by the frost, as well as rendered less 
aromatic. 

Time and Mode of Propagation. — It 
is propagated by seed, and slips of the 
branches, and young shoots, as well as 
by offsets. The seed may be sown 
from the close of February until the 
end of May. Rooted offsets may be 
planted in March, April, August and 
September; cuttings of the branches in 
April and May ; and slips of young 
shoots in June or July. The seed may 
be inserted in drills, six inches apart, 
not deeper than half an inch. It is the 
usual practice, when the seedlings have 
attained the growth of six weeks, to 
prick them out twelve inches apart ; 
but it is by much the best practice to 
raise them where they are to remain. 

The slips and offsets are best planted 
at first in a shady or north border: 
they are generally firmly rooted in two 
months. In September or October they 
are all fit for removal to their final sta- 
tions. After every removal they must 
be watered plentifully and regularly 
until established. The only subsequent 
cultivation requisite is the keeping them 
free of weeds by frequent hoeings. 

In spring and autumn likewise all 
decayed branches and flower-stalks 
must be removed ; those used as 
edgings trimmed close, and the earth 
gently stirred around them. 

I B E R I S . Candy-Tuft. Twenty- 
three species. A few hardy evergreen 
shrubs ; but chiefly hardy annuals, bien- 
nials, and perennials. Seed. Common 
light loam. 

ICE-HOUSE. Any vacant out-house 
which can be thoroughly drained will 
be an efficient ice-house. Moisture is 
a much more rapid solvent of ice than 
mere heat. If in an out-house, with 
drains leading from its floor, a layer of 
faggots three feet deep be placed, and 
round the sides of the house a lining of 
stubble or straw nearly as thick, and 
then the ice be rammed in hard, and 
covered over with a similar coat of 
stubble, the ice may be preserved there 
for twelve months. 

" The accompanying drawing and de- 



ICE 



322 



ICE 



scription of an approved ice-house and 
dairy united, has been contributed by 
John C. Boyd, Esq., of Danville, Pa. 
Mr. B. says, "For various purposes it 
is far superior to the best constructed 
spring-house; permitting to the largest 
extent all the luxuries of sweet cream 



and milk, the preservation of fresh 
meat, pies, fruit, &c, for a length of 
time. Mine has been in use two years, 
and during that period, we have not 
had any milk to sour, which cannot be 
said by those dependent on spring- 
houses." 




"A represents the ice-house, proper. 
B dairy-room. C the steps thereto. 
D window in dairy-room. E entrance 
into the ice-house. 

" The whole length, 24 feet: width 
15 feet; pit sunk, 5 feet in ground; 
stone wall carried 2£ feet above ground ; 
making depth of stone work 7£ feet. 
On stone work, a frame of 8 feet to the 
square is placed. Weather-boarded 
on the outside in usual manner. Over 
milk house, on top of wall is placed, 
joist 18 inches from centre to centre, 
on which a tight floor is laid, which 
forms a convenient room for keeping 
various things connected with the dairy. 

" The partition between the ice- 
house and milk-house is formed by 
setting up studding from the sill in the 
bottom of the ice-house to the square 
under the roof, and weather-boarded 
with inch boards halved together, well 
nailed, so as to prevent any charcoal 
dust, or dust of the bark from dropping 
down into the milk trough. 

"The inside frame is made 12 inches 
less all round than the inside of main 
building. That is to say, a space of 
12 inches, (and it would be better if it 



were 15,) must be left between the two 
frames — to be filled in with charcoal 
or tanner's bark, well dried, and well 
rammed when filled. 

The inside frame may be very simply 
and cheaply made, by taking four pieces 
of scantling, say 4 by 6, and halving 
them together — and planking, or dou- 
ble boarding up or down on the inside 
— three of those frames — one on the 
floor — one midway, and the other at 
top, are sufficient. 

" The floor, which is the most par- 
ticular part, should be made by placing 
in the bottom good oak sills, with a 
descent from the back part of an apart- 
ment to milk-house of 15 inches. The 
sills well bedded in clay, tan bark or 
charcoal. Mine is bedded in common 
yellow clay, well pounded in. 

" The floor should be well laid, either 
of plank, jointed, or boards double, and 
small grooves run along to carry ice 
water down to the milk trough. This 
floor should be the size of the ice room 
before inside frame is erected. On that 
part of the floor which passes under the 
partition between the ice and milk- 
houses, small strips of a quarter of an 



ICE 



323 



IMP 



inch thick should be laid, and a board 
fitted down tight to keep the filling-in 
from stopping up the water as it leaves 
the ice. On top of square, joists with 
floor on, is laid and covered about 2 
feet thick with tan-bark. A ventilator 
should be made through the upper floor 
and roof about 2 feet square. 

'* The closet or recess formed on 
each side of the small doors, leading 
into the ice, may have hooks to hang 
meats, or shelves, on which anything 
may be set. This closet, or cold room, 
is 3 feet 3 inches, by 3 feet 6 inches — 
5 feet high, two doors in centre, each 
18 inches wide, made of a single board, 
and made to fit closely. 

The ice may be put in on either side 
just under the upper joists; an opening 
18 inches by 2 feet is sufficiently large, 
with two doors or shutters — and the 
space between, when the ice is in, 
should be well stuffed with straw. No 
straw to be used in filling ice-house — 
except on top, when a good supply will 
be of service. 

" The milk-house should be well 
white-washed. The room above milk- 
house should be lined on inside of 
shedding, and the space between filled 
with tan-bark or charcoal. The cover- 
ing may be a shed-roof, or any other 
form best suited to the convenience of 
the location. The door of my ice-house 
is within a few steps of my back kitch- 
en door. An arbour of grape vines adds 
much to the comfort and coolness of 
the establishment. 

" In filling the ice-house, much pains 
should be taken to pack the ice closely. 
The ice is taken out by entering from 
the milk-house through the small doors, 
and any child who can use a hatchet can 
procure ice for the use of the house. 

" The ice-water, if the troughs are 
made tight, (and they ought to be per- 
fectly so,) will keep them full, or nearly 
so, and during south winds may over- 
flow a little. The milk-room is too 
cold to do the work in, therefore there 
is no water but the ice water to get 
clear of, which will disappear without 
giving any trouble." — Rural Register. 

For an interesting article on this sub- 
ject, See Downing's " Horticulturist." 

ICE-PLANT. Mesembryanthemum 
crystallinum. 

ICHNOCARPUS frutescens. Stove 
evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 



ILEX. Holly. Fifteen species. 
Chiefly hardy evergreen trees ; but 1. 
paraguensis and I. salicifolia require 
the shelter of a stove; and I. angusti/6- 
lia, 1. chinensis, and J. perado, that of a 
green-house. Cuttings, budding, grafting, 
and seed. Deep light loam. See Holly. 

ILLICIUM. Three species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings and 
layers. Light loam. 

IMPATIENS. Balsam. Nine spe- 
cies. Hardy, half-hardy, and stove an- 
nuals. I. natans is a stove aquatic ; 
seed, rich loam, in water. I. scapijlora 
is a stove bulb ; offsets ; light rich loam. 
Half-hardy annuals sow in a hotbed, and 
hardy in borders. (Paxton's Bot. Die.) 
See Balsam. 

IMPREGNATION. " No seed ever 
attains the power of germinating, un- 
less the pollen from the stamens in the 
same, or some nearly allied flower, has 
reached and impregnated its pistils. 

" In favourable seasons, when genial 
warmth and gentle winds prevail, im- 
pregnation is readily effected by the 
plant's own provision. The pollen is 
never shed from the anther of the sta- 
men, untii the stigma of the pistil is fully 
developed, and this soon withers after 
the contact. 

" Their all-provident Creator has in- 
variably arranged efficient assistance. 
The agents usually called in are insects ; 
these, in their search after honey and 
wax, visit the inmost recesses of flowers, 
and bear from the anthers to the stigma, 
and from flower to flower, the fecun- 
dating dust. Here, too, I may remark 
upon another instance of that Provi- 
dence which makes all things fitting 
and appropriate ; for those who have 
made the bee their study, relate that 
though this insect does not confine it- 
self to one species of flower, yet it re- 
stricts its visits during each ramble to 
that kind which it first visits. How 
this facilitates impregnation is obvious, 
when it is remembered that no flower 
can be fecundated but with pollen from 
a kindred species. 

" This efficient agency of insects sug- 
gested, that in hothouses, from whence 
they are almost totally excluded, other 
artificial means might be adopted with 
success to render flowers fertile that 
had hitherto failed in producing seed. 
Thus the gardener always finds the ad- 
vantage of using the camel hair pencil 
to apply pollen to the stigmas of his 



IN A 



324 

— ♦ — 



ING 



forced melons, cucumbers, cherries, 
and peaches." — Principles of Garden- 
ing. See Hybridizing. 

INARCHING, or Grafting by ap- 
proach, differs from grafting only in 
having the scion still attached to its 
parent stem whilst the process of union 
with the stock is proceeding. It is the 
most certain mode of multiplying an 
individual that roots or grafts with dif- 
ficulty, but is attended with the incon- 
venience that both the stock and the 
parent of the scion must be neighbours. 
The most ingenious application of in- 
arching is one suggested by Mr. Knight. 
If a fruit-bearing branch becomes de- 
nuded of its leaves above the fruit it has 
produced, this either falls or remains 
stunted and deficient in flavour, owing 
to being thus deprived of a supply of 
the elaborated sap or proper juice. In 
such case a branch having leaves of the 
same or of a neighbouring tree, was in- 
arched to the denuded portion of the 
branch the fruit of which he was anxious 
to taste. It produced that season only 
two peaches, and from the branch bear- 
ing which all the leaves had fallen ; but 
after the inarching the fruit proceeded 
to maturity. — Principles of Gardening. 

To propagate any tree or shrub by 
this method of grafting, if of the hardy 
kind, and growing in the open ground, 
a proper quantity of young plants for 
stocks must be set round it, and when 
grown of a proper height, the work of 
inarching performed ; or if the branches 
of the tree you design to graft from is 
too high for the stock, stocks must be 
planted in pots, and a slight stage 
erected around the tree of due height 
to reach the branches, and the pots 
containing the stock placed upon the 
stage. 

As to the method of performing the 
work, it is sometimes performed with 
the head of the stock cut off, and some- 
times with the head left on till the graft 
is united with the stock, though by pre- 
viously beheading it the work is much 
easier performed, and having no top, its 
whole effort will be directed to the 
nourishment of the graft. Having the 
stocks properly placed, make the most 
convenient branches approach the stock, 
and mark in the body of the branches 
the parts where they will most easily 
join to the stock, and in those parts of 
each branch, pare away the bark and 
part of the wood two or three inches 



in length, and in the same manner pare 
the stock in the proper place for the 
junction of the graft, then make a slit 
upward in the branch so as to form a 
sort of tongue, and make a slit down- 
ward in the stock to admit it; let the 
parts be then joined, slipping the tongue 
of the graft into the slit of the stock, 
making the whole join in an exact man- 
ner, and tie them closely together with 
bass, and afterwards cover the whole 
with a due quantity of clay, or wax. 
After this let a stout stake be fixed for 
the support of each graft, and so fast- 
ened as to prevent its being disjoined 
from the stock by the wind. 

The operation being performed in 
spring, let the grafts remain in that 
position about four months, when they 
will be united, and they may then be 
separated from the mother-tree ; in 
doing this be careful to perform it with 
a steady hand, so as not to loosen or 
break out the graft, sloping it off down- 
wards close to the stock; and if the head 
of the stock was not cut down at the 
time of grafting, it must now be done 
close to the graft, and all the old clay 
and bandage cleared away and re- 
placed with new, to remain a few weeks 
longer. 

Observe, however, that if the grafts 
are not firmly united with the stock, let 
them remain another year till autumn, 
before you separate the grafts from the 
parent tree. — Abercrombie. 

" Instead of approach-grafting in the 
usual manner, it is sometimes conve- 
nient to detach shoots of the kinds to 
be propagated from the plants on which 
they grew, and inarch them upon the 
single plant, leaving a piece at the bot- 
tom of each shoot sufficiently long to 
thrust into a phial, which must be kept 

constantly supplied with water." 

Gard. Mag. 

INDIAN BAY. Laurus indica. 

INDIAN BLUE. Nymphcea cyanea. 

INDIAN CRESS. Tropceolum. See 
Nasturtium. 

INDIAN FIG. Opuntia. 

INDIAN LOTUS. Nymphcea lotus. 

INDIAN SHOT. Canna indica. 

INDIGOFERA. Indigo. Forty-four 
species. Chieflygreen-house and stove 
shrubs. Young cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

INGA. Twenty-eight species. Stove 
evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 



INO 



325 



IRR 



INOCULATION. See Budding. 

INOCULATING GRASS. See Turf. 

I P O M M A . Sixty-four species. 
Chiefly green-house and stove twiners. 
1. caudicans ; I. lacunosa ; I. pandu- 
rata ; I. sagittifolia ; I. sibrica ; I. sin- 
uata ; and L trichocarpa, are hardy. 
Cuttings. Rich loam and peat. An- 
nuals and biennials by seed in a gentle 
hotbed, as directed for the following : — 

" The best time for sowing Ipomcea 
quamoclit, and rubra ccerulea for plant- 
ing in the open air, is the end of Feb- 
ruary. They will both succeed under 
similar treatment, viz., to sow them in 
a gentle hot-bed, to pot them oft" sepa- 
rately, and encourage their growth 
until the end of May, when they may 
be planted out in light rich soil in a 
sheltered situation." — Gard. Chron. Or 
sow the seed in May or June in a warm 
situation, having previously soaked it 
for forty-eight hours in soft water. 

IPOMOPSIS elegans. " Hardy bien- 
nial. Seed. Peat and loam, in a cold 
frame during July ; leave three in a pot, 
and place in green-house for winter ; 
water moderately; shift in spring into 
forty-eights well drained ; leave only 
two plants in a pot ; water very mode- 
rately." — Paxton's Bot. Diet. 

IRESINE. Four species. Half-hardy 
herbaceous. Seeds, in a gentle hotbed. 
Rich loam and peat. 

IRIS. Eighty-nine species. Chiefly 
hardy bulbs. I. clandestina ; I. crassi- 
folia; and I. deflexa, require the shelter 
of a greenhouse. The soil cannot well 
be too sandy for them. Seed or divi- 
sion of the roots. 

Dr. Lindley gives the following di- 
rections for cultivating the English and 
Spanish species: — 

" About August prepare a bed two 
feet deep, the soil of which must be 
composed of equal parts of rich loam, 
sandy peat, and either well rotted dung 
or leaf mould, all well incorporated to- 
gether. The beginning of September, 
plant the bulbs about three inches deep, 
placing a little fine sand around each, 
and afterwards cover and level the sur- 
ace; nothing else will be required ex- 
cept stirring the surface of the soil in 
the spring. The Irises will bloom about 
the middle of June, and the seeds will 
ripen in the beginning of August; when, 
if it is required, the bulbs should be 
taken up ; but it must be observed that 
when they are removed they seldom 



flower well the following season, and 
therefore should not be repianted more 
than once in five or six years. When 
the bulbs are taken up they should be 
placed in dry sand for about a month, 
and afterwards planted in the manner 
before mentioned. Seeds of Irises 
should be sown in drills in September, 
in light sandy soil ; they will come up 
the following spring, but the young 
bulbs should remain for two or three 
years before they are removed. 

" The best way to treat the Persian 
Iris, is to place the roots, in October, 
in pots filled with a mixture of either 
sandy loam well drained and leaf mould, 
or sandy peat and well rotted dung, and 
set them in some dry pit for the winter, 
and give but little water until the spring, 
and when they begin to show their 
blooms, plant them in the open bed. If 
this is carefully done they will be gay 
during April and the beginning of May, 
but they must be protected from the 
spring frost when in bloom, or they 
will not last long in flower. Persian 
Irises are tender, and will not survive 
the winter in the open border, unless 
the situation is dry, for they suffer more 
from the effects of damp than cold. 
They may also be grown like hyacinths 
in glasses filled with water, in the 
windows of sitting rooms, and are de- 
sirable for such a situation, as two or 
three plants will scent a room. They 
also succeed in pure sand if the roots 
are strong. 

" The roots must be taken up in the 
open beds every season, and either pot- 
ted or preserved in sand during the 
winter, but if not potted before the 
spring they become exhausted, and do 
not flower well, whereas if planted in 
the open bed in autumn, they are almost 
sure to perish." — Gard. Chron. 

IRISH HEATH. Menziesiapolifolia. 

IRON-WORT. Sideritis. 

IRRIGATION, as employed by the 
farmer, is chiefly beneficial in proportion 
to the amount of saline and decompos- 
ing matter contained in solution by the 
water employed. But this is not the 
exclusive cause of benefit, for much of 
this arises from the increased and per- 
manent supply of moisture to the roots 
of the plants. These can only derive 
food from the soil in a gaseous or liquid 
form; and the decomposing matters in 
a soil decompose, and constantly are 
converted into gaseous and soluble mat- 



ISE 



326 



JAN 



ters, with a rapidity proportioned to the 
abundance of water supplied to them. 
Experience shows that there is in the 
kitchen garden scarcely a crop that is 
not benefited by a much more abundant 
supply of water than can be obtained 
usually ; and I can bear testimony to the 
correctness of Mr. Knight's conclusion, 
not limiting, however, my approval of 
such abundant watering to late crops 
of peas, but to all, as well as beans, 
spinach, and the entire cabbage tribe. 
Kidney beans and potatoes are not bene- 
fited by such an abundance of water. 

" The quantity of water," says Mr. 
Knight, " which may be given with 
advantage to plants of almost every 
kind, during warm and bright weather, 
is, I believe, very much greater than 
any gardener who has not seen the 
result will be inclined to suppose pos- 
sible; and it is greater than I myself 
could have believed upon any other 
evidence than that of actual experience. 

"My garden, in common with many 
others, is supplied with water by springs, 
which rise in., a more elevated situation ; 
and this circumstance afforded me the 
means of making a small pond, from 
which I can cause the water to flow out 
over every part of every other kind 
through every part of the summer; and 
I cause a stream to flow down the rows 
of celery, and along the rows of brocoli 
and other plants, which are planted out 
in summer, with very great advantage. 
But the most extensive and beneficial 
use which I make of the power to irri- 
gate my garden by the means above 
mentioned, is in supplying my late crops 
of peas abundantly with water, by which 
the ill effects of mildew are almost 
wholly prevented, and my table is most 
abundantly supplied with very excellent 
peas through the month of October." 

ISERTIA coccinea. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

ISMENE. Five species. Stove bulbs. 
Offsets. Turfy loam and peat. 

ISOPLEXIS. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Seed and cut- 
tings. Light rich loam. 

ISOPOGON. Fifteen species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Turfy sandy loam. 

ISOPYRUM. Two species. Hardy. 
One annual, the other herbaceous. Seed. 
Light loam. 

IVY. Hedera. 

IXIA. Twenty-four species. Green- 



house bulbs; but most of them, in light 
soil and south border, protected slightly 
in winter, will grow in the open air. 
Those grown in pots should be kept in 
a dry place until the beginning of No- 
vember. The soil best adapted for 
them is a sandy peat mixed with a little 
loam. After repotting in that month, 
they may be kept in a cool airy situa- 
tion, and as soon as they begin to grow, 
they may be watered freely, and placed 
in the green-house. — Gard. Chron., fyc. 

IXODIA achilleoides. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
sand. 

IXORA. Fourteen species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

JABOROSA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Light rich 
loam. 

JACARANDA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy peat 
and loam. 

JACKSONIA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

JACOBJEA LILY. Amaryllis for- 
mosissima. 

JACQUINIA. Six species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand and 
peat. 

JALAP. Mirabilis jalapa. 

JAMAICA EBONY. Brya ebenus. 

JAMAICA REDWOOD. Gordonia 
hamatoxylon. 

JAMAICA ROSE. Meriania. 

JAMBOSA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

JANUARY is a month requiring little 
more from the gardener in the out-door 
department than attention to neatness, 
but it usually requires more than ordi- 
nary care to his hot-house and forcing 
department. The following directions 
contain the principal routine work of the 
month : — 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Artichokes, attend to, shelter, &c. — 
Asparagus, plant in hot-bed ; attend to 
the forcing; temp, about 65°, and at 
night 50°. — Beans, plant in hot-beds. — 
Brocoli, protect from frost. — Cardoons, 
attend to, shelter, &c. — Cauliflowers, in 
I frames, and those pricked out, attend 
j to. — Composts, prepare and turn over. — 
J Cucumbers, sow and prick out; temp, by 
| day 80°, and at night 65°. — Dung, for 



JAN 



327 



JAN 



hot-beds, prepare ; wheel on to vacant 
ground. — Earth, for hot-beds, prepare. 
— Frost, protect plants from. — Ground, 
trench vacant. — Hot-beds, make and at- 
tend to. — Kale (Sea), begin forcing, b. 
Kidney Beans, sow in hot-bed, e. — Let- 
tuces in frames, attend; transplant to 
force. — Melons, sow, for fruiting in May; 
day temp. 75°, night 65°, — Mint, force, 
in hot-bed. — Mushroom Beds, make, and 
attend to those producing ; procure 
horse droppings for. — Mustard and 
Cress, sow in hot-bed. — Onions, ex- 
amine stored. — Parsley, protect from 
frost. — Peas, plant in hot-bed ; and pre- 
pare sticks. — Potatoes, plant in slight 
hot-bed. — Radishes, sow in hot-bed. — 
Rape (for salading), sow in hot-bed. — 
Rhubarb, begin forcing, b. — Tansy, plant 
in hot-bed.— Tarragon, plant in hot-bed, 
and do any work which will lessen that 
of the following busier months. — Wood- 
lice, destroy in the mushroom-house. 

ORCHARD. 

Apples (Espalier), prune, &c. — Apri- 
cots, prune and train in frosty weather. 
Brine, apply with a scrubbing brush to 
stems and brances of fruit trees, to de- 
stroy insects, eggs, and moss. — Cher- 
ries (Wall and Espalier), prune and 
train. — Currants, prune. — Espaliers, 
prune and regulate. — Figs, protect from 
frost. — Fork the surface around fruit 
trees. — Gooseberries, prune. — Mulch, 
put around newly planted trees. — Nec- 
tarines, prune and train in frosty wea- 
ther. — Peaches (see Nectarine). — Pears 
(Espalier), prune, &c. — Plums (Wall 
and Espalier), prune.— -Pruning-, at- 
tend to generally. — Raspberries, prune. 
— Snails, destroy in their torpid state. 
— Stake and support trees newly plant- 
ed. — Standards, remove dead and ir- 
regular branches from. — Trench and 
prepare borders, &c, for planting. — 
Vines, prune and train. — Wall Trees 
generally, prune and regulate. — Walls. 
It is a very beneficial plan to paint these 
by means of a white-washer's brush, 
with a liquid mixture of 8 lbs. lime, 
4 lbs. soot, and 8 lbs. sulphur. It de- 
stroys and banishes insects, as well as 
by its dark colour promoting the warmth 
of the wall. The liquid employed, in 
which to mix the above, should be urine 
and soapsuds in equal proportions. 



FLOWER GARDEN. 

Anemones, protect from cold. 



&c- 



Annuals, sow in pots and put in hot- 
house, &c, b. — Auriculas, protect from 
cold, &c; give earth and compost to. 
— Carnations, protect from cold, &c. — 
Cuttings of hardy deciduous shrubs 
may be prepared, e. — Edgings, make. 
Slate painted green, and Gentinella 
planted within, is handsome and dura- 
ble. — Gravel, roll in dry weather. — 
Hedges, of Privet, &c, plash. — Hya- 
cinths, protect from cold, &c. — Layers 
of hardy shrubs may still be pegged 
down. — Manure, apply generally. — 
Mulch, put round roots of lately plant- 
ed trees. — Potted Plants, secure well 
from frost. — Prune, and regulate flow- 
ering shrubs. — Ranunculuses, plant, if 
before omitted; protect from cold, &c. 
— Rose Trees, scrub with brine, to de- 
stroy scab, insects, &c. — Salt, sow over 
grass, to drive away worms, &c. — Seed- 
lings, in borders, protect with mats. — 
Trench vacant ground. — Tulips, protect 
from cold, &c. ; plant, if omitted, b. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit as much as possible. — 
Apricots (see Peach.) — Bark Beds, stir, 
and renew, if heat declines. — Cherries 
(see Peach). — Cucumbers, in pots, in- 
troduce ; water frequently, and train. 
— Currants, water frequently. — -Figs 
(see Vines). They should be in pots 
in the Vinery. — Flowers in pots (Roses, 
Carnations, &c.,) introduce. Gooseber- 
ries, water frequently. — Head down spe- 
cimen plants, as Justicias, &c. — Kidney 
Beans, sow in small spots, not larger 
than twenty- fours ; water frequently. — 
Light, admit as freely as possible. — 
Mats, put over glass in very severe 
weather, even in the day time. — Necta- 
rines and Peaches in blossom keep at 
about 55° during the day, and at night 
about 40o ; water very sparingly ; shake 
branches gently to distribute the pollen ; 
stir earth around often. — Pine Apples 
(fruiting), require increased bottom 
heat to about 85^; water about once a 
week ; temperature in house from 60° 
to 70°. — Salading, in boxes sow. — 
Stove, temp, not above 60° in the day, 
and at night 40°. — Strawberries, in pots, 
introduce; when blossoming, water fre- 
quently ; day temp, not more than 55°. 
— Thermometer, watch its dictates. — 
Vines, in leaf, keep about 60° ; in blos- 
som about 70° during day, at night 50°; 
protect stems outside by haybands; 
give liquid manure. — Wash the leaves 



J AS 



328 



JUL 



of all plants, as requisite, either with a 
sponge or by watering. — Water, soft 
and warm as the house, apply as requi- 
site; in pots, &c, keep constantly in 
the house. 

GHEEN-HOUSE. 

Air, admit at every favourable time, 
when the temperature outside is above 
32°. — Earth in the pots and borders, 
stir frequently. — Fires to exclude frost 
and damp should be lighted as required ; 
day temp. 50°, night temp. 40°. — Fogs, 
especially exclude. Leaves, wash, 
when foul; (decayed), remove as they 
appear. — Succulent Plants now scarce- 
ly require any water. — Water sparingly, 
and in mild weather, and about noon. — 
Windows, keep closed both in foggy 
and frosty weather ; cover with mats 
or shutters in rigorous seasons, even 
in the day time. 

JAS10NE. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed. Division and cut- 
tings. Peat. 

JASM1NUM. Jasmine. Thirty-two 
species. Stove, green-house, and har- 
dy climbers, twiners, and shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings. The stove and green-house 
species require sandy loam and peat, 
but the hardy species any common soil. 

JEFFERSONIA diphylla. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
mon soil. 

JERSEY THISTLE. Centaurea is- 
nardi. 

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. He- 
lianthus tuberosus. 

Soil and situation. — It flourishes most 
in a rich light soil with an open expo- 
sure. Trees are particularly inimical 
to its growth. 

Time and Mode of Planting. As it 
never ripens its seed here, though it 
blossoms sometimes in October, the 
only mode of propagation is by plant- 
ing the middle-sized bulbs, or cuttings 
of the large ones, one or two eyes being 
preserved in each. These are planted 
towards the end of March, though it 
may be performed in February, or even 
preferably in October. 

They are inserted by the dibble in 
rows three feet by two feet apart, and 
four inches deep. They make their 
appearance above ground about the 
middle of May. The only attention 
necessary is to keep them free from 
weeds, and an occasional hoeing to 
loosen the surface, a little of the earth 



being drawn up about the stems. At 
the close of July or early in August, cut 
the stems off about their middle, to ad- 
mit more freely the air and light, and 
in other respects to be beneficial to the 
tubers. 

They may be taken up as wanted 
during September; and in October, or 
as soon as the stems have withered, 
entirely, for preservation in sand for 
winter's use. They should be raised 
as completely as possible ; for the small- 
est piece of tuber will vegetate and ap- 
pear in the spring. It is for this reason 
that they are often allotted some remote 
corner of the garden ; but their culinary 
merits certainly demand a more favour- 
able treatment. 

JERUSALEM SAGE. Phlomisfruc- 
ticosa. 

JET D'EAU. See Fountain. 

JOHNIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
greens ; one a climber, the other shrub- 
by. Ripe cuttings. Loam and peat. 

JOLLIFFIA africana. Stove ever- 
green twiner. Cuttings of flowering 
shoots. Sandy loam and peat. 

J N E S I A. Two species. Stove 
evergreens; one climbing, the other a 
tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

JONQUILLE. See Narcissus. 

JOSSINIA orbiculata. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

JOVE'S FRUIT. Laurus diospyros. 

JUDAS TREE. Cercis. 

JUGLANS. Walnut tree. Five spe- 
cies, besides varieties. Hardy decidu- 
ous trees. Seed and grafts. Rich loam. 
See Walnut. 

JULUS. Snake millipede. 

J. terrestris. — Has about two hundred 
legs. Lead colour. Scaly, like wood- 
louse. Eats the roots of the pansy. 

J. pulchellus. — Ochreous colour, with 
crimson spots down its sides. Legs, 
about 170. Attacks roots of beans, 
cabbages, peas, and scarlet beans. 

J. complanatus. Lilac colour. Sixty 
legs. — Gard. Chron. 

JULY is a busy month, as will appear 
from the following directions : — 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Alexanders, earth up. — Artichokes, 
attend to. — Asparagus-beds, clean ; 
leave off cutting from. — Beans, plant, 
b.; leave some in production for seed. — 
.Beef (Red), thin, b.; (Green and White), 
sow, b. — Borage, sow, e. — Borecole, 



JUL 



329 

— • — 



JUL 



plant ; prick out. — Brocoli, prick out ; 
plant. — Cabbages, plant; prick out seed- 
lings ; earth up advancing. — Carrots, 
thin,b.; — Cauliflowers, plant, e. — Ce- 
leriac, plant. — Celery, prick out ; plant; 
earth up. — Chamomile Flowers, gather. 
— Chervil, sow, e. — Coleworts, plant. — 
Coriander, sow. — Cress, sow. — Cucum- 
bers, plant for pickles. — Earth vp where 
necessary. — Endive, plant; sow. — Fi- 
nochio, earth up. — Garlic, take up as 
wanted. — Hoeing, particularly attend 
ro. — Horse-radish, attend to. — Kidney 
Beans (dwarfs), sow ; attend to advanc- 
ing crops. — Lavender, gather. — Leeks, 
weeds, &c. ; plant, b. — Lettuces, plant; 
sow ; Marigold Flowers, gather. — Mar- 
joram, gather for drying. — Melons, at- 
tend to; — Mint, plant, b. — Mushroom- 
beds, attend to; make,e.; spawn, collect. 
— Parsley, sow. — Parsnips, weed, &c. 
— Peas, sow; hoe advancing. — Pepper- 
mint, gather. — Pot-herbs, are fit in ge- 
neral for drying and distilling. — Ra- 
dishes, sow. — Rampion, is fit for use, e. 
— Rape (edible rooted), sow. — Salsafy, 
thin, &c. — Savoys, plant. — Scorzonera, 
thin, &c. — Scurvy Grass, sow. — Seeds, 
gather as they ripen. — Small Salading, 
sow. — Spinach, sow; hoe and thin. — 
Stir ground between plants. — Succory, 
sow. — Rut a Baga, sow, ; hoe advancing 
crops. — Turnip Cabbages, prick out. — 
Vacant ground , dig; cleanse from weeds, 
&c. — Water where necessary. — Worm- 
wood, plant. 

ORCHARD. 

Budding, perform in all stone-fruit, 
apples, and pears ; select cloudy wea- 
ther. — Espaliers, continue to regulate 
(see Wall Trees) ; young ones head 
down. — Fig Trees, regulate; remove 
over luxuriant shoots. — Pruning (sum- 
mer), complete. — Raspberries, clear 
from needless suckers. — Snails and 
slugs, search for morning and evening. 
— Stocks, clear from lateral shoots. — 
Strawberries, for forcing, lay in pots ; 
Vines require constantly regulating ; all 
late shoots remove ; stop bearing shoots. 
— Wall Trees, continue to regulate as 
their shoots require; train in, do not 
shorten their shoots. — Walnuts, gather 
for pickling. — Wasps, entrap; bottles 
of sugared beer are best. — Water newly 
planted trees in dry weather; keep 
mulch round. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Auriculas, in pots, dress and water 



frequently ; seedlings transplant ; old 
plants repot, e. — Box edgings, clip, b. 

— Budding of roses, jasmines, &c, 
complete. — Bulbous Roots, take up (see 
June); seeds sow. — Bulbs, autumn 
flowering, plant, e. — Carnations, at- 
tend to (see June) ; shade and shelter 
during hot weather; water freely, and 
give liquid manure. — Chrysanthemum 
suckers, separate and plant; lay. — Cut- 
tings of some plants, as scarlet lychnis, 
will yet strike, b. — Dahlias require sup- 
port and pruning. — Edgings, clip. — 
Evergreens, prune; seedlings, prick 
out. — Grass, mow and roll often. — 
Gravel, weed and roll. — Heartsease, 
plant slips, e. ; water freely. — Hedges, 
clip. — Hoe and rake at every opportu- 
nity. — Laying carnations, &c, may be 
performed, b.; water freely; transplant 
rooted layers. — Leaves, decayed, re- 
move as soon as seen. — Liquid Manure, 
give occasionally to flowering shrubs. — 
Mignionette, and a few other quick 
flowering annuals, may be sown, b., for 
autumn. — Piping, of pinks, &c, maybe 
still practised, b.; pelargonium cut- 
tings, plant, b. — Polyanthuses, seed- 
lings, transplant; roots of old, part — 
Roses, bud and lay, b. — Seeds, gather as 
they ripen. — Stake and tie up plants 
wherever necessary. — Transplanting 
perennials and biennials, complete, b. 

— Water freely, not only the roots but 
over the foliage. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely every fine day.— • 
Dress pots, &c, frequently, and give 
fresh earth if plants languish. — Fumiga- 
tions of tobacco give frequently, espe- 
cially if insects prevail. — Liquid Manure 
give to weakly plants. — Orchidaceous 
Plants, keep in coolest parts of the 
house, and give very little water, or 
they will not bloom well next spring.— 
Pine Apples, plant by crowns or suckers; 
gather ripe, early in the morning; shift 
succession for next season; give liquid 
manure ; do not shift all at once, but at 
weekly intervals. — Potting, finish, b.— 
Propagate stove plants by cuttings, 
layers, and suckers, as suitable. — Steam, 
admit to plants. — Vines, when all the 
leaves are off, expose day and night; 
grapes, ripening late, require a mo- 
derate moist heat, and air only of a 
morning. — Water frequently and abun- 
dantly, but rather less to flowering 
plants than last month. 



JUL 



330 



JUN 



GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely to all plants de- 
tained in the house. — Bud, oranges, 
lemons, &c. — Camellias, syringe and 
water frequently ; shade in hot days. — 
Cuttings, slips, &c, water. — Dress and 
give fresh earth as required. — Heaths, 
plant, slips. — Layers may be made. — 
Moving out of house (see June). — 
Oranges and Lemons require water dai- 
ly; thin fruit if thick; remove blossoms 
where fruit is thick enough ; give earth ; 
air, admit freely. — Peat plants, examine 
almost daily to see that they do not dry. 
— Propagate by cuttings, slips, &c. — 
Seedlings, prick into small pots. — Shade 
during hot bright days ; calico frames 
are best. — Shifting, complete, b. — 
Stove plants (hardier) may be moved 
into green-house. — Stake, trim, and 
train as required. — Succulent plants, 
cultivate by cuttings, slips, and suckers. 
— Watering and cleaning are now the 
chief occupations; apply water early in 
the morning by the engine. 

JULY-FLOWER. Prosopis juliflora. 

JUNE is also a busy month. 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Alexanders, earth up. — Artichokes, 
weed, &c. — Asparagus-beds clean, &c. 
— Basil, plant. — Beans, plant, hoe, &c, 
advancing crops. — Beets, thin, &c. — 
Borecole, plant. — Brocoli, plant. — Cab- 
bage, plant ; earth up, &c. — Capsicum, 
plant, b. — Cardoons, thin and plant out. 
— Carrots, thin, &c. — Celeriac, plant. — 
Celery, plant ; earth up advancing. — 
Coleworts, sow for; plant. — Coriander, 
sow. — Cress, sow. — Cucumbers, sow, b. 
— Earthing-up, attend to. — Endive, sow, 
b. ; plant. — Fennel, plant. — Finochio, 
sow ; earth up advancing crops. — Gar- 
lic is fit for present use. — Herbs, for 
drying and distilling, gather. — Jerusalem 
Artichokes, hoe, &c. — Kidney Beans 
(dwarfs), sow ; (runners), attend to. — 
Leeks, thin, &c; transplant, e. — Lettuce, 
sow ; plant, &c. — Mint, plant. — Pars- 
nips, thin. — Peas, sow; attend to ad- 
vancing crops. — Potatoes, hoe, &c. — 
Radishes, sow. — Rampion, thin. — Sage, 
plant. — Salsafy, thin. — Savoys, plant; 
prick out. — Scorzonera, thin. — Scurvy 
Grass, sow. — Seeds, attend to and gather. 
— Small Salading, sow. — Spinach, sow; 
thin advancing. — Stir Ground between 
crops, in rows, &c. — Succory, sow. — 
Tarragon, plant. — Thinning, attend to. 
— Tomat os, plant out. — Turnip Cabbage, 



sow ; plant. — Watering and Weeding, 
attend to.— Wormwood, plant. 

ORCHARD. 

Ants, destroy ; the ammonia water 
from gas-works, or boiling water poured 
into their haunts is effectual. — Apricots, 
finish summer regulating, b. — Blighted 
Trees, clean by the water engine; lime 
dust, &c. — Budding, commence in 
cloudy weather, or during evening, e. — 
Fig Trees, prune. — Gooseberries, Cur- 
rants (Wall and Espalier), regulate, b.; 
remove blighted shoots; summer prune, 
e. — Nectarines, finish summer regulat- 
ing. — Newly planted Trees, stake and 
fasten ; give water in dry weather ; li- 
quid manure to the weakly ; keep mulch 
round. — Pears (Wall and Espalier), 
properly regulate, b. — Plums (Wall 
and Espalier), properly regulate, b. — 
Scarify, trunks of hide-bound trees, 
rather than in winter, but this affection 
will never occur, if they are scrubbed 
in January with brine. — Snails, Slugs, 
search for, morning and evening. — 
Strawberries, water in dry weather. — 
Thinning fruit on walls, complete, b. 
— Vines before omitted, finish, regulat- 
ing, b.; and those done in May re-exa- 
mine. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Anemones, take up as leaves wither; 
dry and store. — Annuals (hardy and 
some tender), plant out to remain, in 
showery weather best; some (hardy) 
may be sowed, b. — Auriculas, continue 
shading; plant offsets; prick out seed- 
lings. — Baskets or clumps, form of 
green - house plants. — Biennials and 
Perennials, sow, if omitted, b. — Box 
edgings clip; plant. — Bulbous Roots 
(Tulips, Jonquils, &c), take up as 
leaves decay ; remove offsets from ; 
dry and store; may transplant some, 
or keep until autumn ; (autumn flower- 
ing), as Colchicums, &c, take up as 
leaves decay, separate offsets, and re- 
plant, or not, until end of July. — Car- 
nations, in bloom, attend ; aid the bud- 
pod to split with a pair of narrow sharp- 
pointed scissors ; water every second 
day ; tie to supporters, &c. ; prick out 
seedlings; make layers ; pipe. — Cycla- 
mens, transplant. — Dahlias, finish plant- 
ing out, b. — Dress the borders assidu- 
ously; neatness now stamps a gardener's 
character. — Fibrous rooted Perennials, 
propagate by cuttings of flower-stalks ; 



JUN 



331 



KEL 



shade and water. — Flowering Plants 
generally require training and support. 
— Grass, mow, roll and trim edges. — 
Gravel, weed, sweep, and roll. — Guern- 
sey Lilies, take up ; separate offsets, 
and replant. Do this every second year. 
—Hedges, clip, e. — Leaves and stems 
decaying, remove as they appear. — 
Liquid Manure, apply occasionally to 
all choice flowers. — Mignionette, plant 
out; sow, b. — Pink seedlings, prick out; 
make layers. — Pipings (or Cuttings) of 
Carnations and Pinks may be planted. — 
Potted Flowers, dress, stir earth and 
water regularly. — Ranunculuses, take 
up as leaves wither, dry and store. — 
Roses, bud, lay, and inarch ; fumigate 
with tobacco to destroy the Aphis, or 
Green Fly. — Salvia Patens , pinch down 
centre stem to make it flower bushy. — 
Seedlings of Perennials and Biennials, 
transplant. — Seeds (ripe), gather in dry 
weather. — Seed Vessels, remove, to pro- 
long flowering. — Water, give freely and 
frequently to all newly moved plants, 
and to others in dry weather ; early 
morning best time. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely during every mild 
day; but exclude as evening approaches. 
— Bark Beds, occasionally will require 
stirring; water and ventilate freely. — 
Grapes, thin; ripening keep dry. — 
Heat, keep up as required. — Pines are 
now ripening; plant crowns as they 
occur ; give liquid manure ; syringe ; 
shade in very hot days. — Propagation, 
continue as requisite, by seed, suckers, 
slips, layers, cuttings, offsets, &c. (See 
May.) — Steam, admit almost daily. — 
Strawberries done forcing, allow to dry ; 
remove into larger pots with new earth, 
and keep for second forcing. — Syringe 
Pines, and other plants, frequently. — 
Tobacco fumigations, give occasionally. 
— Vines, push forward by warmth, li- 
quid manure, &c. ; mulch round roots 
outside the house; stop laterals. — 
Watering attend to duly; it is required 
generally oftener and more liberally 
than in preceding months; apply it in 
the morning early. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, give with all possible freedom ; 
bring all but the tenderest out of the 
house. — Camellias, done flowering, re- 
move into higher temperature. — Cut- 
tings of various plants may now be in- 



serted. — Dress the plants as they are 
brought out of the house. — Earth, give 
fresh, and liquid manure, as necessary. 
— Flowering shrubs, shade. — Gera- 
niums, plant cuttings. — Head down and 
prune irregular growing shrubs. — 
Heaths, plant slips; water frequently. — 
Inarching of jasmines, oranges, &c, 
may be performed. — Leaves (decayed), 
remove, and wash the foliage generally. 
— Layers of shrubs generally make. — 
Mowings of grass spread over surface of 
earth in large pots or tubs — an excel- 
lent mode of arresting evaporation. — 
Myrtles, propagate by cuttings, e. ; — 
Oranges and Lemons in bloom, give 
liquid manure: thin blossom when in 
clusters. — Rain, if excessive, move ten- 
derest plants back into the house; and 
tilt the pots of others. — Seedlings, trans- 
plant. — Shift into larger pots, as neces- 
sary, b. — Succulent plants propagate by 
cuttings ; remove to outside, e. — Water 
frequently, butmoderately ; some plants 
require it every morning or evening. 

JUNIPERUS. Juniper. Nineteen 
species besides varieties. Hardy ever- 
green trees and shrubs. Seed and cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. See Coniferce. 

JUPITER'S BEARD. Anthyllis bar- 
ba-jovis. 

JUSTICIA. Sixty-four species. 
Stove and green-house plants ; some 
shrubs, others biennials and annuals, 
and a third group trailers. The bien- 
nials and annuals require to be sown in 
a hot-house or hotbed; the others are 
increased by cuttings, and all delight 
in light loam and peat. 

KAGENECKIA cratcegoides. Half- 
hardy evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

KALANCHOE. Seven species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

KALE. See Borecole. 

KALMIA. Five species and more 
varieties. Hardy evergreen shrubs. 
Seed and layers. Sandy loam and peat. 

KALOSANTHES. Eight species. 
Green-house evergreen succulents. Cut- 
tings dried for forty-eight hours ; sandy 
loam and peat. 

KANGURU VINE. Cissus antarc- 
ticus. 

KAULFUSSIA amelloides. "Hardy 
annual. Seed. Sandy loam. 

KELP is the ash remaining after sea- 
weed is burnt, and has been used with 
great advantage as a manure to pota- 



KEN 



332 



KI-D 



toes, brocoli, and other species of bras- 
sica. It is composed of carbonate of 
soda, and iodide and bromide of potas- 
sium, carbon, sulphates of lime and 
magnesia, and other matters of trivial 
importance. See Green ]\Fanure. 

KENNEDYA. Fifteen species. 
Green-house evergreen twiners. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

KERRIA japonica. Hardy deci- 
duous shrub. Young cuttings. Com- 
mon soil. More commonly called Cor- 
chorus japonicus. 

KIDNEY-BRAN. Phaseolus vulga- 
ris. Haricot, Fr. Schminkbohne, Ger. 
Judias, Span. Faguiolo, Ital. 

" Of the Snap-Short Bean, the Hari- 
cot of the French, the varieties and 
sub-varieties are numerous. Those 
enumerated in the Catalogue annexed, 
are such as we esteem most worthy ; 
they consist of the earliest, the latest, 
and those which ripen intermediately. 
The Early Mohawk or Brown Six 
Weeks arrives soonest at perfection, 
and is the hardiest of the early ones ; 
the Early Yellow, Red Speckled Val- 
entine, and China Red Eye, immediate- 
ly succeed. The Red French is about 
the latest : the other varieties ripen 
promiscuously. All the kinds are 
brought to the Philadelphia market; 
some purchasers preferring one, and 
others another. The Red Speckled 
Valentine is a variety very generally 
admired ; it is round podded, without 
strings, an abundant bearer, and re- 
mains tender longer than most others. 
The Brown Valentine or Refugee, is 
also an excellent variety, as also the 
China Red Eye. The pods of the Red 
French are used as well for pickling as 
boiling, and the beans throughout the 
winter in a dry state, as haricots, and 
in soups, for which it is usually pre- 
ferred . 

" The usual plan of cultivating this 
tribe, is in drills double or single, 
placing two seeds together at inter- 
vals of two or three inches: two to 
two and a half feet should be allowed 
between the drills. They are much 
more tender than the Long Pod or 
Windsor, and will not succeed, if 
planted before the weather has become 
somewhat settled, and the earth warm ; 
in the latitude of Philadelphia, not 
earlier than April, unless in very dry 
ground, and protected situations. To 
have a constant supply, it will be ne- 



cessary to plant successive crops at 
intervals of two or three weeks, which 
is much preferable to planting but sel- 
dom, and then a larger quantity. Plan- 
tations made so late as 1st August, ge- 
nerally succeed and yield abundantly. 

" When they have risen three or four 
inches, give them a careful hoeing, to 
destroy all weeds, and loosen the earth. 
At this time, or shortly after, draw to- 
wards the base of the plants, some of 
the loose soil, to the depth of one or 
two inches. This process is termed 
" landing,'" and is highly beneficial in 
protecting the roots from excessive 
drought, and the direct rays of the 
sun. As the crop approaches matu- 
rity, nothing more is required than an 
occasional hoeing, observing always 
to keep the ground free from weeds. 

"In selecting a spot to plant beans, 
choose where the soil is light and tole- 
rably dry. If it be poor, apply a good 
dressing of well rotted manure, either 
spread over the entire surface, or 
placed in the drills when drawn out." 
— Rural Register. 

Forcing. — The hot-bed must be of 
moderate size, and covered with earth 
nine inches thick. When the heat has 
become regular, the seed may be in- 
serted in drills a foot apart, and the 
plants allowed to stand six inches asun- 
der in the rows. Air must be admitted 
as freely as to the melon. The same 
precautions are likewise necessary as to 
keeping up the temperature, taking the 
chill off the water &c.,as for that plant. 
When the seed begins to sprout, the 
mould should be kept regularly moist- 
ened ; and when grown up, water may 
be given moderately, three times a week. 
The temperature should never be less 
than 60°, nor higher than 75°. Some 
plants of the hot-bed sowing at the end 
of March, are often, after being gradu- 
ally hardened, planted in a warm bor- 
der: this will at most hasten the plants 
in production a fortnight before those 
sown in the open ground in May. 

Those sown under frames in March 
for transplanting into a border, when 
two or three inches in height, must in a 
like manner be hardened gradually for 
the exposure, by the plentiful admission 
of air, and the total removal of the 
glasses during fine days. If any are 
raised in pots in the hot-house, they 
must in a like manner be prepared for 
the removal, by setting them outside in 



KID 



333 

— • — 



KID 



fine clays, and there watering them with 
cold water. 

If trie season is too ungenial after all 
to remove them even to a warm border, 
the plants are often inserted in patches, 
to have the protection of frames or 
hand lights at night, or as the weather 
demands. 

Said to be perennial. — It has been 
stated, that kidney beans appear of a 
perennial nature, and that they have 
been observed to vegetate for several 
years — the plants being in the vicinity 
of a steam-engine, and so situated that 
the frost could not penetrate to the 
roots. 

Beans, Pole. — The Scarlet Runners, 
and White Dutch Beans, are very deli- 
cately flavoured, and are used either 
in the pod, or shelled when further 
advanced ; but in this section of the 
country, and perhaps further South, they 
bear so sparingly most seasons, as to be 
scarcely worth cultivating. 

The Lima is too well known to need 
description. Two varieties are culti- 
vated ; the one broad and thin, the 
other much thicker. We have some- 
times thought the latter the more tender 
and delicate when boiled. The Lima 
Bean is very tender, not bearing the 
slightest frost, and is very subject to rot 
when planted early, or during a spell of 
rainy or damp cool weather. To guard 
against which, the best plan is to sprout 
them in a frame, (as recommended for 
the Long Pod or Windsor,) so situated, 
that the damp and frost can be excluded. 
An old hot-bed answers the purpose 
effectually. They need not be planted 
therein, before the middle of spring, nor 
transplanted till towards its close; a 
little earlier or later, as the weather 
may make expedient ; if planted early, 
they will at best remain stationary, and 
may, perhaps, do worse. They should 
be planted in hills in well cultivated 
ground, dressed either in the piece or 
hills, with thoroughly rotted manure 
from the barn-yard. The hills should 
be raised three or four inches above the 
average level, and be three feet apart 
each way, with a pole six or eight feet 
high, well secured in the ground, to 
each hill. Three plants in a hill are 
sufficient. As the vines shoot up, they 
should be tied to the poles, till they get 
hold, when they will support them- 
selves. In trying them, observe to do 
it in the direction in which they incline 



to clasp the pole, which is contrary to 
the course of the sun, and opposite to 
the habit of most climbers. 

Those who have not the convenience 
of a frame, (or hand-glass which will 
answer the same purpose,) should have 
the hills prepared and poles inserted, 
choosing a mild, dry time, about the 
close of May, for planting the beans. 
If wet weather should immediately 
succeed, and the seed rot, replant as 
soon as the ground dries. Good crops 
have been produced in the vicinity of 
Philadelphia, when planted even so late 
as first of June. 

After they become well established, 
and have clasped the poles, no further 
care is requisite,, other than keeping the 
weeds under, and the hills occasionally 
stirred. 

The Carolina or Sewee bean, is of a 
smaller size than the Lima; much 
hardier, rather earlier, and more pro- 
ductive, but generally considered less 
rich. In other respects they closely 
resemble each other — time and mode 
of planting may be a little in advance 
of the Lima — cultivation precisely the 
same. — Rural Reg. 

Beans, English. Vicia Faba, of 
Linnaus. Feve de marais, Fr. Bohn, 
Ger. Fava, Ital. Ilabas, Span. 

Of the above kind, commonly called 
in this country " Horse Bean," there is 
considerable variety; two of them have 
been selected by us for cultivation, be- 
lieving them the best adapted for the 
climate, and quite sufficient of the kind. 
They are the Early Long Pod and Broad 
Windsor. Both succeed with the same 
treatment, but the first named, is the 
more certain bearer of the two. In 
England, where they are extensively 
cultivated, they do much better than in 
this country, preferring its damp cool 
atmosphere, to our frequently dry and 
hot one; to counteract which, it is de- 
sirable to plant so early in the spring, 
as the ground will admit of being 
worked ; in the latitude of Philadelphia, 
(39° 570 the latter part of February, 
or beginning of March, if possible; 
they then come into flower before the 
weather becomes hot, otherwise the 
blossoms drop, and set no fruit. 

Plant them in drills, either single or 
double, two inches apart in the drills, 
and cover one to two inches deep. If 
in double drills, with alleys two and a 
half feet wide. If in single rows, two 



KIR 



334 

— ♦ — 



KIT 



feet alleys answer, unless it be intended 
to cultivate them with the horse hoe, as 
is done by market gardeners. 

Those who are particularly fond of 
this bean, can accelerate the crop, by 
setting a frame at the close of winter, 
under the lee of a board fence, or other 
protected situation, exposed to the sun, 
which cover with glass, and in severe 
weather with matting or straw, so as 
effectually to exclude the frost. Herein 
plant the beans, one seed to the square 
inch, and let them remain, until the 
arrival of milder weather, when they 
should be transplanted to the position 
in the garden which it is intended they 
shall occupy. In transplanting them, 
care should be taken not to injure the 
roots, to guard against which, use a 
trowel to ease them up, and suffer as 
much earth as will, to adhere. During 
the time they remain in the frame, the 
sash should be raised when the weather 
is mild, to admit the air, and gradually 
harden them, preparatory to full ex- 
posure when transplanted, else the sud- 
den change of temperature might prove 
fatal. In order to make them set fruit 
more certainly, it is the practice to nip 
off the top or leading shoots when they 
are in full flower; this checks the growth, 
and directs the strength of the plant 
towards the blossoms. If a part of the 
flowers are destroyed in this operation, 
there is no loss. 

Whilst the crop is growing and pro- 
gressing towards maturity, keep the 
ground well hoed, and free from weeds. 
When the plants have attained six or 
eight inches in height, draw towards 
their base a portion of loose earth, 
which will encourage them to put forth 
fresh fibres, and protectthe roots already 
formed, from the sun's rays. — Rural 
Register. 

KIRGANELIA elegans. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

KITAIBELIA vitifolia. Hardy herb- 
aceous. Seed. Common soil. 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Situation of the Kitchen Garden. — In 
selecting the site, and in erecting the 
inclosures, as well as in the after pre- 
paration of the soil, the ingenuity and 
science of the horticulturist are essen- 
tially requisite. He will be called upon 
to rectify the defects and to improve the 
advantages which nature affords ; for it 
is very seldom that the natural situation 



of a mansion, or the plan of the grounds, 
allows him to construct it in the most 
appropriate spot. 

A gentle declination towards the 
south, with a point to the east, is the 
most favourable aspect ; to the north- 
east the least so : in short, any point to 
the south is to be preferred to one verg- 
ing towards the north. A high wall 
should inclose it to the north and east, 
gradually lowering to the south and 
west. If, however, a plantation or 
building on the east side, at some dis- 
tance, shelter it from the piercing 
winds, which blow from that quarter, 
and yet are at such a distance as not to 
intercept the rays of the rising sun, it 
is much to be preferred to heightening 
the wall. It is a still greater desidera- 
tum to have a similar shelter, or that 
of a hill on the south-west and north- 
west points. The garden is best situated 
at a moderate elevation ; the summit of 
a hill, or the bottom of a valley, is equal- 
ly to be avoided. It is a fact not very 
difficult of explanation, that low lying 
ones are the most liable to suffer from 
blights and severe frosts; those much 
above the level of the sea are obviously 
most exposed to inclement winds. 

Size of the Kitchen Garden. — To de- 
termine the appropriate size of a kitchen 
garden is impossible. It ought to be 
proportionate to the size of the family, 
their partiality for vegetables, and the 
fertility of the soil. 

It may serve as some criterion to 
state, that the management of a kitchen 
garden occupying the space of an acre, 
affords ample employment for a garden- 
er, who will also require an assistant 
at the busiest period of the year. In 
general, a family of four persons, ex- 
clusive of servants, requires a full rood 
of open kitchen garden. 

Plan of the Kitchen Garden. — In 
forming the ground plan of a kitchen 
garden, utility is the main object. The 
form and aspect represented in the 
accompanying sketch are, perhaps, as 
unobjectionable as any, since none of 
the walls face the north, and conse- 
quently the best aspects are obtained 
for the trees. A narrow path two feet 
wide should extend round, adjoining 
the wall, and then a border about ten 
feet, the widest on those broad sides 
that face the south, which not only is 
beneficial to the trees, but convenient 
for raising early crops, &c. Next to 



KNI 



335 

♦ 



LAB 



this should be a walk five feet in 
width, likewise extending round the 
area. 

Fig. 95. 



2t 



■i: ~- ; 



*,"'«)tVi/ii 




Respecting the inclosure of the kitch- 
en garden, see Hedges and Walls. 

KLEINHOVIA hospita. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
KNIFE. Of this the gardener re- 
quires several kinds. 1. Garden Knife, 
with a curved blade, for common rough 
purposes. 2. Pruning Knife, with a 
straight blade, and fine edge. 3. Graft- 
ing Knife, also straight-bladed, but with 
a thinner and narrower blade. 4. Bud- 
ding Knife, is like the grafting knife, 
but should have a double-edged sharp 
point, like an oyster- knife, and the 
handle of ivory, is wedge-shaped, for 
raising the bark from the wood. There 
is a variety of superior excellence, call- 
ed Curtis's Budding Knife. 5. Aspara- 
gus Knife, has either a strong straight 
blade, with a sharp chisel-shaped point, 
or a slightly curved blade, with a saw- 
edge on the inner side of the curve. 

KNIGHTIA excelsa. Green -house 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

KNOXIA. Four species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs, except K. leevis, which is 
annual. The former are increased by 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

KOLREUTERIA paniculata. Hardy 
deciduous tree. Layers and root-cut- 
tings. Sheltered common soil. 

KONIGA maritima, var. variegata. 
Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Common soil. 

KRAMERIA pauciflora. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

KRIGIA. Two species. Hardy an- 
nuals. Seed. Sandy loam. 

KUHNIA. Four species. Two hardy, 
and two green-house herbaceous. Divi- 
sion. Sandy loam and peat. 



KYDIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

LABEL. That which combines du- 
rability with facility of reference and 
cheapness, is a small piece of deal, 
planed smooth, painted white, and 
written upon with a lead pencil. 

Fig. 96. 




When required for a seed-bed, a small 
stake is to be driven into the ground, 
and from it the label to be suspended. 

LABICHEA. Two species. Green- 
house shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

LABLAVIA. Six species, besides 
varieties. Stove and green-house twin- 
ers. Four annuals, the rest deciduous. 
Annuals sow in pots in stove, seedlings 
plant out at end of May. Deciduous by 
cuttings. Common soil. 

LABURNUM. Cytisus Laburnum. 

Varieties. — Common Broad-leafed 
Laburnum ; Narrow-leafed long-spiked 
Laburnum ; Short-spiked Laburnum ; 
Variegated-leafed Laburnum, and Mid- 
dle-sized Laburnum (C. L. interme- 
dium). The first two of which varieties 
are tolerably permanent from seed, but 
the other two must be continued by 
cuttings. 

Propagation.— By Seed.— The seed 
grows freely in the open ground, and 
should be sown in March, in four-feet 
beds, drilling it in half an inch deep; 
they will come up in six or seven weeks. 
Keep them weeded during summer; 
and in spring following the seedlings in 
general, if they stand very close, may 
be transplanted into the nursery in rows, 
two feet distance, allowing them more 
room as they advance in growth; and 
here they may remain two, three, or 
four years, till large enough for the 
shrubbery. 

By Cuttings. — October or Novem- 
ber is the best time for planting them. 
Choose young shoots eight, ten, or 
twelve inches long ; plant them in rows, 
a foot apart, and five or six inches in 



LAB 



336 

— • — 



LAM 



the lines; and they will be rooted in 
one year. 

All the culture these plants require 
in the nursery, is to keep them clear 
from weeds, and to hoe frequently the 
ground between the rows. — Abercrom- 
bie. 

LABYRINTH is an arrangement of 
walks, inclosed by hedges or shrubbe- 
ries, so intricate as to be very difficult 
to escape from. From the twelfth cen- 
tury to the end of the seventeenth, they 
were a very favourite portion of English 
pleasure grounds, but they are now 
more judiciously banished. 

LACHENALIA. Thirty-five species. 
Green-house bulbs, except L. glauca, 
which is hardy. Seed and offsets. 
Sandy peat. 

LACHNANTHES tinctoria. Green- 
house herbaceous. Seed and division. 
Sandy peat. 

LACKEY MOTH. See Clisiocampa. 

LACTUCA. Lettuce. Seven species, 
and many varieties. Hardy annuals. 
Seed. Common rich soil. See Let- 
tuce. 

LADY'S FERN. Aspidium thelyp- 
terum. 

LADY'S MANTLE. Alchemilla. 

LADY'S SLIPPER. Cypripedium. 

LADY'S SMOCK. Cardamine. 

LADY'S TRESSES. Neottia spira- 
lis and spiranthes. 

LiELIA. Sixteen species. Stove 
epiphytes. Offsets. Peat and pots- 
herds. Mr. Beaton gives the following 
directions for the treatment of L. super- 
biens, and they are applicable to the 
rest of the genus : — 

" In April, place it in the warmest 
end of the green-house, and there let it 
remain till all its shoots are three parts 
grown, about the end of June ; then 
place it in the stove, and let it have as 
much air as possible, watch its buds 
narrowly, and leave it in the stove till 
they are in a forward plump state, then 
remove it to a cooler place, and allow 
it to go gently to rest as the season de- 
clines. If all has gone on well with it, 
the flower spikes will make their ap- 
pearance as soon as it is at complete 
rest in November: at this time the same 
heat given to the camellia suits it best, 
so that it may safely be taken to the 
drawing room for the winter, and hav- 
ing previously finished its growth, little 
or no water need be given it while in 
the drawing room." — Gard. Chron. 



LiETIA thamnia. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam and peat. 

LAGASCA mollis. Stove annual. 
Seed. Common soil. 

LAGENARIA vulgaris. See Gourd. 

LAGERSTRffiMIA. Four species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs, and one varie- 
ty, L. indica rosea, for the green-house. 
Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

For the culture of L. indica, Mr. R. 
Reid gives the following directions: — 
" It should be kept all winter in the 
green-house, or even the back sheds 
will do perfectly well, and no water 
should be given to it. About the middle 
or latter end of April, it will begin to 
grow, when the young shoots may be 
thinned out, and the remainder short- 
ened a little; the plant should then be 
placed in the stove or vinery, where 
there is a brisk heat. It will grow vi- 
gorously till June, and will then appear 
as if it had done growing for the season, 
but in a few weeks, when the young 
shoots are well ripened, it will make a 
second push at the extremity of every 
young shoot. These are the flowering 
shoots ; and by the month of August it 
will be loaded with its beautiful tresses 
of purple flowers " — Gard. Chron. On 
light well drained soils and sheltered 
locations in Pennsylvania, the Lager- 
strcemia supports the winter — further 
south it is seen in great luxuriance, fif- 
teen or twenty feet in height. 

LAGETTA lintearia. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

LAGONYCHIUM stephanianum. 
Half-hardy evergreen-shrub. Seed, cut- 
tings, and layers. Common soil. 

LAHAYA. Ten species. L. alsini- 
folia and L.minuartoides are hardy; L. 
diffusa, a green-house, annual trailer ; 
the others green-house and stove ever- 
green shrubs, except L. polycanpoides, 
which is herbaceous. These are in- 
creased by cuttings. Sandy peat. 

LA L AGE ornata. Green-house ever- 
green shrub. Young cuttings. Sand, 
loam, and peat. 

LAMBERTIA. Eight species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

LAMB'S LETTUCE, or CORN SA- 
LAD, {Valerianella olitoria,) is grown 
for winter and spring salads. The first 
dish formerly brought to table, was a 
red herring set in a corn salad. 

Soil and Situation. — It will flourish in 



LAM 



337 

• — 



LAN 



any soil that is not particularly heavy ; 
the best is a sandy moderately fertile 
loam, in an open situation. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — Seed 
may be sown in February and the two 
following months, and once a month 
during the summer, if in request; but 
it is not so palatable during this season. 
Lastly, during August and early in Sep- 
tember, the plants from which will be 
fit for use in early spring, or during the 
winter, if mild. Three sowings are in 
general quite sufficient for a family, 
viz., one at the end of February, a 
second early in August, and a third 
early in September. 

The seed sown in drills, six inches 
apart. The only cultivation required 
is the keeping the plants free from 
weeds by frequent hoeings, they being 
previously thinned to four inches asun- 
der. They should always be eaten quite 
young. In summer, the whole plant 
may be cut, as they soon advance to 
seed at this season ; but in spring and 
winter the outer leaves only should be 
gathered, as directed for spinach. 

To obtain Seed. — Some of the spring- 
raised plants must be left ungathered 
from. They flower in June, and per- 
fect their seed during the two following 
months. 

LAMIUM orvala. Hardy herbaceous. 
Seed and division. Common soil. Some 
varieties of L. longifolium and L. rugo- 
sum are also cultivated in gardens. 

LAMPWICK. Phlomis lychnitis. 

LAND-DITCHING. See Draining. 

LANDRA. Raphanus landra. 

LANDRETH, David, was a native 
of England, the son of a farmer of Ber- 
wick upon Tweed. Early in life his 
attention was attracted by plants and 
flowers, and yielding to his fondness for 
them, and impulses which they only 
who love nature can fully appreciate, he 
determined to adopt gardening as a 
profession. At that day the art was 
less widely and ardently pursued than 
at the present, and the sources of in- 
formation, and consequent means of im- 
provement, were limited. Then publi- 
cations on the subject were not, as now, 
of almost daily issue. Periodicals on 
gardening and rural affairs were un- 
known ; and, save the works of Miller, 
there was scarcely one for reference. 
Since then Horticulture has assumed its 
rightful place as a delightful if not a 
22 



fine art, cherished and pursued by the 
intellectual and refined. 

The subject of this sketch, after hav- 
ing availed himself of the usual routine 
of practice in the neighbourhood of his 
birth-place, as a mean most likely to 
promote his views, and extend his 
knowledge of the more approved rules 
of the profession which he had espoused, 
removed to the vicinity of London. 
Here he profited by an observance 
of the operations in the extensive 
nursery establishments and pleasure- 
grounds around the metropolis ; and, 
having prepared himself for the efficient 
practice of his art, embarked for Ame- 
rica. The hostilities between the mo- 
ther country and her colonies, then ex- 
isting, prevented his sailing for a middle 
port, and he accordingly took passage 
for Quebec, where he resided for three 
years. On the conclusion of the war, 
his longing desire to remove to a south- 
ern point, and climate more genial to 
his pursuit, could now be gratified; and 
in the autumn of 1784 he arrived in Phi- 
ladelphia, the spot towards which his 
eye had been unwaveringly directed — 
but why, he has been heard to say, he 
could not tell. There all were stran- 
gers. Within its wide extent there did 
not live a solitary being with whom he 
could claim acquaintance, much less 
friendship. How many have since fol- 
lowed from their father-land, and found 
peaceful and happy homes ! 

With a pocket but scantily supplied, 
and winter approaching, when but little 
employment in his line could be ex^- 
pected, he availed himself of a tempo- 
rary engagement. It was not long, 
however, ere his qualifications and cor- 
rect deportment secured the favourable 
notice of Robert Morris, the distinguish- 
ed revolutionary patriot, in whose em- 
ployment he entered, and continued for 
several years, and with whose regard 
he was honoured until the close of Mr. 
Morris' eventful life. 

Mr. L., on relinquishing the employ- 
ment of Mr. Morris, was enabled to 
carry out his long-cherished and origi- 
nal design of establishing himself as a 
Nurseryman ; and shortly thereafter 
laid the foundation of what has been 
known throughout the Union, for more 
than half a century, as the " Landreth 
Nurseries." He ultimately associated 
with himself a younger brother, Cuth- 
bert, who had followed him to America, 



LAN 



338 

— • — 



LAN 



and their united efforts enabled them 
successfully to conduct what was then 
considered an extensive business. A 
scrupulous regard to what was due to 
others secured respect and moderate 
competency. 

To the brothers Landreth, Philadel- 
phia is, in a degree, indebted for the 
early development of horticultural taste, 
and in the facilities which they afforded 
for its gratification the whole Union has 
participated. Their productions, orna- 
mental and useful , have been distributed 
far and wide. Specimens of fruits and 
flowers from their grounds exist in al- 
most every town and hamlet in the 
country. The earliest collection of Ca- 



dreth in the contemplation of his floral 
family. A beautiful plant, a noble 
tree, or a landscape decorated by the 
hands of nature or of man, were to him 
objects of the purest pleasure. After 
an active and well-spent life, and with 
an enviable reputation, he died on the 
22d August. 1836, aged 84. 

LANDSCAPE GARDENING, as its 
name intimates, is the composition of 
beautiful scenery, so that all artifice is 
concealed by the blending of trees, 
shrubs, ground, and water; thus form- 
ing vistas gratifying as those which 
occur naturally. Admiration for such 
j scenery is an innate quality of the hu- 
man mind ; and successfully to imitate 



mellias in America was made by them, ! such scenery requires judgment as well 



and their importations of valuable plants 
and fruits were extensive. Their col- j 
lection of indigenous plants, obtained | 
through the agency and friendship of; 



as taste. It is not possible, without an 
enormous outlay, to introduce any spe- 
cies of landscape beauty upon a given 
plot of ground. There is the beauty 



traveling collectors, and local corre- I of the level surface, quite unattainable 
spondents, was, perhaps, the largest of | upon a surface which is abrupt and bro- 



its day, if we except the magnificent 
one of the Bartram Botanic Garden. 

How vast have been the enlargement 
of horticultural taste, and the means of 
gratifying it since Mr. Landreth first 
embarked in his floral enterprise! Then 
a green-house, or, as it was popularly 
termed, a " glass-house," was an ob- 
ject of amazement, and a simple rose, 
exhibited in a window budding and 
blooming " out of season," attracted a 
wondering crowd. Now a residence in 
town or country is scarcely considered 
perfect which does not embrace at least 
a room prepared for the preservation of 
plants ; and the thousands who throng 
the exhibitions of our Horticultural So- 
ciety evince the extent of interest on 
the subject. 

The temperate and regular habits of 
Mr. Landreth promoted health, and 
protracted life beyond the ordinary 
term. In manners he was plain and 
unobtrusive; his temperament ardent, 
actively sympathizing with the afflicted, 
or warming with indignation at oppres- 
sion. His fondness for plants increased 
with age, and, though their culture 
was the source of his support, he loved 
them for themselves alone. " Trade" 
was, with him, an adjunct to the grati- 
fication of a refined enjoyment. Never 
did painter look upon his canvas, in glo- 
rious enthusiasm for his art, with an eye 
more abstracted from the lucre which 
his pencil brought, than did David Lan- 



ken. The beauty of the clay districts 
is not to be secured upon those of the 
[chalk; neither on light uplands can be 
arranged the dense beauties of well- 
watered alluvions. " Consult the genius 
of the place" is an axiom which has 
been derided, but which is dictated by 
the soundest sense. 

A writer upon the general principles 
of landscape gardening has some very 
judicious remarks, from which the fol- 
lowing are extracts: — 

" Although due light and shade are 
necessary to bring out striking effects, 
colour must be attended to. Light and 
shade, we all know, when the sun 
shines, vary every moment; and there- 
fore it becomes a study so to assort 
objects, within range of the principal 
point of view, as to bring out various 
good effects. Not only must we regard 
the diurnal motion of the sun, but his 
position in the ecliptic; so that when 
he is at various elevations and posi- 
tions, light may make the lights and 
shadows spread out where they may 
make the strongest impression on the 
eye. 

" This is a point not much attended 
to, but one of the greatest value, and 
well deserving the closest study by the 
landscape-gardener. Frequently the ad- 
mission, at a particular spot, of a mere 
streak of light enlivens a whole scene, 
and excites the highest admiration. Sun- 
shine through trees, when the orb itself 



LAN 



339 



LAN 



is concealed, and the rays are pene- 
trating, a thin shower falling among 
them, produces at times delightful ef- 
fects. 

" The variety of green tints is very 
great, and their disposition of import- 
ance. Green is a mixture of blue and 
yellow, and the predominance of either 
must be studied. A different suit of 
colours appears in the autumn, the yel- 
low prevailing, but mixed with red in- 
stead of blue, which seems to disappear 
from the tints of autumn. Some trees 
change colour early, as the horse-chest- 
nut; others late, as the beech and oak. 
Advantage should be taken of this, and 
trees arranged accordingly. Evergreens 
should generally be so disposed as to 
form a mass when other trees are naked ; 
but, in some situations, single pines and 
firs, if room be given to them, produce 
a fine effect. 

" When a house is to be built where 
trees already abound, difficulties will 
occur in choosing a site. It is danger- 
ous to cut down trees before the build- 
ing has been erected ; and yet effects 
may not be brought out, so as to assist 
in the choice, without thinning. It is 
also difficult to conduct roads where 
trees stand thickly ; in such a case the 
landscape-gardener should proceed with 
great caution, removing first such trees 
as are not in themselves worthy of a 
place. 

" The disposition of water, where 
sheets of it are to be interspersed with 
trees and shrubs, has a fine effect in 
certain situations when managed with 
judgment. But we cannot teach judg- 
ment any more than taste, both being 
gifts of nature. 

" Of all things connected with land- 
scape-gardening, buildings are often 
most offensive ; and we find the gross- 
est defects of taste frequently displayed 
both in their style and position. Many 
persons are apt to associate external 
nature with the state of society in time 
long past. This is an error that has 
led to many trespasses against nature's 
rule. A man will build a castle be- 
cause the situation he fixed for it is a 
commanding one, and would have an- 
swered all the purposes of defence in 
a rude state of society. His taste leads 
him into expense, and to the sacrifice 
of convenience and comfort. The adop- 
tion of former styles shows taste in 
some instances; but we rather think it 



an indication of want of invention. The 
country is covered with new residences 
in the Elizabethan style ; and there is 
a sameness that is rather tiresome, and 
far from being so picturesque as the 
castellated, with all its modern incon- 
gruities. 

"Dwelling-houses should be arranged 
for comfort, and, where means are at 
command, also for elegance and gran- 
deur, both internally and externally. 

" The ruins of ancient buildings pro- 
duce a most pleasing effect, and they 
ought to be preserved ; but it would be 
preposterous in our day to build that 
which is felt to be impressive only 
when in a state of ruin. This is a sub- 
ject not altogether separated from land- 
scape gardening. 

" When a professor finds buildings in 
his way, it is his business either to hide 
them or to exhibit them to the best ad- 
vantage."— Gard. Chron. 

Under this general head it would be 
misplaced to enter more fully into de- 
tails ; for these will be found, under 
their appropriate titles, in other pages, 
and chiefly borrowed from Mr. Whate- 
ley, who has published more correct 
views upon the art of tastefully arrang- 
ing grounds than any man who has ever 
written upon the subject. 

A taste for landscape-gardening, like 
that for the higher order of painting, 
sculpture and other fine arts, is the 
slow product of wealth and easy leisure, 
and is distinct from a love of flowers 
evinced alike by the young and the 
aged, the intellectual and the illiterate. 
In the United States, as might be ex- 
pected in a new country, the mass are 
too busily engaged in the every day 
cares of life to devote attention to such 
objects — but few comparatively, " the 
architects of their own fortunes," have 
acquired the means to indulge in luxu- 
rious expenditures. We are, however, 
acquiring taste on this and kindred sub- 
jects, and with the increasing wealth, 
the general education and superior in- 
telligence which characterize the Ame- 
rican people, there can be no doubt 
that long before we can be called an 
old nation, our tastes will have been 
refined, and our capacity to appreciate 
the beautiful largely developed. Al- 
ready we have evidence of" the march 
of improvement," as exhibited in the 
pretty cottages, with their decorated 
grounds, around our towns and cities ; 



LAN 



340 

— • — 



L AU 



an onward step towards that which in 
portions of Europe, especially in Eng- 
land, gives such charm to the country, 
and to country life. 

Those who wish to consult works on 
Landscape Gardening and Rural Archi- 
tecture, almost indivisible, are referred 
to Loudon's "Encyclopaedia of Cottage, 
Farm and Villa Architecture," Lou- 
don's "Suburban Gardener," Do wning's 
" Landscape Gardening," Downing's 
" Cottage Residences," &c. 

LANTANA. Twenty-nine species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

LARIX. Larch. Two species, and 
many varieties. Hardy conifera. Seed. 
Light soil on a dry sub-soil. See Coni- 
fer a. 

LARKSPUR. Delphinium. 

Propagation and Culture. — The an- 
nual sorts and varieties are sown an- 
nually in September or October, or 
early in spring, in patches where the 
plants are to flower — for they do not 
succeed by transplantation — observing, 
that those of the autumn sowing grow 
stronger, flower earlier, and the flowers 
are generally larger and more durable 
than the spring-sown plants. It is, 
however, proper to sow some in spring, 
in February or March, to continue a 
longer succession of bloom. 

" Dig with a trowel small patches, 
about nine inches diameter, in different 
parts of the borders towards the middle, 
as also in the fronts of the shrubbery 
clumps; and in each such patch sow 
eight, ten, or twelve seeds a quarter of 
an inch deep ; and when the plants are 
an inch or two high, thin those of the 
unbranched sorts to about six or eight 
in each patch, and of the branched 
kinds to three or four in each place, 
which is all the culture they require. 
But when intended to show in beds by 
themselves, they are commonly sown 
in drills, forming them lengthwise, the 
beds a foot asunder, and half an inch 
deep. The unbranched kinds are the 
best adapted for this mode of culture. 

" The perennial sorts are also raised 
plentifully from seeds sown in autumn 
or spring, in a bed or border of com- 
mon earth, for transplantation when 
the plants come up. Hand-weed them 
occasionally, and thin them to three or 
four inches distance, to remain till Oc- 
tober or November; then plant them 
out where they are to remain to flower. 



Their roots will endure many years." 
— Abercrombie. 

LARREA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

LASER- WORT. Thapsia laserpetii. 

LASIANDRA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat and sand. 

LASIOPETALUM. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings. Loam and peat. 

LASIOSPERMUM. Five species. 
Hardy evergreen trailers. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

LASTHENIA. Two species. Har- 
dy annuals. Seeds sown in autumn. 
Common soil. 

LATANIA. Three species. Stove 
palms. Seed. Rich loam, abundantly 
watered. 

LATERALS, or side shoots, are 
those which spring from the sides of 
the main branches, and are thus de- 
scribed in contradistinction to the ter- 
minal or leading shoots of the branches. 
The laterals on the lower branches, like 
those branches themselves, are usually 
longer as they approach the base of the 
tree, because they extend to obtain the 
benefit of the light kept from them by 
the branches above. If unable thus to 
extend, as in the case of inner trees of 
those planted in clumps, the laterals 
die, and occasion the denudation of 
their trunks. If the terminal shoot be 
cut away, the laterals increase more in 
length, not only because more sap is 
thus afforded them, but because an ex- 
tra effort is made to advance into the 
desired degree of light. 

LATHYRUS. Fifty-four species. 
Chiefly hardy perennial climbers, among 
which is the Everlasting Sweet Pea : 
but many are annuals. Seed. Com- 
mon soil. 

LAUREL. Laurus. 

LAUREL CHERRY. Cerasus lau~ 
ro-r.erasus. 

LAURESTINUS. Viburnum tinus. 

LAURUS. Twenty-five species. 
Hardy, green-house and stove, some 
evergreen, others deciduous. This ge- 
nus includes the laurel, bay, benzoin, 
and sassafras trees. Layers and cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. 

Pruning. — The best month for prun- 
ing the common laurel, and probably 
the whole of the evergreens of this 
genusj is April. 



LAV 



341 

♦ 



LAW 



LAVANDULA. Lavender. Ten spe- 
cies. Hardy and half-hardy evergreen 
shrubs. Cuttings. Light gravelly loam. 
L. Spica. Common Lavender. 

Soil and Situation. — A poor and light 
soil is best suited to this plant, being 
in such, more fragrant, longer lived, 
and more capable of enduring severe 
weather. In rich or moist soils it 
grows luxuriantly, but is in general 
destroyed during the winter. The 
situation cannot be too open. 

Time and Mode of Planting. — It is 
propagated by slips and cuttings of the 
current year's shoots, planted in May 
and June, as well as by cuttings of those 
which are a year old ; to be planted in 
March, April, and early May. Both 
slips and cuttings must be from five to 
seven inches in length, which, after 
being stripped to half their length of 
the lower leaves, are to be planted to 
that depth either in a shady border, or 
in any compartment, to have the shade 
of a mat during mid-day until they have 
taken root, in rows six inches apart 
each way. Water must be given in 
moderate quantity every evening until 
thus established. 

Having attained sufficient strength, 
they may be moved to their final sta- 
tions in September or October, which 
is the season to be preferred, or they 
maybe left until the succeeding spring. 
If it is grown in considerable quantity 
for medicinal purposes, which is the 
only claim it has for a place in the 
herbary,it must be planted in rows two 
feet apart each way, otherwise only 
detached plants are inserted along the 
borders. The only after-culture re- 
quired is the occasional employment of 
the hoe, the decayed spikes and branch- 
es being removed in autumn, and the 
surface gently stirred with the spade in 
the spring. 

The flowers are ready for gathering, 
either to dry or for distillation, in July 
or the end of June. 

LAVATERA. Twenty-five species. 
Some hardy herbaceous, increased by 
seed and division, in common soil ; 
and the annuals and biennials may be 
spring-sown in the same. The green- 
house and half-hardy are propagated by 
ripe cuttings in sandy loam. 

LAVENDER. Lavandula. 

LAVENDER COTTON. Santolina. 

LAVRADIA montana. Stove ever- 



Cuttings. Loam, peat 



green shrub, 
and sand. 

LAW RELATING TO GARDENS. 
The following exposition of existing 
laws in Great Britain may as a matter 
of curiosity interest the American read- 
er. Here where each state has its own 
peculiar enactments, even a synopsis 
of them would be too voluminous for 
our pages. 

Landlord and Tenant . — Lord Kenyon 
was of opinion that market gardeners 
and nurserymen may remove the green- 
houses and hot-houses which they have 
erected on the land of which they are 
tenants, even without an agreement; 
but this is doubtful; they may, how- 
ever, remove trees, or such as are 
likely to become so, in the necessary 
course of their trade. If it were other- 
wise, the very object of their holding 
would be defeated. {Pent on v.Robart, 
2 East, 90.) But the outgoing tenant 
of a garden must not at the end of his 
term plough up strawberry-beds in full- 
bearing, which when he entered he 
bought of a former tenant; although it 
is the general practice to appraise and 
pay for these plants as between out- 
going and incoming tenants. — For such 
conduct is malicious, and not in the 
due course of business. {Wetherell v. 
Howell, 1 Campbell, 227.) So a tenant 
(not a gardener by trade) must not re- 
move a box edging planted on ground 
rented by him of another. Neither is 
he entitled, says Mr. Justice Littledale, 
(unless by special agreement,) to re- 
move flowers which he had planted. 
{Empson v. Soden, 4 Barn, and Adolph. 
655.) And a similar decision has de- 
termined that a farmer who raises young 
fruit trees on the land he hires, for fill- 
ing up an orchard upon the premises, 
is not entitled to sell those young trees ; 
but it is otherwise of a nurseryman by 
trade. {Wyndham v. Way, 4 Taunton, 
316.) 

Even if nurserymen are entitled, 
without a special agreement, to remove 
the hot-houses they have erected upon 
their landlord's land, which is very 
doubtful, that right does not extend in 
every instance to other tenants. Thus, 
a tenant was adjudged not entitled to 
remove a conservatory erected by him- 
self on a brick foundation, attached to 
a dwelling-house, and communicating 
with it by windows and a door, and by 
a flue passing into the parlour chimney. 



LAW 



342 

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LAW 



(Buckland v. Butterfield, 2 Brod. and 
Bing. 54.) A tenant is liable to pay for 
the waste if he cuts down any fruit 
trees in the garden or orchard he holds, 
but not if they are not growing within 
the garden or orchard. (Coke's Litt. 
53, a.) But he may take away a wood- 
en shed which he had built on brick- 
work, and posts and rails he had put 
up. (Fitzherbert v. Shaw, 1 H. Black- 
stone, 259.) 

Law Protecting Gardens. — Gardens 
were not sufficiently protected by law 
until the year 1828, when the statute 
7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 was passed. 

Section 38 of this statute enacts that 
to steal or cut, brake, root up, or other- 
wise destroy, or damage, with intent to 
steal, the whole or any part of any tree, 
sapling, or shrub, or any underwood, 
above the value of \l. respectively 
growing in any park, pleasure-ground, 
garden, orchard or avenue, or in any 
ground adjoining or belonging to any 
dwelling-house, or above the value of 
51. in any other situation, is felony, and 
punishable as simple larceny. 

By section 39, if the injury to the 
trees, shrubs, &c, amounts to lessthan 
11., but to Is. at the least, then sum- 
mary punishmeut may be inflicted by a 
justice of the peace. A fine may be 
imposed not exceeding 51. above the 
injury done, upon the first conviction; 
by imprisonment with hard labour, not 
exceeding twelve months, upon a se- 
cond conviction, and, if the conviction 
take place before two justices of the 
peace, by public or private whipping ; 
and the third offence, after two previous 
convictions, is felony, punishable as 
simple larceny. 

By sections 40, 41, and 43, to steal, 
or to cut, break, or throw down, with 
intent to steal, any part of any live or 
dead fence, or any wooden post, pale, 
or rail, set up or used as a fence, or any 
stile or gate, or any part thereof; or to 
have possession of the whole or any 
part of any sapling or shrub, or any 
underwood, or any part of any live or 
dead fence, or any post, pale, rail, stile 
or gate, or any part thereof respective- 
ly, of the value of 2s., without satisfac- 
torily accounting for that possession ; 
and to steal , or destroy, or damage with 
intent to steal, any cultivated root or 
plant used for the food of man or beast, 
or for medicine or distilling, or dyeing, 
or for or in the course of manufacture, 



growing in any land, open or inclosed, 
not being a garden, orchard, or nursery- 
ground, is punishable upon summary 
conviction by fine, imprisonment with 
or without hard labour, and by public 
or private whipping, according to the 
nature of the offence. 

So, by section 42, to steal or destroy, 
or damage with intent to steal, any 
plant, root, fruit, or vegetable produc- 
tion, growing in any garden, orchard, 
nursery-ground, hot-house, or conser- 
vatory, is, for the first offence, punish- 
tfole, upon summary conviction, by im- 
prisonment with or without hard labour, 
not exceeding six months, or by fine, 
not exceeding 20Z. ; but the second of- 
fence is felony, punishable as simple 
larceny. 

Lastly, by section 44, to steal, or rip, 
cut, or break with intent to steal, any 
glass or wood-work belonging to any 
building whatsoever, or any lead, iron, 
copper, brass, or other metal, or any 
utensil or fixture, whether made of me- 
tal or other material, respectively fixed 
to any building, or anything made of 
metal fixed in any land, being private 
property, or for a fence to any dwelling- 
house, garden, or area, or in any square, 
street, or other place dedicated to pub- 
lic use or ornament, is felony, punish- 
able as simple larceny. 

Spring Guns and Man Traps. — These 
were formerly permitted by law to be 
set in woods, gardens, &c, without any 
restriction. Injuries the most severe, 
and even death, were inflicted by them, 
and the legislature, wisely considering 
that these punishments were visitations 
far too excessive for stealing, or intend- 
ing to steal fruit or game, passed the 
statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 18. This en- 
acts that any person who sets or places, 
or causes to be set or placed, any spring- 
gun, man-trap, or other engine calcu- 
lated to destroy human life, or inflict 
grievous bodily harm, with the intent 
or whereby the same may destroy or 
inflict grievous bodily harm upon a 
trespasser or other person coming in 
contact therewith, shall be guilty of a 
misdemeanor and punishable by fine or 
imprisonment, or both, at the discretion 
of the court. 

The act further provides that persons 
allowing such guns, traps, or engines 
already set to continue set, shall be 
deemed to have set them. 

But the Act does not extend to any gin 



LAW 



343 



LAW 



or trap set to destroy vermin; nor does 
it forbid the setting of spring-guns, man- 
traps, &c, in a dwelling-house, from 
sunset to sunrise. This would justify 
their being set in any green -house, 
conservatory, or hot-house, provided it 
communicated by a door, window or 
passage with the house in which the 
proprietor or his servants resided. 

Tithes Payable on Gardens. — Gardens 
and orchards are tithable by common 
law, and tithes in kind are due not only 
for all herbs, plants, fruits, and seeds 
usually grown in them, but for grass or 
grain grown therein. The insignificance 
of the herb makes no difference as to 
its liability, for even parsley is tithable. 
(Bunbury, 10.) Neither does it matter 
whether the produce be grown for sale 
or home consumption, {Williamson v. 
Lonsdale, 1 Daniel, 49.) Neither does 
the plants being raised for pleasure, or 
as exotic, at a great expense, and not 
by the natural powers of the soil and 
climate, make any difference. So all 
fruits and flowers are tithable, (Hetley, 
100,) and so are pine apples, melons, 
and other hot-house plants, because as 
was observed by Chief Baron Skinner, 
the tithe of gardens is prsedial. The 
notion of artificial heat and soil would 
exclude almost all the produce of gar- 
dens ; things raised under glasses are 
raised in an artificial soil, but must all 
be subject to the same rule. Inocula- 
tion, to be sure, is a work of art, but 
art and expense used will not make any 
difference. Baron Eyre added: "Hot- 
house plants are certainly not exempt. 
The general rule is clear, and the in- 
conveniences attending it are not great; 
mutual inconveniences will suggest mu- 
tual moderation. (Adams v. Waller, 
Gwillim, 1204.) Bees are tithable for 
their honey and wax by the tenth mea- 
sure and the tenth pound. It has been 
doubted whether the tenth swarm can 
be demanded, because bees are feres 
naturae, but bees in hives may pay tithe 
by the hive. (3 Croke, 404.) Nurseries 
of trees are tithable if the owner dig 
them up and sell them. (1 Coke, 5.26, 
&c.) 

Manures Exempt from Toll. — The 
statute 52 Geo. III. c. 145, works a 
general exemption, in favour of agri- 
culture, (and horticulture too, for the 
words of the statute are not restrictive 
to manures used on farms,) to wagons, 
carts, &c, loaded with manure, as well 



as those going empty. — Rex. v. Adams, 
6M. &S. 52. 

Also, the statute 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, 
s. 32, enacts that no toll shall be taken 
for any horse or other cattle or carriage, 
employed in carrying or having been 
employed in carrying on the same day 
any dung, soil, compost, or manure for 
improving lands. The word " manure" 
includes bone-dust, and, it seems, 
bones before they are crushed. Pratt 
v. Brown, 8 Car. & P. 244. But the 
statute 4 Geo. IV. c. 95, s. 23, declares 
that nothing in the 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, 
shall work any such exemption to ma- 
nure, &c, if a toll is expressedly im- 
posed upon such matters by any local 
Act or Acts. 

Where wagons, &c, laden with 
manure are exempt from toll, such 
wagons, &c, in going for it shall be 
exempted also. — 3 Geo. IV. c. 126. s. 
26. But in the latter case the driver, 
upon receiving a ticket, shall pay the 
toll, to be repaid when he returns with ' 
his wagon, &c, laden. Section 28, 
also, provides that any basket, empty 
sack, or spade, &c, necessary for load- 
ing, if the loading is substantially ma- 
nure for land, shall not render the wagon 
&c., liable to toll. So, a wagon re- 
turning from London loaded with dung 
is not liable to be weighed and charged 
for over-weight, under 13 Geo. III. c. 
84, or 14 Geo. III. c. 82, by carrying 
home two empty bottles and an empty 
sack, in which the produce of husbandry 
had been brought from /the country the 
same day. — Chambers v. Eaves, 2 Camp. 
393. 

Lime has been adjudged not exempt 
from toll, although the words of the 
Act were "anything whatsoever used 
in the manuring of land," (Rex v. 
Gough, 2 Chit. 655,) nor yet within the 
exception of the Turnpike Act, 31 Geo. 
II.— (Anon. Lofft. 324.) Lime, how- 
ever, is sometimes exempted, as by the 
local Act 3 &4 Vict. c. 51. 

LAWN is a surface of turf in the 
vicinity of the house, requiring to be 
kept smooth by the regular application 
of the roller and scythe. When first 
constructed, after the ground has been 
dug over as level as may be, it must be 
rolled, the hollows filled up, and this 
repeated until a level surface of earth 
is obtained. It must then be slightly 
pointed over with a fork, and the turf 
laid, or the grass seed sown. See 



LAW 



344 

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LEA 



Turfing. If seed be employed, the fol- | to compel the returning sap to organize 
lowing is a good selection, and in the itself externally as roots, instead of 
requisite proportions for an acre. The : passing downwards below the bark as 
best season for sowing is during moist j wood. The bending back is to assist 
weather in March. ! in this object by preventing the expend- 

On 1 acre of new lawn, sow the fol- j iture of sap in the formation or rather 
lowing grass seeds: Festuca durius- completion of leaves, and the silver 
cula, 4i lbs. ; Avena flavescens, 1* lb. ; j sand is to secure the drainage so neces- 
Lollium perenne, 30 lbs.; Poa nemoralis , i sary to cuttings. 

3 lbs. ; P. sempervivens, 2 lbs. ; P. tri- « In most cases, this is sufficient ; but 
vialis, 2i lbs.; Trifolium repens, 11 I it must be obvious, that the exact man- 
lbs., and T. minus, 3 lbs. This is a [ ner in which the layering is effected is 
sufficient quantity to cover the ground : unimportant, and that it may be varied 
closely in a short time. according to circumstances. Thus, Mr, 

In very dry weather all lawns should j James Munro describes a successful 
be watered, and if a little guano and : method of layering brittle-branched 
muriate oflime be dissolved in the water plants by simply slitting the shoot at 



it will keep the surface gently moist 
even in dry weather. 

A good kind of grass for improving a 
lawn, is Crested Dogstail ; it may be 



the bend, and inserting a stone at that 
place ; {Gardener's Magazine, ix. 302 ;) 
and Mr. Knight found that, in cases of 
difficult rooting, the process is facili- 



sown in March. Bush-harrow the lawn ! tated by ringing the shoot just below 
in order to stir up the soil a little for j the tongue about midsummer when the 
the seed, which should be sown broad- : leaves upon th^ layers had acquired their 



full growth; (Hort. Trans, i. 256;) by 
which means he prevented the passage 
of the returning sap further downwards 
than the point intended for the emission 
of roots. It will sometimes happen that 
a branch of a plant cannot be conve- 
niently bent downwards into the earth ; 
in such cases, the Fig. 97. 

earth may be ele- 
vated to the branch by 
various contrivances, 
as is commonly done 



cast when the ground is damp, passing 
a garden roller over it when the ground 
becomes sufficiently drv. — Gard. Chron. 

LAWN RAKE, See article Turf. 

LAWSONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

LAXMANNIA gracile. Green- 
house herbaceous. Division. Loam 
and peat. 

LAYER. The following excellent 
combination of practice and science is 

from Dr. Lindley's Theory of Horticul- \ by the Chinese. When 
ture : — this is done, no other 

" A layer is a branch bent into the i care is necessary than 
earth, and half cut through at the bend, ! that required for lay- 
the free portion of the wound being I ers, except to keep 
called ' a tongue.' It is, in fact, a cut- the earth surrounding 
ting only partially separated from its | the branch steadily 
parent. The object of the gardener is [ moist." See Fig. 97. 
to induce the layer to emit roots into j LEADWORT. 
the earth at the tongue. With this 
view he twists the shoot half round, so 
as to injure the wood-vessels ; he heads 
it back, so that only a bud or two ap- 
pears above ground, and when much 
nicety is requisite, he places a handful 




Plumbago. 

LEATHERWOOD. 
Dirca. 

LEAVES are highly vascular organs, 
in which are performed some of the 
most important functions of a plant. 



of silver sand round the tongued part ; | They are very general, but not ab- 
then pressing the earth down with his ! solutely necessary organs, since the 
foot, so as to secure the layer, he leaves branches sometimes perform their of- 
it without further care. The intention fices. Such plants, however, as na- 
ofboth tongueingand twisting is to pre- ; turally possess them, are destroyed or 
vent the return of sap from the layer ! greatly injured by being deprived of 
into the main stem, while a small quan- j them. 

tity is allowed to rise out of the latter j The duration of a leaf is in general 
into the former j the effect of this being ■ but for a year, though in some plants 



LEA 



345 

— • — 



LEA 



they survive for twice or thrice that 
period. These organs are generally of 
a green colour. Light seems to have 
a powerful influence in causing this, 
since if kept in the dark they become 
of a pale yellow or even white hue, un- 
less uncombined hydrogen is present, 
in which case they retain their verdure 
though light be absent. Hence their 
etiolation would seem to arise from 
their being unable to obtain this gas 
under ordinary circumstances, except 
when light is present. Now the only 
source from which they can obtain hy- 
drogen, is by deoomposing water; and 
how light assists in the decomposition, 
may perhaps be explained by the dis- 
oxygenizing power with which it is 
gifted. The violet rays of the spectrum 
have this power in the greatest degree ; 
and Sennebier has ascertained by ex- 
periment, that those rays have the 
greatest influence in producing the 
green colour of plants. 

When leaves are of any other hue 
than green, they are said to be coloured. 
This variegation is often considered to 
be a symptom either of tenderness or 
debility, and it is certain, when the 
leaves of a plant become generally 
white that that individual is seldom 
long-lived. Mr. Knight, however, has 
demonstrated that variegation is not a 
certain indication of a deficiency of 
hardihood. 

The function of the leaves appear to 
be a combination of those of the lungs 
and stomach of animals ; they not only 
modify the food brought to them from 
the roots, so as to fit it for increasing 
the size of the parent plant, but they 
also absorb nourishment from the atmo- 
sphere. The sap, after elaboration in 
these organs, differs in every plant, 
though as far as experiments have been 
tried, it appears to be nearly the same 
in all vegetables when it first arrives to 
them. The power of a leaf to generate 
sap is in proportion to its area of sur- 
face, exposure to the light, and conge- 
nial situation. 

Evergreens transpire less moisture 
than deciduous plants, which would 
lead to the expectation that they are 
more capable of living in dry situations, 
which in general is really the case. 
The matter transpired by a healthy 
plant is nearly pure water, 5.000 grains 
of it never containing more than one 
grain of solid matter, and this is consti- 



tuted of resinous and gummy matter, 
with carbonate and sulphate of lime. 
It appears to be nearly the same in all 
plants. The quantity varies, however, 
in every species, probably in every in- 
dividual, and is greatly influenced by 
the quantity of water applied to the 
roots. 

The transpiration of plants decreases 
with that of the temperature to which 
they are exposed, as well as with the 
period of their growth. This explains 
why the gardener finds that his plants 
do not require so much water in cold 
weather, nor during the time that 
elapses between the fall of their blos- 
soms and the ripening of their seed. 
During this period they do not transpire 
more than one-half so much as during 
the period preceding and attending upon 
their blooming. 

The transpiration takes place from 
the upper surface of the leaves ; and 
if these gradually decay and fall, the 
growth of the plant ceases until fresh 
leaves are produced. Hence arises the 
benefit which plants derive in rooms, 
greenhouses, and other confined in- 
cisures, from keeping those surfaces 
cleansed with the sponge and syringe. 
Some plants are particularly sensitive 
to injury from any check to their tran- 
spiration, among which are the tea- 
scented roses ; and it thence arises that 
they cannot now be cultivated in nur- 
sery-gardens near London, where they 
once flourished when that metropolis 
was less extensive. 

It must be remembered, however, in 
using the sponge and syringe, that the 
under side of leaves is an absorbing 
surface, benefited by being kept clean, 
and by the application of moisture. 
The kidney bean, sunflower, cabbage 
and spinach, absorb moisture equally 
by their under and upper surfaces ; the 
cockscomb, purple-leaved amaranth, 
heliotrope, lilac, and balm, absorb most 
freely by their upper surfaces ; and the 
vine, pear, cherry, apricot, walnut, 
mulberry, and rose, absorb most by 
their under surfaces. 

The transpiration from the leaves of 
plants is effected through pores or stro- 
mates, varying in number and size in 
every species, but being usually either 
largest or most numerous in plants in- 
habiting moist or shady localities. This 
is a wise provision, for such plants, con- 
sequently, have an abundant supply of 



LEA 



346 

— ♦— 



LEE 



moist food to their roots, requiring a 
competent provision for its elaboration 
and reduction from superfluous water. 
Those plants which are natives of sandy 
exposed soils, have, on the other hand, 
either fewer or smaller stromates. 

The drier the air the greater is the 
amount of moisture transpired ; and 
this becomes so excessive, if it be also 
promoted by a high temperature, that 
plants in hot-houses, where it has oc- 
curred, often dry up as if burned. The 
justly lamented Mr. Daniell has well 
illustrated this, by showing that if the 
temperature of a hot-house be raised 
only five degrees, viz., from 75o to 80°, 
whilst the air within it retains the same 
degree of moisture, a plant that in the 
lower temperature exhaled 57 grains of 
moisture, would in the higher tempera- 
ture exhale 120 grains in the same 
space of time. Plants, however, like 
animals, can bear a higher tempera- 
ture in dry air than they can in air 
.charged with vapour ; animals are scald- 
ed in the latter, if the temperature is 
very elevated, and plants die under 
similar circumstances as if boiled. MM. 
Edwards and Collin found kidney beans 



in which they are vegetating, though 
one twenty-fifth is a still more favour- 
able proportion ; and as hot-beds, heated 
by fermenting matters, rapidly have the 
air within their frames contaminated to 
a much greater extent than the propor- 
tions above named, thence arises the 
injury to the plants they contain from a 
too long neglected ventilation. The 
leaves turn yellow from the excess of 
acid, which they are unable to digest, 
and which consequently effects that 
change of colour which also occurs in 
autumn, and which will be more fully 
considered when the decay of plants ia 
detailed. 

Whatever promotes an over-luxuriant 
production ofleaf-buds, proportionately 
diminishes the production of flower- 
buds, and the reason is obvious. A 
luxuriant foliage is ever attendant upon 
an over-abundant supply of moist nou- 
rishment to the roots, the consequent 
amount of sap generated is large, re- 
quiring a proportionately increased sur- 
face of leaf for its elaboration, and 
for the transpiration of the superfluous 
moisture; and as the bud becomes a 
branch or a root accordingly as circum- 



sustained no injury when the air was stances require, so does it produce, as 



dry at a temperature of 167o, but they 
died in a few minutes if the air was 
moist. 

Other plants under similar circum- 
stances would perish, probably, at a 
much lower temperature ; and the fact 
affords a warning to the gardener to 
have the atmosphere in his stoves very 
dry, whenever he wishes to elevate 
their temperature for the destruction of 
insects, or other purposes. Leaves have 
the power of absorbing moisture as 
well as of emitting it, which power of 
absorption they principally enjoy during 
the night. 

During the day leaves also absorb 
carbonic acid gas, which they decom- 
pose, retaining its carbon and emitting 
the greatest part of the oxygen that 
enters into its composition. In the 
night this operation is in a certain mea- 
sure reversed, a small quantity of oxygen 
being absorbed from the atmosphere, 



ay be necessary for the plant's health, 
either leaves or flowers. — Principles of 
Gardening. 

LEBECKIA. Six species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Seeds and 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

LEBRETONIA. Pavonia. 

LECHENAULTIA. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

LECYTHIS. Six species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. San- 
dy loam. 

LEDON GUM. Cistus ledon. 

LEDUM. Three species. Hardy 
evergreen shrubs. Layers. Bog earth. 

LEE-CHEE. Euphoria lichi. 

LEEK. Allium porrum. The Leek 
is a hardy biennial, for although it at- 
tains perfection in size and for culinary 
purposes the first year, it does not run 
to seed until the second, the perfecting 



and a yet smaller proportion of car- \ of which it also often survives. 



bonic acid emitted. 

Carbonic acid gas in small propor- 
tions is essential to the existence of 
leaves, yet it only benefits them when 



The whole plant is eaten, being em- 
ployed in soups, &c, and is by some 
persons boiled and eaten with meat. 

Varieties. — There are four varieties : 



present in quantities not exceeding one the Musselburgh, and the large London 
twelfth of the bulk of the atmosphere j Leek, which are by far the best; the 



LEI 



347 



LEO 



Scotch or Flag, which is larger and 
hardier; and the Flanders. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — It is 
raised solely from seed, which may be 
sown at any time during the spring. 

These sowings are performed in ge- 
neral broadcast and raked in, though 
some gardeners employ drills, the plants 
to remain after thinning; the Leek, 
however, is so much benefitted by 
transplanting as obviously to point out 
the error of this practice. 

Cultivation. — When the plants are 
three or four inches in height, in eight 
or ten weeks after sowing, they must 
be weeded, hoed, and thinned, where 
growing too close, to two or three inch- 
es apart ; water also being given, in 
dry weather, will, with the above treat- 
ment, strengthen and forward them for 
transplanting in another month, or 
when six or eight inches high. They 
must be taken away regularly from the 
seed bed ; the ground being well wa- 
tered previously, if not soft and easily 
yielding. When thinned out they may 
be left to remain in the seed bed six 
inches asunder, as they do not grow so 
large as the transplanted ones, which 
must be set by the dibble in rows ten 
inches apart, and eight in the lines, 
being inserted nearly down to the 
leaves, that the neck, by being covered 
with the earth, may be blanched ; wa- 
ter in abundance must be given at the 
time of planting, and the long weak 
leaves shortened, but the roots left as 
uninjured as possible. The bed is hoed 
over occasionally with advantage, as 
well to kill the weeds as to loosen the 
soil. By this treatment, and by cutting 
off the tops of the leaves about once a 
month, as new ones are produced, the 
neck swells to a much larger size. The 
several sowings above directed will 
yield a supply from August until the 
following May, when they advance to 
seed. A portion should be always 
taken up and laid in sand previous to 
the ground being locked up by contin- 
ued frost, but they will not keep many 
days in this situation. 

LEIANTHUS Nigrescens. Green- 
house biennial. Seed. Light rich loam. 

LEIMANTHIUM. Three species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Wet peat 
soil. 

LEMA asparagi. The Asparagus 
Beetle, by some naturalists called Cri- 



oceris asparagi is thus described by Mr. 
Curtis : — 

"The larva? which abound from June 
to September, not only eat off all the 
leaves, but even gnaw the rind from the 
stem of the plants. 

" The eggs are oval, and fixed on 
the plants by one of their ends, one 
being sometimes attached to the end 
of another. The larvae are hatched in 
a little time; they are short, thick, and 
fleshy, covered with hairs, wrinkled, 
ash-coloured, with black head and legs ; 
they move very slowly, and when 
alarmed emit a blackish fluid from 
their mouth. 

« When full grown, the larva? go in- 
to the ground, where they contract a 
thick cocoon, in which they assume the 
pupa state. In a short time the per- 
fect insect appears. It is about a quar- 
ter of an inch long, of a blue black 
colour, with cream coloured or yellow 
spots on the wing cases, and a red 
thorax. To lessen the ravages of the 
insect, little more can be done than to 
collect them by hand-picking or by 
shaking them into a net. As many 
beetles, however, may be found at the 
time the Asparagus is cut, we recom- 
mend that all these should be destroyed 
before they have an opportunity of de- 
positing their eggs." — Gard. Chron. 

LEONOTIS. Four species. L. in- 
termedia is a stove evergreen shrub; 
and two are stove annuals, requiring 
the usual treatment of tender annuals. 
Cuttings or seed. Loam and peat. L. 
leonurus is a green-house evergreen 
shrub, requiring the following treat- 
ment : — 

" Strike from cuttings in May ; keep 
in a forty-eight pot during the winter ; 
in the beginning of April put into a pot 
thirteen inches in diameter, and place 
in a forcing frame kept at a tempera- 
ture varying from 75° to 50° ; here re- 
main for about seven weeks, when 
remove to the green-house. 

" After the end of June, force as 
much as possible by keeping the house 
shut up during the day, so as to con- 
centrate all the heat which can be 
obtained from the sun, but no fire light- 
ed except during cold nights in Sep- 
tember and October; 120° is not too 
great for it, provided it has plenty of 
water ; never suffer the surface of the 
earth to become dry, and generally 
keep about an inch of water in the 



LEO 



348 
— ♦ — 



LET 



pan. The quantity required in hot 
weather, nearly three gallons daily." — 
Gard. Chron. 

LEONITOPODIUM helveticum. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed or division. 
Peat. 

LEONURUS. Eight species, besides 
varieties. Hardy perennials, biennials, 
and annuals. Seed. Common soil. 

LEOPARD'S BANE. Doronicum. 

LEPANTHES. Two species. Stove 
epiphytes. Offsets. Damp moss under 
a bell glass. 

LEPECHINIA. Two species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

LEPIDAGATHIS cristata. Stove 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Sandy rich 
loam. 

LEPIDIUM sativum. See Cress. 

LEPTANDRA. Two species. Har- 
dy herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

LEPTANTHUS gramineus. Hardy 
aquatic. Offsets. Wet peat. 

LEPTODERMIS lanceolata. Green- 
house shrub. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

LEPTOMERIA. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

LEPTOSIPHON. Fivespecies. 
Hardy annuals. Seed. Peat. Sow in 
autumn and in early spring. 

LEPTOSPERMUM. Twenty-three 
species. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings and seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

LEPTOSTELMA maximum. Half- 
hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
Light rich loam. 

LEPTOTES bicolor. Stove epiphyte. 
Division. Moss and potsherds. 

LESPEDEZA. Twelve species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous, shrubby, and 
annual plants. L. cryocarpa is a green- 
house evergreen shrub, and L. glome- 
rata a stove twiner. Annuals sow in 
sheltered peat. Shrubs by cuttings, 
and herbaceous by division. In sandy 
peat. 

LESSERTIA. Nine species. Green- 
house anuuals, herbaceous and shrubby 
plants. Seed or cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

LETHRUS cephalotes. A beetle 
preying upon the vine by gnawing off 
its young shoots. It is common in Hun- 
gary, but I do not know that it has been 
observed in England. 

LETTSOMIA tomentosa. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 



LETTUCE. Lactuca sativa. 

" The Lettuce is a hardy annual, 
introduced or cultivated in England 
since 1562, but from what country is 
unknown. The use of Lettuce, as a 
cooling and agreeable salad, is well 
known ; it is also a useful ingredient in 
soups. It contains, like the other spe- 
cies of this genus, a quantity of opium 
juice, of a milky nature, from which, of 
late years, medicine has been prepared, 
under the title of Lactucarium, and 
which can be administered with effect 
in cases where opium is inadmissible. 

" The varieties are very numerous. 
Those herein enumerated have been 
selected from the many which have 
come under our observation, and will 
be found to suit the various seasons of 
the year. Some varieties celebrated in 
Europe, are of little value here, soon 
shooting to seed under our hot sun. 

"The Early Cabbage Lettuce is the 
earliest; it produces a moderately sized 
and very firm head and is known among 
the Philadelphia market gardeners as 
the c butter salad.' 

" The Royal Cabbage Lettuce is a 
very large variety, dark green, with 
firm head, and withstands the sun bet- 
ter than the preceding variety, not 
rapidly shooting to seed. 

" The Palestine is a curiously spot- 
ted variety, produces a firm head, and of 
fair size. 

" The India is a very fine kind, pro- 
duces large hard heads, leaves wrinkled, 
stands the sun remarkably well. 

" The Philadelphia Cabbage re- 
sembles the " Royal," and is in all re- 
spects a desirable variety. 

" The Early Curled does not head ; 
is used principally as " cut salad." 

" The Cos, of which there are several 
varieties, produce conical formed heads, 
very succulent and crisp; soon run to 
seed ; should therefore be planted early 
in the spring. 

" The Brown Dutch somewhat re- 
sembles the early cabbage, the leaves 
tinged with brown. 

" Lettuce delights in a deep, rich soil, 
not too heavy or humid. For early 
spring use sow about the middle of au- 
tumn, in some sheltered situation, as 
the plants, or a portion of them, are to 
remain there during the winter, lightly 
covered with straw or cedar brush to 
protect them from extreme cold. Near 
the close of autumn a planting may be 






LET 



349 



LIB 



made, as directed for " Early York 
Cabbage," when intended to stand the 
winter, (which see,) or they may be 
planted with the cabbage alternately. 
Early Cabbage, Brown Dutch and Pa- 
lestine are better suited for planting at 
this season. 

" Part of those which remain in the 
seed-bed during the winter, should be 
transplanted as early in the spring as 
the ground admits of being worked. 
The remainder may be set out subse- 
quently, which will ensure a more re- 
gular supply. To secure an uninter- 
rupted succession, frequent sowings 
should be made during the early part of 
summer, thus : — have the ground deep- 
ly dug and raked fine ; stretch a line to 
the extent intended to be planted, 
along which drop the seed thinly, and 
rake it in. When the plants are an 
inch or two in height, thin them to a 
foot apart, and give frequent hoeings, 
which will facilitate their growth. 

In the earlier sowings those thinned 
out may be transplanted, and will pro- 
duce good heads; but when the wea- 
ther has become warm and dry they 
will not succeed well ;• it is therefore 
better to sow over as much ground as 
will produce the quantity required. For 
the earlier sowings all varieties will an- 
swer; for the latter ones when the sea- 
son is advanced and the heat greater, 
the India and Royal Cabbage are better 
sorts. 

"During the heat ofsummer the heads 
will be but poor, unless the season be 
very cool and humid. Sown about the 
close of summer and early in autumn, 
they will do well, as the weather will 
have become cool before they reach 
maturity. When sown in autumn for 
spring heading, it is advisable to take 
some of the earliest and latest. 

" Very good Lettuce may be had in 
the early part of winter, if planted about 
the middle of autumn, in frames in a 
sheitered situation, covering the frames 
with glass or boards, when the weather 
becomes cool ; in mild weather, giving 
plenty of air; where boards are used 
removing them to admit light." — Rural 
Reg. 

To obtain Seed. — To produce seed 
some of the finest and most perfect 
plants of each variety that have sur- 
vived the winter, or from the forwardest 
sowing of the year, should be selected. 
The seed from any that have run up 



prematurely, cannot be depended upon. 
All other plants must be removed from 
their neighbourhood, themselves being 
left at least a foot apart ; neither is it 
allowable for two varieties to flower 
near each other, or only mongrel varie- 
ties will be obtained. Each stem is ad- 
vantageously attached to a stake as a 
support in tempestuous weather. It is 
to be observed, that the branches must 
be gathered as the seed ripens upon 
them, and not left until the whole is 
ready, as some will ripen two or three 
weeks before others, and consequently, 
the first and best seed will be shed and 
lost. It must be particularly well dried 
before it is beaten out and stored. 

Lettuce seed is considered to be best 
the second year ; but when three years 
old, it refuses to vegetate. 

LETTUCE FLY. See Anthomyia. 

LEUCADENDRON. Thirty-nine 
species. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
Ripe cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

LEUCOCORYNE. Three species. 
Half-hardy bulbs. Seed and offsets. 
Sandy loam. 

LEUCOJUM. Snow-flake. Three spe- 
cies. Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Sandvloam. 

LEUCOPOGON. Fifteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

LEUCOSPERNUM. Fifteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings. Sandy turfy loam. They re- 
quire much watering. 

LEUCOSTEMMA vestitum. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat, 
and sandy loam. 

LEUZEA. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
mon soil. 

LEWISL\ rediviva. Hardy herba- 
ceous. Division and seed. Sandy 
loam and chalk. 

LEYCESTRIA/omoset. Hardy ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings and seed. Sandy 
loam. 

LEYSSERA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
and sandy loam. 

LIATRIS. Twenty species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Sandy loam and 
peat. Take up and give the shelter of 
a frame during winter. 

LIBANOTIS athamantoides. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed. Calcareous sandy 
loam. 

LIBERTIA formosa. Half-hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Loam and peat. 



LIC 



350 



LIL 



LICHTENSTEINIA. Two species. 
Green-house herbaceous. Seed. Sandy 
loam. 

LICUALA. Two species. Stove 
palms. Seed. Sandy loam. 

LIDBECKIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat, 
and a little loam. 

LIGATURES, twisted very tightly 
round the small branches of trees, and 
the stems of plants, to check the return 
of their sap, and thus promote their 
fruitfulness, and the size of the fruit, 
are much to be preferred to ringing, or 
other removals of the bark, which cause 
wounds and canker. Ligatures should 
be removed as soon as the fruit is rip- 
ened. 

LIGHT has a powerful influence over 
the health and life of a plant, from the 
moment its leaves pierce through the 
surface of the soil. If absent, they be- 
come yellow, or even white, unless 
uncombined hydrogen be present, in 
which case they retain their verdure. 

Sir H. Davy excluded a cos lettuce 
from the light. In six days it was ren- 
dered very pale, and at the end of an- 
other week it was quite white ; the 
growth of the plant was checked, and 
the analysis of its leaves showed that 
they contained more carbonic acid and 
water, but less hydrogen and residual 
carbon than an equal weight of green 
leaves. 

It deserves notice that it has been 
proved by the experiments of Dr. Hope 
and others, that light from artificial 
sources may be concentrated so as to 
enable plants to absorb oxygen, and 
perfect those elaborations on which 
their green colour depends ; and the 
light of the moon has a similar influence. 

A similar concentrated light will 
make the Pimpernel and other flowers, 
which close until sunrise, open their 
petals, and rouse from their rest; a 
fact, which gives another reason why 
plants in rooms frequented at night be- 
come weak and exhausted sooner than 
those which then remain, as nature dic- 
tates, unexcited by light. 

A deficiency of light decreases the 
decomposing power of the leaves. For 
this reason the best glass should al- 
ways be employed in the sashes of 
the hot-house, conservatory, and other 
structures of the forcing department. 
But the benefit sought for is frustrated, 
if that glass be not constantly well 



cleansed. The best glass, if dirty, al- 
lows fewer rays of light to pass through 
than inferior glass if kept bright. 

Solar light is essential to the ripening 
of all fruit ; it will not ripen in the dark ; 
and the greater the light's intensity 
and the longer its daily endurance, the 
sweeter and the higher is the fruit's 
flavour. No fruits are so luscious as 
those grown within the tropics, and 
the fruits of the temperate zone are ex- 
cellent in proportion to the brightness 
of its seasons. That light is essential 
in causing the colour of the leaves and 
other parts of plants, has been noticed 
already ; and it aids the ripening pro- 
cess of fruit in a similar manner, to 
convert their acid and mucilaginous 
constituents into sugar : much carbon 
and hydrogen have to be got rid of; 
and this is effected, if light be admitted, 
by the evolution of carbonic acid and 
watery vapour. How light operates in 
promoting this and other decomposi- 
tions, which are effected by the vege- 
table organs, is at present a mystery ; 
but so it is; and the gardener promotes 
its access as much as lies Avithin his 
power, by removing overshadowing 
leaves, by employing the best glass in 
his hot-houses, and by having their in- 
terior whitened ; for white surfaces re- 
flect all the rays of light back upon the 
objects those surfaces inclose. 

Almost every flower has a particular 
degree of light requisite for its full ex- 
pansion. The blossoms of the pea, 
and other papilionaceous plants, spread 
out their wings in fine weather to admit 
the solar rays, and again close them at 
the approach of night. Plants requiring 
powerful stimulants, do not expand their 
flowers until noon ; whilst some would 
be destroyed if compelled to open in 
the meridian sun. Of such is the night- 
blooming cereus, the flowers of which 
speedily droop, even if exposed to the 
blaze of light attendant on Indian fes- 
tivities. — Trine, of Gardening. 

LIGHTFOOTIA. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Loam and peat. 

LIGUSTRUM. Privet. Three spe- 
cies, and more varieties of L. vulgare. 
Hardy evergreen and deciduous shrubs. 
Cuttings. Common soil. The evergreen 
varieties of L. vulgare make a good 
fence. See Hedges. 

LILACS. Syringa vulgaris and 
Persica. Of these very hardy shrubs 



LIL 



351 

— ♦— 



LIL 



there are many varieties; the white, 
red, and blue-flowered; and of the 
Persica, also the parsley-leafed and the 
sage-leafed. They may be raised from 
suckers, layers, cuttings, and seed; the 
sowing and planting may be made dur- 
ing the autumn in any common soil. 

LILIUM. Lily. Thirty-five species, 
including the common white lily (L. can- 
didum), martagon (L. martagon), tiger 
(L. tigrinum), orange (L. aurantium), 
bulb-bearing (L. bulbiferum), and their 
varieties. Besides those already men- 
tioned, the following are especially 
worthy of cultivation : — 

Bronsiartii. 

longiflorum. 

Eximium. 

Japonicum longiflorum. 

Lancifolium album. 

punctatum. 

roseum. 

Orange. 

Speciosum rubrum. 

Superbum pyramidalis. 

Venustum. 

With the exception of L. eximium, 
which is a green-house bulb, all the 
others are hardy. 

Out-door Culture. — The proper time 
for planting and transplanting them is 
in autumn, when their flowers and stalks 
decay, which is generally in August and 
September, the roots being then at rest 
for a short space of time, though the bulbs 
taken up at the above season of rest, may 
be kept out of ground if necessary, till 
October or November; the white lilies, 
however, do not succeed, if kept long 
out of the earth; and all the others 
succeed best when planted again as 
soon as possible. Plant them four or 
five inches deep, and at good distances 
from one another. 

None of the sorts require any par- 
ticular culture, for they will endure all 
weathers, so no more is necessary than 
destroying weeds among their stems by 
the hoe, and supporting with sticks. 

They may all remain undisturbed two 
or three years, or longer; nor, indeed, 
is it proper to remove these sorts of 
bulbs oftener, for by remaining, they 
flower stronger after the first year. It 
is, however, proper to take up the bulbs 
entirely every three or four years. 

Propagation. — By Offsets. — All the 
sorts of these roots yield offsets abund- 
antly every year, which, when greatly 
wanted, may be taken off annually, in 



autumn ; otherwise once in two or three 
years. 

The small offsets should then be 
planted in beds a foot asunder, and 
three deep, to remain a year or two ; 
and the large bulbs should be planted 
again in the borders, &c, singly. 

By Seed. — This is sometimes prac- 
tised, but more particularly for the 
martagons, to obtain more varieties. In 
antumn, soon after the seed is ripe, sow 
it in pots or boxes of rich light earth, 
half an inch deep; place the pots in a 
sheltered situation all winter, and the 
plant will appear in the spring ; in April, 
remove the pots to have only the morn- 
ing sun all the summer, giving moderate 
waterings ; in August, transplant the 
bulbs into nursery-beds in flat drills an 
inch deep, and three or four asunder; 
but, as the bulbs will be very small, 
scatter the earth and bulbs together in 
the drills, and cover them with earth 
the above depth ; and having grown here 
till August or September following, 
transplant into another bed, placing 
them eight or nine inches each way 
asunder, here to remain to show their 
first flowers, then transplant them finally. 
— Abercrombie. 

Pot-Culture. — The following excel- 
lent directions, though applicable es- 
pecially to L. speciosum or lancifolium, 
are also applicable to others of this 
genus. They are the practical directions 
of Mr. Groom, the well-known florist, 
of Walworth, near London. He says: — 

" To cultivate Lilia in the greatest 
perfection, they should be removed as 
rarely as possible, and only when the 
bulbs become too close ; for disturbing 
them is most injurious to their growth 
and flowering." 

Bulbs from Stems. — To obtain these 
from L. speciosum, and the practice 
would, perhaps, succeed with several 
others, Mr. Groom placed pieces of 
turfy peat round the stem, with room 
for finer peat to be placed next the 
plant; in this bulbs were very success- 
fully obtained. 

Potting. — " Grow them in pots of 
large size, having plenty of drainage, 
and use peat only, with a little fine sand 
for the soil. One great point is to keep 
the bulbs, particularly the largest, at a 
sufficient depth, to allow room for the 
stem-fibres to grow freely. When they 
require repotting, which should only be 
performed whilst the bulbs are dormant, 



LIL 



352 

— • — 



LIM 



they should be turned out of the old 
pots, and the crocks should be carefully 
removed, so as to avoid injuring the 
fibres, or even shaking off the earth ; 
the bulbs are then to be repotted in a 
larger-sized pot, in peat and sand, with 
good drainage. 

Raising Varieties. — Mr. Groom ob- 
serves, that "in hybridizing, care should 
be always taken to save seed from those 
flowers which have the best shape; for 
I believe the form of the future flower 
is much more dependent on the kind 
from which the seed is saved than upon 
that which furnishes the pollen; the 
pollen generally gives the colour. It is 
also highly desirable that the flower 
from which the pollen is taken should 
be darker than that producing the seed ; 
for I have found in such cases the seed- 
lings have been much more beautiful 
(being frequently spotted or striped), 
than where I have reversed the process. 
I have seen this occur in so marked a 
manner in the ranunculus, that I have 
adopted it as a principle, never to take 
pollen from a lighter coloured flower." 
— Gard. Chron. 

LILY. Lilium. 

LILY-HYACINTH. Scilla Lilia- 
hyacinthus. 

LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. Conval- 
laria majalis. 

Soil and Situation. — Clayey loam, 
near water, and where the noonday sun 
is intercepted by shade, suits it best. 

Propagation. — Mr. D. Watts com- 
municated a paper to the Regent's Park 
Gardeners' Society, in 1845, from which 
the following are extracts: — "Before 
planting, dig over and well break the 
ground about nine inches deep, then 
plant the roots about four inches apart, 
all over the surface of the ground, giv- 
ing them a gentle press down with the 
thumb and finger, and then cover them 
about four inches thick with the same 
sort of soil. On forming new plantations 
of this plant, I select all the flowering 
buds from my stock of roots, which I 
plant by themselves, but in the same 
way as I do the others. If equal quan- 
tities of each can be had, there will be 
equal quantities of flowers for two or 
three successive seasons, after which 
they should be all taken up, the roots 
divided, and replanted in the same way. 
At the time of replanting, it will be 
requisite to leave a sufficient quantity 



undisturbed, for the purpose of lifting, 
for forcing during the winter months. 

Forcing. — Pot them in thirty-two- 
sized pots, filled to within three and a 
half inches of the rim with rich loam, 
upon which the roots are closely placed, 
and then covered about two inches in 
thickness with equal parts of leaf mould 
and sand ; they are then well watered, 
so as to settle the mould about the roots ; 
place them on a shelf near the glass, in 
a moist stove, or forcing-house, the 
temperature of which may range from 
65° to 75°, and take care that the soil 
does not become dry. When they are 
so far advanced that the plants show 
their heads of flowers, remove them into 
a warm green-house, still placing them 
near the glass, until as they advance in 
growth they are withdrawn by degrees 
into a shaded part of the house, from 
whence they are removed to the draw- 
ing room as required, their places to be 
immediately filled with others, which 
are similarly treated, and thus an ample 
succession will be kept up. Care and 
attention are requisite in lifting and 
selecting the plants for forcing; they 
require a minute examination to dis- 
tinguish those that will flower from 
those that will not, the only difference 
being that the buds of the former are 
more round and short than those of the 
latter." — Florist's Journ. 

LILY-PINK. Aphyllanthes. 

LILY-THORN. Catesbea. 

LIME. Citras limonurn. 

LIME is valuable as a manure, for 
some one or more of its salts enter into 
the composition of every vegetable. 
But it is not the lime of every district 
that is suitable for the purpose. Some 
specimens contain a very large pro- 
portion of magnesia, which, absorbing 
carbonic acid very slowly, remains in a 
caustic state, to the injury of the roots 
of the plants, and the diminution of 
benefit from the carbonic acid evolved 
by the decomposing constituents of the 
soil. Neither can the gardener apply 
it to all his soils with advantage. Thus, 
peat and bog earth are beneficial to the 
plants grown upon them by their con- 
taining gallic and other acids which lime 
removes. 

To garden soil of the usual staple 
about fifty bushels of lime per acre is a 
sufficient quantity. If the soil be clayey 
the quantity may be doubled. A very 
excellent manure is formed by mixing 



LIM 



353 



LIP 



one bushel of salt with every two bush- 
els of lime. 

Lime cannot be applied to the soil 
too fresh from the kiln ; for if allowed 
to absorb carbonic acid from the air, it 
is rapidly converted into chalk. 

" It is astonishing how ignorantly 
neglectful are the cultivators of the 
soil, when their crops are devastated 
by the slug, not to dress them so as to 
render the surface of the soil quite 
white, during the promise of a few 
days' dry weather, with caustic lime. 
It is instant destruction to every slug 
it falls upon; and those that it misses 
are destroyed by their coming in con- 
tact with it when moving in search of 
food. 

" It is a common practice to burn 
couch-grass, docks, gorse, and other 
vegetables, which are very retentive 
of life, or slow in decay; a more une- 
conomical, unscientific method of re- 
ducing to a state beneficial to the land 
of which they were the refuse, cannot 
be devised. In breaking up heaths, 
such exuvaB are very abundant; but, in 
all cases, if the weeds, leaves, &c, 
were conveyed to a hole or pit, and, 
with every single horse-load, and with 
barrow-loads in proportion, a bushel of 
salt and a half bushel of lime were in- 
corporated, it would in a few months 
form a mass of decayed compost of the 
most fertilizing quality ; the lime re- 
taining many of the gases evolved dur- 
ing the putrefaction of the vegetable 
matter, and the salt combining with 
the lime to destroy noxious animals, 
which might form a nidus in the mass. 
By this plan nearly all the carbona- 
ceous matters of the refuse vegetables 
are retained ; by burning, nearly all of 
them are dissipated." — Principles of 
Gardening. 

Lime rubbish is the old mortar and 
plaster obtained when brick buildings 
are pulled down. It is an excellent 
manure, abounding with the salts of 
potash and lime. It should be reduced 
to powder before spreading and digging 
in. 

LIME, or LINDEN-TREE. Tilia. 
LIME-WATER. "As water can 
hold only a certain quantity of lime in 
solution, it is immaterial how much of 
that substance you mix with it. The 
mixture should be well stirred, and 
should be left until it has become clear, 
when it will be fit for use. The best 
23 



mode of proceeding is to take forty 
gallons of clean water, and, half an 
hour before using, put one peck of 
fresh-slacked lime into it. As soon as 
it is clear it is fit for use. 

" A watering-pot containing four gal- 
lons will water a bed of four feet by 
thirty feet, or rows of cauliflowers, 
cabbages, &c, of double the length." 
— Gard. Chron. 

LIMNANTHES Douglasii. Hardy 
annual trailer. Seed. Sandy loam and 
shady situation. 

LIMNOCHARIS. Two species. 
Stove perennial aquatics. Seed and 
runners. Water. 

LIMONIA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs, except L. scan- 
dens, which is a climber. Cuttings. 
Rich light loam and peat. 

LINANTHUS dichotonus. Hardy 
annual. Seed. Common soil. 

LINARIA. Seventy-five species. 
Hardy annual trailers, and herbaceous 
and evergreen shrubs, except L. fruc- 
ticans, and L. scoparia, which are 
green-house evergreen shrubs. Seed 
or cuttings. Sandy loam. 

LINCONIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy peat. 

LINDERNIA pyxidaria. Hardy an- 
nual. Seed. Common soil. 

LINDLEYA mespiloides. Half-har- 
dy evergreen shrub. Cuttings, and 
grafts on the common thorn and larger 
cotoneasters. Sandy loam, mixed with 
calcareous rubbish. 

LINDSiEA. Five species. Stove 
and green-house ferns. Division and 
seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

LINNiEA borealis. Hardy evergreen 
trailer. Division. Shaded peat soil. 

LINUM. Fifty-one species. Chiefly 
hardy herbaceous and annuals; a few 
green-house evergreen shrubs. Seed, 
division, and cuttings. Sandy loam 
and a little peat. 

LION'S-EAR. Leonatis. 

LION'S-FOOT. Leontopodium. 

LION'S-TAIL. Leonatis leonurus. 

LIPARIA sphcerica. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. Not too much 
water. 

LIPARIS. Fifteen species. Stove 
epiphytes and orchids. All propagated 
by offsets. Epiphytes in peat and pot- 
sherds ; terrestrial orchids in sandy peat 
and sandy loam. 



LIP 



354 



LIS 



LIPOSTOMA campanuliflora. Stove 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

LIPPIA. Two species. Stove. L. 
dulcis, herbaceous; L. purpurea, ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Rich light soil. 
L1QUIDAMBAR. Two species. 
Hardy deciduous trees. Seed arid cut- 
tings. Common soil. 

LIQUID-MANURE is the most ad- 
vantageous form in which fertilizers 
can be applied by the gardener to his 
crops. It is the most economical, most 
prompt, and most efficient mode. The 
manure is presented to the roots in one 
of the only forms in which the roots 
can imbibe food, and the manure 
spread regularly through the texture of 
the soil. If, instead of digging in sta- 
ble-manure, each crop was watered 
occasionally with liquid-manure, the 
produce would be finer and more 
abundant. 

My brother, Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, 
says, in his excellent work on "Fer- 
tilizers:" — 

" I have often employed with decided 
effect, in my own garden, for vines, 
peach, and standard apple-trees, liquid- 
manure, prepared either by mixing one 
part by weight of cow-dung with four 
parts of water, or the collected drain- 
age of the stable and cow-house. It 
has been found advantageous to plants 
cultivated in stoves to apply even a 
liquid-manure, composed of six quarts 
of soot to a hogshead of water; and al- 
though this is a very unchemical mix- 
ture, yet it has been found by Mr. 
Robertson to be peculiarly grateful and 
nourishing to pines, causing them to 
assume an unusually deep healthy 
green ; and, for stoved mulberry, vine, 
peach, and other plants, the late Mr. 
Knight, of Downton, employed a liquid- 
manure, composed of one part of the 
dung of domestic poultry and four to 
ten parts of water, with the most excel- 
lent result." — Johnson on Fertilizers. 

Guano Liquid Manure. — Ten gallons 
of water will readily dissolve, or keep 
suspended in a state of minute division, 
about 50 lbs. weight of guano. When 
applied to plants, not more than five 
ounces should be added to that quantity 
of water. If it be made stronger, it 
injures or kills the plants to which it is 
applied. 

Sheep" 1 s-dung, if employed for making 



liquid manure, should be a peck to thir- 
ty gallons. 

When cow-dung is used, boiling wa- 
ter should be first poured upon it, as it 
is apt to be full of destructive larva?. 

Sulphate of Ammonia, and any other 
salt of ammonia, must not be used more 
than a quarter of an ounce to each gal- 
lon. 

LIQUORICE. Glycyrrhiza glabra, 
is only admitted into the garden for its 
pharmaceutical properties. 

Soil and Situation. — It thrives best 
in a rich light soil, two or three feet 



deep, which should be trenched com- 
pletely to the bottom before planting. 
When manure is added, it should be 
regularly mixed throughout the texture 
of the soil. In shallow or poor ground 
it will not succeed : the situation can- 
not be too open. 

Time and Mode of Planting. — It is 
propagated by cuttings of the side-roots, 
which spring from the crown of the 
plants, and run horizontally just beneath 
the surface, which may be planted in 
January, February, or early in March. 
Each set should be about two inches 
beneath the surface. The only cultiva- 
tion they require is to be frequently 
hoed, to keep them clear of weeds 
throughout their growth ; and in autumn 
the decayed stalks to be cut down, and 
the earth stirred between the rows. 

The roots are not fit for use until of 
three or four years' growth. The sea- 
son for taking them up is December, 
January, or February. A trench must 
be dug regularly along each row, quite 
down to the extremity of the principal 
roots, which descend two feet and 
more. 

LIRIODENDRON tulipij 'era, and one 
variety L. T. obtus/folia. Hardy decidu- 
ous tree. Seed. Rich light loam. 

LISIANTHUS. Eight species. Stove 
plants, evergreen, herbaceous, and an- 
nual. Seed or cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

L. Russcllianus is a half-hardy bien- 
nial. Mr. Cuthill, of Denmark Hill, 
near London, is its most successful cul- 
tivator; and the directions given by 
him, with some other suggestions, arc 
as follow : — 

Sow the first week of March in a 
forty-eight pot. Fill the pot very firmly 
with a compost of loam, and leaf-mould 
or peat, in equal proportions, mixed 
with a little sand ; over the compost 



LIS 



355 



LO A 



put half an inch in depth of damp sand, 
and on this, being first pressed flat, the 
seed is to be sown, and covered with a 
little dry river-sand. Cover the top of 
the pot with a piece of glass, and keep 
in a temperature of 70°. Never water 
on the top, but keep in a pan con- 
stantly supplied with water. When the 
seedlings are three weeks old, prick 
out singly into sixties: the compost as 
before, with plenty of drainage. When 
established give water abundantly, both 
in the pans and over the foliage, and 
keep in a temperature of about 80°. 
In August top them at every joint, and 
six weeks after shift into forty-eights. 
Give water now only in pans — for the 
surface of the earth must be kept dry — 
once a fortnight in dry weather, else 
once a month ; and retain the plants 
through the winter in a temperature be- 
tween 50° and 60°. As February closes 
remove them to a temperature of about 
75°, moving them, as soon as vegeta- 
tion is renewed, into eights. They now 
require a high temperature, about 80° 
or 85°, abundance of water, and some 
liquid-manure. If kept in a pit during 
the winter, they must not at first, when 
moved into a house, be exposed to the 
sun's rays. They will bloom in July, 
and continue in flower two or three 
months, if supplied abundantly with 
water or liquid manure. Dryness of 
soil occasions a speedy fall of the blos- 
soms. — Johnson's Gardener's Almanack. 

LISSANTHE. Seven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings in spring. Sandy peat. Repot 
into larger pots before moving from 
green-house in summer. 

LISSOCHILUS roseus. Stove epi- 
phyte. Offsets. Peat and potsherds. 

LISTS, for fastening trees against 
walls, are usually merely shreds of 
woollen cloth cut into lengths varying 
from two to four inches. Strips of very 
thin sheet-lead are preferable as not 
harbouring insects; and, if there be 
any truth in electricity being beneficial 
to growing plants, lead thus employed 
should improve their growth ; for, with 
the nails, it forms a gentle galvanic 
battery. Wires and twine have been 
recommended to tie the branches to the 
walls; but the process is tedious, and 
cuts are inflicted, inducing gum and 
canker. Shreds of a black, blue, or red 
colour look best, harmonizing with that 
of the leaves. If old lists are re-em- 



ployed they should be previously boiled 
to destroy the larvse of insects. 

LITHOSPERMUM. Fifteen species. 
Chiefly hardy, herbaceous, and ever- 
green perennials. L. dispernum and L. 
tenuiflorum are annuals. L. distichum 
and L. scabrum are green-house herba- 
ceous. Seed or cuttings. Light calca- 
reous soil. 

LITTiEA geminiflora. Green-house 
evergreen perennial. Suckers. Sandy 
loam. 

LIVISTONIA. Two species. Stove 
palms. Seed. Sandy loam. 

LOAM is a very indefinite term: al- 
most every cultivator of the soil asso- 
ciates with it a different explanation. 
In some parts of England clay is so 
called, and in others* it is employed to 
designate brick-earth ! As usually em- 
ployed, it really is only synonymous 
with the word soil ; for it has to be 
qualified by the terms turfy, sandy, 
clayey, and chalky, just as turf, sand, 
clay, or chalk predominate. Then, 
what is hazel loam ? Why, no other 
than a rich friable soil, having a dark 
brown or hazel colour, owing to the 
predominance of decaying vegetable 
matters. Before long, we hope to see 
determined how much silica is to be 
understood as existing in a loam termed 
sandy, and how mnch alumina' in that 
which is correctly termed clayey. 

The following is the analysis of a 
hazel loam : — 

Silica and quartz sand . . 95.0 
» Alumina 3.0 

Vegetable matters . . . 5.0 

Oxide of iron 1.5 

Lime, soda, oxide of manganese 0.25 

Gypsum, phosphate of lime,) q 2 « 
and common salt . . ) 

Such a Joam is useful to render light 
soils more retentive, and heavy soils 
more porous; but, for this purpose, 
must be applied at the rate of 100 tons 
per acre. 

Maiden loam is soil taken from the 
surface of a pasture. 

LOASA. Nine species. Chiefly hardy 
and green-house annuals. L. incana is 
a green-house evergreen trailer. Seed. 
Light soil. L. placet is a dangerous 
stinging plant. Mr. Halliday, gardener 
at Elmham Hall, gives these directions 
for cultivating : — 

«L. lateritia. — Plants of this, saved 
from seeds sown in the spring, kept in 
pots during the summer, shifted twice 



LOA 



356 

— ♦— 



LOQ 



or oftener in the course of the autumn, 
so as to require a twenty-four sized pot 
about March, make good green-house 
plants for the same season. Planted 
out at the same time as other half- 
hardies, in a shaded situation, it also 
makes a good bed for the flower-garden 



putting a stiff, branchy pea-stake to j light soil. 



green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
peat. Little water. 

LOPHOSPERMUM. Three species. 
Half-hardy evergreen climbers. Cut- 
tings. Rich light loam. 

LOPIMIA malacophylla. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Young cuttings. Rich 



each plant for it to run upon. But it 
best unfolds its beauty upon a north 
wall, planted out in a rich, light soil, 
with four or more pieces of line to 
each plant for the shoots to climb." — 
Gard. Chron. 

LOAVING. See Heading. 

LOBELIA. Eighty-four species. 
Chiefly hardy and green-house herba- 
ceous plants. Some, however, are an- 
nual, and others require the heat of a 
stove. Herbaceous are propagated by 
division; shrubby by cuttings ; annuals 
by seed. Sandy loam and peat suit 
them all. 

LOBSTER-SHELLS. See Animal 
Matters. 

LOCUST-TREE. Hymencea. 

LODDIGESIA oxalidifolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

LOMATIA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand 
and peat. 

LONCHITES. Two species. Stove 
ferns. Division. Turfy loam and peat. 

LONCHOCARPUS. Nine species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Young cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

LONGCHAMPSIA capillifolia. 
Hardy annual. Seed. Common soil. 

LONDON-PRIDE. Saxifraga um- 
brosa. 

LONICERA. Honeysuckle. Eigh- 
teen species. Hardy deciduous shrubs 
and twiners. Cuttings in autumn. Com- 
mon soil. 

LOOKING-GLASS TREE. Heri- 
tiera. 

LOOSESTRIFE. Lysimachia. 

LOPEZIA. Six species. Hardy an- 
nuals and green-house biennials. All 
require to be raised in a hot-bed ; the 
annuals to be removed to a south 



LOQUAT. Eriobotrya japonica. 
The following are the best directions 
we have for its cultivation : — 

" Light sandy loam, which is na- 
turally rich, suits the loquat well. 
Young plants may be purchased of the 
London nurserymen; but they should 
be rejected if they have not been graft- 
ed on the common mespilus germanica, 
or some other nearly allied genius." 

" They may be propagated by seeds 
or layers ; but if so raised, they must be 
afterwards grafted. They may be plant- 
ed six or eight feet apart in the house ; 
but when they become too crowded 
every alternate plant should be re- 
moved on small hillocks of earth cor- 
responding with the size of the plants, 
which, as they advance in growth, may, 
from time to time, have fresh earth 
added to their roots until the border is 
filled level. Care must be taken, whilst 
the plants are young, to make them 
produce the requisite quantity of 
branches close to the graft, by shorten- 
ing the shoots, or by pinching off the 
tips. 

" The loquat is half-hardy ; and it 
will therefore be necessary to keep a 
little fire in the house in winter, to pre- 
vent the frost from injuring the plants. 
The trees bloom naturally at that sea- 
son ; but in this respect are almost at 
the command of the gardener. They 
may be forced into bloom in autumn ; 
or, by keeping the house vl3ry cool in 
winter, their blooming may be retarded 
until spring. 

" The temperature, during the grow- 
ing seasons, may correspond with that 
which is given to the peach when 
forced. 

" When the fruit is gathered, more air 
should be admitted into the house. In 



border, and the others to the green- : autumn the sashes might be entirely re- 
moved, for a short time, so long as there 
is no danger of frost. 

" Though a separate house is highly 
desirable to cultivate the loquat in, it 
by no means follows that it will not 
grow and fruit elsewhere. If it can be 
accommodated with the back-wall of a 



house 

LOPHANTHUS. Five species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
and cuttings. Common soil. 

LOPHIOLA aurea. Hardy herbace- 
ous. Division. Damp peat soil. 

LOPHIRA africana. Stove eyer- 



LOR 



357 

— ♦— 



LUI 



pine or plant-stove, with a border of 
two or three feet in breadth to grow in, 
it will succeed remarkably well. It is 
far from being a tender tree, or one 
difficult to manage, being of a robust, 
healthy habit, and requiring but little 
attention. 

" Some people eat the fruit before it is 
quite ripe, at which period it has an 
agreeable acid flavour ; but to obtain a 
luscious, melting, highly-flavoured fruit, 
it should hang on the trees until some- 
what shrivelled. It is probable that the 
fruit would ripen on the back-wall of 
some green-house, if it had plenty of 
light and air ; at all events it is worth a 
trial." — Gard. Chron. 

LORD ANSON'S PEA. Lathyrus 
magellanicus. 

LOTE. Zizyphus lotus. 

LOTUS. Forty species. Mostly 
hardy and half-hardy annual and peren- 
nial trailers. Perennials are increased 
by cuttings ; and the annuals by seed, 
in any light soil. 

LOUREA.. Two species. Stove bi- 
ennials. Seed. Light rich loam. 

LOUSEWORT. Pedicularis. 

LOUSE. See Aphis. 

LOVE-APPLE. Lycopersicon escu- 
lentum. See Tomato. 

LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. Amaran- 
thus caudatus. 

LOWEA berberrifolia. Half-hardy 
deciduous shrub. Seed and layers ; 
sandy loam and peat. Common salt 
applied occasionally is beneficial. 

LOZOTJENIA rosaria, is a small 
moth, of which the caterpillar feeds 
upon the leaves of the rose tree. Mr. 
Curtis says, that — " The eggs are laid 
in the summer or autumn, and hatch 
with the opening leaves; and the little 
caterpillar begins at once to form a re- 
sidence by drawing two or more leaflets 
together, on which it feeds. This ope- 
ration soon points out where the cater- 
pillar is, and the best method which 
we know of getting rid of it, is hand- 
picking, which should be practised as 
soon as the operation of the caterpillar 
becomes visible." — Gard. Chron. 

LUCULIA gratissima. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. 

Propagation by Cuttings. — « In pro- 
pagating this take a piece of light peat 
and break it quite fine, add about one- 
third of fine silver sand, mix this well 
together, and taking some small thumb 
pots, place one crock at the bottom of 



each pot, and fill them with the above 
compost, about three parts full, press 
this down in the centre of the pot, and 
fill the remainder of the pot with silver 
sand ; give them a good watering to 
settle the cuttings, then take a large 
pot and fill it half full of draining, and 
the remainder with sand or gravel, and 
then plunge four of the little pots in 
this large one, and place a bell-glass 
over them. Plunge in bottom-heat, and 
in about a month the cuttings are rooted 
and fit for potting off into small sixty- 
pots ; keep them close for about a week 
or so." 

Grafting. — Mr. Beaton grafts the 
Luculia upon stocks of Burchellia ca- 
pe nsis. — Gard. Chron. 

After- Culture. — "Drainage is abso- 
lutely indispensable for Luculia. Dur- 
ing the summer and early autumnal 
months water should be freely supplied, 
and the under surface of the leaves, as 
well as the whole plant, repeatedly 
washed with the fine rose of the syringe. 
The general waterings must also be 
gradually diminished in September, and 
afterwards administered very sparingly, 
for the fine fibrous roots are easily in- 
jured by too much moisture. It requires 
a much cooler treatment than it gene- 
rally receives, and should never be 
grown in a pot when it can be planted 
out in a conservatory." — Gard. Chron. 

" It is not inclined to grow naturally, 
and therefore should not be stimulated 
in the spring and early summer. During 
that period it should be kept in a green- 
house : towards the end of May and 
the beginning of June, it should be 
planted out in a warm place rather 
sheltered from the sun. In August or 
September it should be taken up and 
repotted, and placed in a vinery or cool 
hot-house. It will then grow vigorous- 
ly, and form its head of blossoms, 
which are both beautiful and fragrant, 
and expand during the greater part of 
the winter. It may be kept in the 
drawing room without injury till it has 
done flowering, and should then be re- 
turned to the green-house." — Gard. 
Chron. 

LUC U MA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Rich 
sandy loam. 

L U H E A paniculata. Stove ever- 
green climber. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

L U I ST A alpina. Stove epiphyte. 



LUM 



358 

—♦ — 



L YO 



Lateral shoots, six inches long; attached 
to blocks of charred wood. 

LUMNITZERA moschata, a green- 
house annual ; and L. tenuiflora, a stove 
herbaceous perennial. The first by 
seed, the second by division. Common 
soil. 

LUNARIA. Honesty. Two species. 
Hardy biennial and perennial. Seed. 
Common shaded soil. 

LUNGWORT. Pulmonaria. 

LUPINUS. Lupine. Fifty-seven 
species. Chiefly hardy annual and herb- 
aceous plants. Of these the propagation 
is effected by seed in the open ground 
in March, April, and May, observing 
that as too copious moisture is apt to 
rot the seed, they should not be sowed 
earlier than the middle or latter end of 
March, except on very dry, warm soils. 

The annual sorts should be sowed at 
once in the places where the plants are 
to flower, for they do not succeed by 
transplantation, and to have a succes- 
sion of bloom, about three or four dif- 
ferent sowings may be necessary from 
about the middle or latter end of March 
until June, especially the yellow sort, 
whose bloom is rather of short dura- 
tion; observing to sow all the sorts in 
patches, four, five, or six seeds in each, 
near an inch deep, and when the plants 
come up, leave only three of the best 
of them, though of the large kind one 
or two may be sufficient in each place. 
When large quantities are required for 
nosegays to supply the markets, &c.,a.s 
practised about London with the yellow 
sweet scented sort, they may be sowed 
in rows iri'beds, drilling them in an inch 
deep, allowing a foot between the rows. 
Keep them clean from weeds, which is 
all the culture they require : the first 
sown plants will furnish plenty of ripe 
seed. If some seeds are sowed in au- 
tumn, in September, in a warm dry situ- 
ation, the plants will come up, and 
often stand the winter tolerably well, 
and flower early the following year ; 
or, if some are sowed in pots, especial- 
ly the giant sort, comprising the Large 
Blue, and the Rose Lupine, which in 
wet autumns ripen seed but indifferent- 
ly, so that by placing the pots in a gar- 
den frame, to have occasional protection 
from hard frost, they will flower early 
in the following summer, so as to per- 
fect seeds before they are attacked by 
the autumnal rains. 

The perennial sort may be sowed 



either in patches in the different com- 
partments as already observed, for the 
plants to remain where sowed ; or may 
be sowed in beds in drills for trans- 
plantation ; but as the plants generally 
send their roots deep into the ground, 
they generally succeed best when per- 
mitted to remain where raised. — Aber- 
crombie. 

L UX EM BURG I A ciliosa. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
loam. 

LYCASTE. Four species. Stove 
epiphyte. Offsets. Peat and pot- 
sherds. 

LYCHNIS. Twenty species. Hardy 
herbaceous, except L. c&lirosa and L. 
githago, which are annuals. Seed or 
divisions, the latter to be annually re- 
peated. Light rich loam. 

LYCIUM. Sixteen species. Hardy 
and half-hardy deciduous and ever- 
green shrubs and climbers. Cuttings. 
Light loam. 

LYCOPERSICON. Nine spe- 
cies. Hardy annuals, except L. peru- 
vianwn, which is a stove herbaceous 
perennial. See Love-Apple. 

LYON, John. Mr. Lyon was born 
in Scotland, and emigrated to this coun- 
try about the commencement of the pre- 
sent century. He shortly thereafter 
entered into the employ of the late 
Wm. Hamilton, and, for several years, 
superintended his choice collection of 
exotic plants at the "Woodlands." Mr. 
Lyon subsequently became a regular 
collector of American plants and seeds 
for exportation, and in the prosecution 
of his object made frequent excursions 
to the south and west. His collections 
were usually congregated at the Nur- 
sery grounds of his friends at Phila- 
delphia, and, when properly prepared, 
were by him taken to Europe. He 
made a number of trips to England, 
each time carrying with him large lots 
of our native plants, which met with 
ready sale at liberal prices. Thirty or 
forty years ago the communication with 
Europe was not so trifling a matter as 
at present, and a journey of some thou- 
sand miles in search of floral treasures, 
and their transportation across the At- 
lantic, was quite an event in the horti- 
cultural world. Mr. Lyon was a man 
of cultivated mind, and, to a good plain 
education, such as most of his country- 
men receive, he had added the results 
of extensive reading and observation. 



L YO 



359 

— ♦— 



MAG 



He died about the year 1S16, whilst on 
a collecting journey in Tennessee, from 
fever contracted by exposure whilst 
travelling on horseback. 

LYONIA. Six species. Hardy 
evergreen shrubs. Layers and seed. 
Peat. 

LYONSIA straminea. Stove ever- 
green twiner. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

LYSIMACHIA. Twenty spe- 
cies. Hardy herbaceous perennials and 
annuals, except L. atropurpurea and L. 
maculata, which require a green-house. 
L. thyrsi flora is an aquatic. Annuals 
by seed ; others by division. Common 
soil. 

LYSINEMA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

LYTHRUM. Eleven species. Hardy 
herbaceous and annuals. Division or 
seed. Common soil. 

MABA buxifolia, a stove evergreen 
shrub, and M. laurina, a green-house 
evergreen trailer. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

MACLEANIA longiflora. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
loam. 

MACLEAYA cordata. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennial. Division, and seeds. 
Rich mould. 

MACLURA. Three species. M. 
aurantiaca is a hardy deciduous tree ; 
the two others, stove evergreen trees. 
Ripe cuttings. Turfy loam and peat. 
M. aurantiaca, the Osage Orange, is 
admirably adapted for hedges : it is of 
rapid growth, perfectly hardy as far 
north as Pennsylvania, is not subject to 
disease, is armed with sharp spines 
which pain on puncture, and, abound- 
ing in acrid juice, is not browsed by cat- 
tle. With these qualities it is, we think, 
destined to be extensively used as a 
hedge plant. 

M'MAHON, Bernard, was a native 
of Ireland. Implicated in the disastrous 
rebellion of '98, he fled to this country, 
and was for some years connected with 
a political newspaper of Philadelphia. 
Our purpose is, however, to refer to Mr. 
M'Mahon as associated with the subject 
of this work. Mr. M. ultimately esta- 
blished himself as a Nursery and Seeds- 
man in that city, and published an ex- 
cellent book on gardening, the " Ame- 
rican Gardener's Calendar," which was 
favourably received, and opportunely 
issued, for at that time information on 



the art, of which it treated, was in the 
United States much needed. He was 
said to have been a man of liberal edu- 
cation, and an ardent admirer of horti- 
culture. It is probable his love for it 
led to his embarking in the sale of 
plants and seeds as a profession. In 
connection with his seed-store, Mr. M. 
established a Nursery near the city, and 
concentrated many interesting speci- 
mens on his grounds. They were, at a 
later day, under the management of his 
son, but are now, we believe, no longer 
cultivated as a Nursery. 

MACRADENIA. Three species. 
Stove orchids. Division. Wood. 

MACROCNEMUM. Two species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

MACRO PODIUM laciniatum. 
A hardy annual, increased by seeds; and 
M. nivale, a hardy herbaceous peren- 
nial, increased by cuttings. A light 
rich soil suits them both. 

MACROTYS racemosa. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Rich 
soil. 

MADAGASCAR NUTMEG. Aga- 
thophyllum. 

MADAGASCAR POTATO. Solatium 
anguivi. 

MAD-APPLE. Solarium insanum. 

MADDER. Rubia. 

MADIA. Two species. Hardy an- 
nuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

MADWORT. Alyssum. 

MiESA. Five species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs or trees. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

MAGNOLIA. Fourteen species. 
They are chiefly hardy deciduous trees, 
but M. grandiflora, and its varieties, 
require protection in Pennsylvania, in 
severe winters, especially if the soil be 
not thoroughly drained. The next most 
worthy of cultivation are M. acuminata, 
M. macrophylla, M. glauca, and M. pur- 
purea. 

Planting. — The best season for plant- 
ing all the species is early in spring, 
though as those sorts which are in pots 
may be turned out with the ball of 
earth about their roots, they may be 
occasionally transplanted in October or 
beginning of November. Observe, as 
they are rather of a tender nature in 
their younger growth, it is proper to 
allot them a sheltered sunny situation, 
and dry soil ; and all of them should be 
stationed in the most conspicuous point 



MAG 



360 

— ♦— 



MAN 



of view, and not too closely crowded 
with shrubs of inferior merit. 

MAGPIE MOTH. See Abraxas. 

MAHERNIA. Thirteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings taken off at a joint. Loam and 
sandy peat. 

MAHONIA. Four species. Hardy 
or half-hardy evergreen shrubs. M. 
nervosa is deciduous. Layers or ripe 
cuttings. Sand, peat, and Joam. 

MAIDEN HAIR. Passiflora adian- 
tum, and Adiantum capillus veneris, 
SfC. 

MAIDEN-HAIR TREE. Salisburia 
adiantifolia. 

MAIDEN TREE is a seedling tree 
which has not been grafted. 

The time which elapses before seed- 
lings attain a bearing age is very vari- 
ous. The pear requires from twelve to 
eighteen years ; the apple five to thir- 
teen ; plum and cherry four to five; 
vine three to four ; raspberry two ; and 
the strawberry one. 

MAJORANA. Four species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. M. hortensis 
a hardy annual. Slips or cuttings. 
They succeed well in a sandy soil and 
a dry situation. 

MALABAR LEAF. Cinnamomum 
Malabatrum. 

MALABAR NIGHTSHADE. Ba- 
sella. 

MALABAR NUT. Justicia adha- 
toda. 

MALABAR ROSE. Hibiscus Rosa 
Malabarica. 

MALACHODENDRON ovatum. 
Hardy deciduous tree. Layers or ripe 
cuttings. Peat and loam. 

MALAY APPLE. Jambosa malac- 
censis. 

MALASIS paludosa. Hardy orchid. 
Division. Sandy peat. 

MALESHERBIA. Two species. 
Green-house annuals. Seeds. Sandy 
loam. 

MALFORMATION. See Deformity. 

MALLOW. Malva. 

MALOPE. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

MALPIGHIA. Fourteen species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. Ripe 
cuttings. Light soil. 

MALT DUST. See Vegetable Ma- 
nures. 

MALVA. Mallow. Forty-eight spe- 
cies. The stove and green-house ever- 
green shrubs increase by cuttings, and 



grow well in any rich soil. The hardy 
and half-hardy herbaceous kinds in- 
crease by division or by seeds. The 
hardy annuals by seeds, and common 
soil. 

MALVAVISCUS. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

MAMMEA americana. Stove ever- 
green fruit tree. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

MAMESTRA. M. brassicce, M. ole- 
racea. The whole cabbage tribe are 
subject to the attacks of the caterpillars 
of these moths, known as the Cabbage 
and White -line Brown -eyed Moths. 
These appear in June or May. The 
Cabbage Moth is light brown, with wavy 
marked wings; its caterpillar is green 
stained with grey, with a dark line 
down the back. The White-line Moth is 
rusty brown, and its upper wings white 
margined, with an orange coloured spot 
near it; caterpillar brownish. Hand- 
picking or lime dust are the only reme- 
dies. — Curtis. 

MAMMILLARIA. Seventy- eight 
species. Stove evergreen shrubs. Off- 
sets. Sandy peat. 

MANDARIN ORANGE. Citrus no- 
bilis. 

MANETTIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Young cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

MANGIFERA. Mango Tree. Two 
species. Stove evergreen tropical fruit 
trees. Ripe cuttings, or fresh seeds 
imported from the places of their natural 
growth. Turfy sandy loam, or loam 
and peat. The mango thrives best in a 
temperature of 60°. It does not require 
bottom heat. Leaf-mould is a good 
manure. It must not be pruned, for 
excessive bleeding always follows. 

MANGO GINGER. Curcuma amada. 

MANGO TREE. See Mangifera. 

MANIC ARIA saccifera. A fine palm 
tree. Seeds. Rich loam. 

MANNA. Alhagi. 

MANNA ASH. Ornus rotundijolia. 

MANULEA. Eleven species 
Chiefly green-house annuals and ever- 
green shrubs, or stove herbaceous per- 
ennials. Cuttings or seeds. Peat and 
sand, or vegetable mould. 

MANURES. Manures are animal, 
vegetable and mineral ; they directly 
assist the growth of plants, first, by 
entering into their composition ; second- 
ly, by absorbing and retaining moisture 



MAN 



361 

— ♦— 



MAN 



from the atmosphere ; thirdly, by ab- 
sorbing the gases of the atmosphere ; 
fourthly, by stimulating the vascular 
system of the plants. Manures approxi- 
mately assist vegetation, first, by kill- 
ing predatory vermin and weeds ; se- 
condly, by promoting the decomposition 
of stubborn organic remains in the soil ; 
thirdly, by protecting incumbent plants 
from violent changes of temperature. 

All these properties seldom if ever 
occur in one species of manure, but 
each is usually particularized by pos- 
sessing one or more in a superior de- 
gree. That is the most generally appli- 
cable manure, which is composed of 
matters essential to the growth of plants: 
the chief of these are carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen ; therefore all animal and 
vegetable substances are excellent ma- 
nures. It would evidently be of great 
benefit, if every plant could be manured 
with the decaying parts of its own spe- 
cies ; the ancients made this a particular 
object. We read that those vines were 
the most fruitful, which were manured 
with their own leaves and prunings, and 
the skins of expressed grapes. This 
rule might be so far followed, as that 
the stems of potatoes, peas, &c, could 
be dug respectively into the compart- 
ments where those crops are intended 
to be grown in the following year. 

Of the less general manures which 
benefit plants by entering into their 
composition, a few words will suffice. 
Sulphate of lime (gypsum) is a compo- 
nent of clover, lucerne, turnips, &c. ; 
hence it has been applied with benefit 
to these crops on such soils as did not 
already contain it. Bones broken small 
have lately become a very general ma- 
nure; their utility is easily accounted 
for. The bones of oxen contain about 
fifty per cent, of gelatine, which is 
soluble in water, and rapidly becomes 
putrescent. The remainder is chiefly 
phosphate and carbonate of lime, salts 
which are components of wheat, rye, 
barley, oats, peas, beans, vines, cucum- 
bers, potatoes, garlic, onions, truffles, 
&c. 

Common salt also is employed as a 
manure, and is beneficial, partly in con- 
sequence of entering into the constitu- 
tion of plants. 

Some manures ameliorate a soil by 
absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. 
This property is at least as beneficial to 
ground that is aluminous as to that 



sd pre-" 1 ) 
s, at a j 
0°, ab- ! 



which is siliceous; for it is equally use- 
less to either during such periods of the 
year as are characterized by a plentiful 
deposition of rain ; but in the drought 
of summer, when moisture is much 
wanting to plants, it is beneficial to 
both; in very dry seasons it is even 
of greater importance to clayey than 
to light soils ; for vegetation on the 
former suffers more from long-continued 
drought than on the latter, inasmuch as 
that moisture being equally exhaled 
from each, the surface of the clayey 
soil becomes caked and impervious to 
air, the only grand source of compensa- 
tory moisture that is available to the 
languishing plants, and which is more 
open to those which grow on light, and, 
consequently, more pervious soils. 

The following table of the compara- 
tive absorbent powers of many manures, 
is extracted chiefly from An Essay on 
the Use of Salt in Agriculture, by Mr. 
Cuthbert Johnson. 

Parts. 
Horse-dung evaporated 
viously to drynt 
temperature of 100°, 
sorbed during an exposure 
of three hours to air satu- 
rated with moisture at 62°J 
Putrefied tanners' bark, 
under similar circum- 
stances (66°) .... 
Unputrefied tanners' bark 

Cowdung 130 

Pig dung ........ 120 

Sheep dung SI 

Pigeon dung 50 

Refuse marine salt (60°) . . 49a 

Soot (68°) 36 

Burnt clay 29 

The richest soil (in one hour) 23 

Coal ashes 14 

Lime (part carbonate) . . 11 
Crushed rock salt .... 10 

Gypsum 9 

Chalk 4 

The absorbing power of a manure is 
much influenced by the state in which 
it is presented to the atmosphere. In 
a finely divided state mere capillary at- 
traction assists it; hence, the import- 
ance of keeping the soil frequently 
stirred by hoeing, &c. But a mere 
mass of cotton, by means of capillary 
attraction, will absorb moisture from the 
air, yet it parts with it at a very slight 
elevation of temperature : it is of im- 
portance therefore to ascertain which 



145 



145 



115 



MAN 



362 



MAN 



), 135' 



90 



are the manures that not only absorb I which by a few hours' exposure to the 
but retain moisture powerfully. The air subsides into a gray or black hue. 
following results of my experiments i The first colour appears to arise from 

the oxyde of iron which all soils con- 
tain, being in the state of the red or 
protoxide ; by absorbing more oxygen 
during the exposure, it is converted 
into the black or peroxide. Hence one 
of the benefits of frequently stirring 
soils ; the roots of incumbent plants 
abstract the extra dose of oxygen, and 
reconvert it to the protoxide. Coal 
ashes, in common with all carbona- 
ceous matters, have the power of 
strongly attracting oxygen. Every gar- 
dener may have observed how rapidly 
a bright spade of iron left foul with 
coal ashes, becomes covered with rust, 
or red oxide. 

All animal and vegetable manures 
absorb oxygen from the air during pu- 
trefaction ? If it be required of what 
benefit this property is to plants, since 
the gases are freely presented to them 
in the atmosphere, it admits the ready 
answer, that they enjoy the additional 
quantity which is thus collected to the 
vicinity of their roots, without the lat- 
ter source being diminished : and that 
plants are benefited by such additional 
application to their radicular has been 
proved by the experiments of Mr. Hill. 

The question may also be asked, 
whether the roots have the power to 
extract the oxygen from its combina- 
tion ? That they have this power ad- 
mits of little doubt, since Saussure 
found that they were able to extract 
various saline bodies from their combi- 
nations ; not only extracting but select- 
ing in those cases where several salts 
were in the same solution. 

Dr. Daubeny, the Oxford professor of 
agriculture, has also shown that stron- 
tian is rejected by barley, pelargoniums, 
and the winged pea. 

Carbonic acid is also of benefit to 



throw some light on this point: — 

Pig dung evaporated to dry-~ 
ness at a temperature of 
106°, and then moistened 
with six parts of water, 
required for being reduced 
to dryness again, at the 
above temperature 

Horse-dung under similar" 
circumstances 

Common salt '. 75 

Soot 75 

Rich soil . . 32 

Chalk 29 

Poor soil (siliceous) .... 23 

Gypsum 18 

These experiments point out a cri- 
terion by which we easily ascertain the 
comparative richness of any two given 
soils or manures; the most fertile will 
be most absorbent and retentive. 

Some manures increase the growth 
and vigour of plants by stimulating their 
absorbent and assimilating organs. 

The stimulating powers of excremen- 
titious manures arise from the salts of 
ammonia they contain. 

Sir H.Davy found vegetation assisted 
by solutions of muriate of ammonia (sal- 
ammoniac), carbonate of ammonia (vol- 
atile salt), and acetate of ammonia. 
Night soil, one of the most beneficial 
of manures, surpasses all others in the 
abundance of its ammoniacal consti- 
tuents in the proportion of three to one. 
It may be observed, that the nearer 
any animal approaches to man in the 
nature of its food, the more fertilizing 
is the manure it affords. 

I have no doubt that a languishing 
plant, one, for example, that has been 
kept very long with its roots out of the 
earth, as an orange tree recently im- 
ported from Italy, might be most rapid- 
ly recovered, if its stem and branches] plants, when applied to their roots in 
were steeped in a tepid weak solution an advanced stage of their growth, 
of carbonate of ammonia, and when I Animal and vegetable matters evolve 
planted, an uncorked phial of the so- J this gas whilst putrefying; and I am 



lution were suspended to one of the 
branches, to impregnate the atmosphere 
slightly with its stimulating fumes. 

Manures are also of benefit to plants 
by affording some of the gases of the 
atmosphere to their roots in a concen- 
trated form. A soil, when first turned 
tup by the spade or plough, has gene- 
rally a red tint, of various intensity, 



not aware of any manure that absorbs 
it from the atmosphere, so as to be for 
that reason beneficial to vegetation. 
Lime attracts it rapidly, but combines 
with it so strongly that it is useless to 
the plant, until the carbonate of lime 
so formed is imbibed and elaborated. 

Manures assist plants by destroying 
predatory vermin and weeds. This is 



MAP 



363 

— ♦ — 



MAR 



not a property of animal and vegetable 
manures — they foster both those ene- 
mies of our crops. Salt and lime are 
very efficient destroyers of slugs, snails, 
grubs, &c. 

Stable manure, and all decomposing 
animal and vegetable substances, have 
a tendency to promote the decay of 
stubborn organic remains in the soil, 
on the principle that putrescent sub- 
stances hasten the process of putrefac- 
tion in other organic bodies with which 
they come in contact. Salt, in a small 
proportion, has been demonstrated by 
Sir J. Pringle to be gifted with a similar 
septic property, and that lime rapidly 
breaks down the texture of organized 
matters is well known. 

There is no doubt that rich soils, or 
those abounding in animal and vegeta- 
ble remains, are less liable to change 
in temperature with that of the incum- 
bent atmosphere, than those of a poorer 
constitution. This partly arises from 
causes explained when treating of the 
influence of the colour of soils upon 
vegetation. Some manures, as salt, 
protect plants from suffering by sudden 
reductions of temperature, by entering 
in their system ; stimulating, and ren- 
dering them more vigorous, impreg- 
nating their sap, and, consequently, 
rendering it less liable to be congealed. 
— Princ. of Gardening. 

MAPLE. Acer. 

MARANTA. Fifteen species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
rich soil. 

MARATTIA. Two species. Stove 
perennial ferns. Division or seeds. 
Loam and peat. 

MARCETIA excoriata. Stove shrub. 
Cuttings. Rich light loam. 

MARCGRAAVIA. Two species. 
Curious stove evergreen shrubby creep- 
ing plants. Cuttings. Turfy loam and 
peat. 

MARCH is a busy month, as will 
appear from the following calendarial 
directions: — 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Alexanders, sow; earth up. — Angeli- 
ca, sow or plant. — Artichokes, dress ; 
plant. — Asparagus, sow ; plant; force; 
and dress beds. — Balm, plant. — Basil, 
sow. — Beans, plant; earth up. — Beet, 
(red, white, and green), sow. — Borage, 
sow. — Borecole, sow, e. — Brocoli, sow. 
— Burnet, plant and sow. — Cabbages, 



plant; sow. — Cardoons, sow, e. — Car- 
roway, sow. — Carrots, sow, e. — Cauli- 
flowers, plant from frames; give air to 
those under glass; prick out spring- 
raised ; sow, b. — Celeriac, sow. — Cele- 
ry, sow ; dress and earth up Chamo- 
mile, plant. — Chervil, sow. — Chives, 
plant. — Clary, sow. — Cress, sow. — 
Composts, prepare. — Coriander, sow, e. 
— Corn Salad, sow. — Dill, sow. — Dung, 
prepare for hot-beds. — Fennel, sow or 
plant. — Garliclc, plant. — Horse-radish, 
plant. — Hot-beds, make, line, &c. — Hys- 
sop, sow, e. — Jerusalem Artichokes, 
plant. — Kale (Sea), plant or sow ; force. 
— Kidney Beans, sow; attend to those 
forcing. — Lavender, plant. — Leeks, sow. 
— Lettuces, sow ; prick out, and plant 
out from frames. — Liquid Manure, give 
to cabbages, &c. — Liquorice, plant, b. — 
Marigolds, sow, — Marjoram, sow and 
plant. — Mint, plant; clean beds. — 
Mushroom Beds, attend to ; make. — 
Mustard and Cress, sow. — Nasturtiums, 
sow. — Onions, sow, put out buttons or 
setts, plant for seed, b. ; (Potato and 
Tree), plant. — Orach, sow. — Parsley, 
(Com. and Hamb.) sow. — Parsnips, sow. 
— Peas, sow. — Pompions and Purslane, 
sow, e. — Potatoes, plant. — Pennyroyal, 
plant. — Radishes, sow ; — Rampion, 
sow. — Rape (com. and edible-rooted), 
sow, e. — Rhubarb, sow, b.; plant, b. — 
Rochambole, Rosemary and Rue, plant. 
— Sage and Shallots, plant. — Salsafy 
and Scorzonera, sow. — Savoys, sow. 
Skirrets and Succory, sow. — Sorrels, 
plant and sow. — Spinach, sow. — Tansy 
and Tarragon, plant. — Tetragonia and 
Thyme, sow, e. — Tomato, sow in hot- 
bed. — Turnips, sow. — Wormwoods, 
sow. 

ORCHARD. 

Apricots, prune, if before neglected, 
b.; young ones, head down. — Blossoms 
of wall fruit protect.— Currants, finish 
planting and pruning, b. — Espaliers, 
generally finish regulating, b. — Figs, 
prune and train, and plant, being best 
time ; make layers ; plant cuttings.— 
Fork over the borders and quarters, if 
before omitted. — Gooseberries, prune, if 
before neglected, b.; finish planting, b. 
— Grafting, in mild weather, is best 
done this month. — Grafts, prepare — 
Mulch round the trees newly planted, 
to keep the roots moist. — Nectarines, 
neglected before, prune, b ; young, 
head down. — Peaches, before neglected, 



MAR 



364 



MAR 



prune, b.; young, head down. — Plant- 
ing omitted complete, b. — Pruning, 
complete, without fail, b. — Raspberries, 
finish planting, b. — Strawberries, finish 
dressing, b.; plant; and in pots for suc- 
cessive forcing. — Suckers, for stocks, 
may be planted. — Support with stakes 
trees newly planted. — Stocks, raise from 
seeds of Apples, Pears, Quinces, and 
Medlars. — Trench, ^-c. ground for plant- 
ing — Vines, finish pruning without fail, 
b.; plant cuttings, and make layers. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Annuals (Tender), prick out in hot- 
bed ; give air freely ; and sow to blow 
from July to Oct.; (Hardy), sow in bor- 
ders, and pot to remain. — Anemones, 
finish planting. — Auriculas, plant off- 
sets; sow; and dress where omitted 
last month. — Biennials, sow, e. — Bulbs, 
finish planting — Carnations, sow; raised 
by layers last year plant out. — Chrysan- 
themums, raised from cuttings, plant 
from frames into pots. — Cleanliness is 
now even more than ordinarily requi- 
site. — Dahlias, sow ; prick out ; plant 
cuttings of roots ; all in a gentle hot- 
bed. — Dress borders generally, if omit- 
ted before.— Earth, give fresh to plants 
in pots. — Edgings of Box, &c, may be 
made. — Evergreens, sow ; plant and 
prune in mild weather. — Forest Trees, 
sow; cut down in shrubberies, &c. — 
Grass Seeds, sow. — Gravel, weed, turn, 
lay, and roll twice a week in dry wea- 
ther. — Hand Glasses and a warm "border 
•will now do for Tender Annuals. — 
Hedges, finish making. — Hot-beds, for 
tender Annuals, make ; give air freely ; 
protect at night; day temp, to be kept 
about 70°. — Hyacinths, put fresh tan or 
saw-dust on beds. — Layers, make of the 
Arborescent Chinese Peonies, &c. — Pe- 
rennials, plant and water, they will 
blow same year ; sow. — Polyanthuses, 
divide roots and sow. — Pots of Roses 
and other flowers put in hot-house, for 
succession produce. — Protection, give 
to Auriculas and other choice flowers 
in bud. — Roses, prune, b.; plant cuttings 
of roots ; plant established trees, and 
if repeated in April and May, b., a suc- 
cession of flowers may be had until 
September ends ; give liquid manure. — 
Shrubs, generally finish pruning and 
planting. — Stake newly planted, and all 
pliant shrubs, &c. — Sweet Briar for 
hedges, &c, sow where to remain. — 
Tulips (Early), protect bloom.— Turf 



may be laid. — Water frequently, but 
moderately, and only in mild weather. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely. — Cherries ripening 
require but little water. — Flowers in 
pots continue to introduce. — Kidney 
Beans, continue forcing. — Leaves, clean 
by the sponge and syringe. — Pines re- 
quire more water, and greater heat; 
syringe their crowns ; give liquid ma- 
nure ; shift into larger pots. — Peaches, 
thin ; the day temp, for them should 
not exceed 70° ; disbud ; trim ; water 
abundantly.-Propagetfe hot-house plants 
by slips, cuttings, suckers, and layers, 
according to the plant's nature ; it is 
the best season. — Seedlings of culinary 
plants, remove to a cooler place. — 
Strawberries, in pots, continue forcing. 
—Temperature for Pines should be about 
85° at midday, and during night 60° ; 
in the flower stove 65° and 55°. — To- 
bacco fumigations continue. — Vines are 
now all in motion ; thin ; train ; keep 
well supplied with liquid manure ; air 
keep moist, except to those in blossom ; 
temp, as last month. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air cannot be admitted too freely 
during fine weather and the tempera- 
ture above 32°. — Earth (fresh), give to 
oranges and other shrubs ; stir the sur- 
face of that in the pots frequently. — 
Heading-down may be practised upon 
oranges and other shrubs growing ir- 
regularly. — Leaves, clean and remove 
those decayed. — Orange Kernels, sow 
to raise stocks. — Pot singly last year's 
cuttings. — Propagate by slips, cuttings, 
and layers as appropriate. — Pruning, 
finish. — Shifting, complete, where ne- 
cessary. — Sow seeds of green-house 
plants in pots, and plunge in a hot-bed. 
Water frequently, but moderately. — 
Windows always close at night. — Wood, 
dead and weakly, remove. 

MARGINS of streams and other wa- 
ters must always accord with the plea- 
sure grounds in which they are placed. 
Art, therefore, must imitate each in its 
proper place, not always by a studious 
picturesque arrangement of the margi- 
nal accompaniments in each case, but 
by excavating the groundwork, planting 
the trees and shrubs, and leaving the 
rest to the motion of the waves of the 
water. After the effects of one winter, 
stones or gravel may be deposited in 



MAR 



365 

— ♦ — 



MAR 



spots suitable for stony or gravelly 
shores. 

MA RICA. Ten species, chiefly 
greenhouse herbaceous perennials. M. 
paludosa is a stove aquatic. Division or 
seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 

MARIGOLD. Calendula officinalis. 

Varieties. — Single; Common double; 
Largest very double; Double lemon- 
coloured; Great Childing; Small Child- 
ing. The single-flowered and those 
which have the darkest orange colour, 
are most esteemed, as possessing the 
most flavour. 

Soil and Situation. — The soil most 
suited to them is one that is light, dry, 
and poor. In rich ground they grow 
larger and more luxuriant, but lose 
much of their flavour and quality. The 
situation cannot be too open and ex- 
posed. 

Sowing may be from the close of 
February until June; or it may be per- 
formed in autumn, during September. 
If left to themselves, they will never 
fail to multiply from the self-sown seed. 
Sow in drills, ten inches apart ; the 
plants are best left where raised, being 
thinned to ten or twelve inches asunder; 
but when the seedlings are two or three 
inches in height, they may be removed 
into rows at similar distances as above. 
Water must be given moderately every 
other day, until established. 

Gathering. — The flowers, which the 
spring-raised plants will produce in the 
June of the same year, but those of 
autumn not until that of the following 
one, will be fit to gather for keeping in 
July, when they are fully expanded, as 
well as for use when required. Before 
storing, they must be dried perfectly, 
otherwise they become mouldy and 
decay. 

To obtain Seed. — Plants of each va- 
riety must be grown as far distant from 
each other as may be. The two child- 
ing, and the largest double marigolds, 
are especiable liable to degenerate, if 
the seed is not carefully taken from the 
largest and most double flowers. 

MARJORAM. (Origanum.) O.mar- 
jorana. Sweet or Summer Marjoram. 
0. heracleoticum. Winter Marjoram. 
0. onites. Common or Pot Marjoram. 

Soil and Situation. — A light, dry and 
moderately fertile soil is required for 
their healthy growth; and if it is one 
that has not been cropped for a con- 
siderable time, it is the more favourable 



for them. If the soil is wet or rich, 
they are deficient in their essential 
qualities, and the perennials are unable 
to withstand severe weather. The sit- 
uation cannot be too open. 

Time and Mode of Propagation. — The 
sweet marjoram is propagated solely by 
seeds ; the two perennials by seed, as 
well as by parting their roots, and slips 
of their branches. Sowing may be per- 
formed of all the species, from the con- 
clusion of February, if open weather, 
to the commencement of June ; but the 
early part of April is the usual time for 
performing it. Portions of the rooted 
plants, slips, &c, may be planted from 
February until May, and during Sep- 
tember and October. 

The sowing is performed either in 
drills, six inches apart, or broadcast ; 
in either case the seed being buried not 
more than half an inch deep. When 
the seedlings have attained a height of 
two or three inches, they must be thin- 
ned to six inches, and those removed 
may be pricked in rows at a similar 
distance apart each way. Those of the 
annual species are to remain ; but those 
of the perennials, to be finally removed 
during September, at the distances di- 
rected below, when raised from slips, 
&c, water beinggiven at every removal, 
and until the plants are established. 

The slips and partings of the root, 
are inserted in rows ten or twelve 
inches apart, where they are to remain; 
they must be watered moderately every 
evening, and shaded during the day, 
until they have taken root, which they 
soon do, and acquire a stocky growth. 

The only cultivation that any of the 
species require, is the frequent applica- 
tion of the hoe. In October the decay- 
ed parts of the perennials are cut away, 
and some soil from the alleys scattered 
over the bed about half an inch in depth, 
the surface of the earth between the 
stools being previously stirred gently. 

The tops and leaves of all the species 
are gathered when green in summer 
and autumn, for use, in soups, &c. ; and 
a store of the branches are cut and dried 
in July or August, just before the flow- 
ers open for winter's supply. 

To obtain Seed.— There is little diffi- 
culty in obtaining the seed of the pot 
marjoram ; if a plant or two are left 
ungathered from, it unfailingly ripens 
in the course of the autumn. But the 
exotic species seldom ripen theirs in 



MAR 



MAY 



this country ; consequently it is usually 
obtained from the south of France or 
Italy. In favourable years, however, 
they sometimes perfect it late in au- 
tumn. 

Forcing. — When the green tops are 
much in request a small quantity of 
seed of the summer marjoram is sown 
in January or February, in a moderate 
hot-bed. 

MARL is a compound of chalk (car- 
bonate of lime) with either siliceous 
sand or alumina. In the first instance, 
it is a siliceous marl, best applied to 
heavy soils; and in the latter a clayey 
marl, adapted for light lands. Slaty 
and shellmarls are varieties of the sili- 
ceous. The relative proportions of the 
constituents vary indefinitely, the chalk 
amounting from 15 to 75 per cent. The 
quantity applied per acre must also vary 
greatly, according to the object to be 
attained. To render a light soil more 
tenaceous 100 tons per acre of clayey 
marl are not too much ; neither is the 
same quantity of siliceous marl an ex- 
cess, if applied to a heavy soil to ren- 
der it more friable. For much useful 
information on this subject, see "Ruffin 
on Calcareous Manures," a Virginia 
publication. 

M A R L E A begonicefolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Half-ripened 
cuttings. Peat and loam. 

MARRUBIUM. Nine species. Har- 
dy herbaceous perennials. Division or 
seed. Common soil. 

MARSHALLIA. Four species. Half- 
hardy herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

MARSH MALLOW. Althaa. 

MARTYNIA. Four species. Stove 
or green-house annuals. Seeds. Light 
rich soil. 

MASDEVALLIA infracta. Stove 
orchid. Division. Wood. 

MASSONIA. Thirteen species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets or seeds. Loam, peat and sand. 

MASTERWORT. Astrantia. 

MASTIC. Majorana crassifolia. 

MASTICH. Thymus mastichina. 

MASTICH TREE. Pistacia lentiscus. 

MATHIOLA. The Stock. Twenty- 
two species and several varieties. The 
hardy annuals and biennials, and the 
half-hardy shrubby kinds, increase by 
seeds, and grow well in loam and peat. 
The green -house evergreen shrubby 



species, cuttings, light soil and sand. 
See Stock. 

M A T T I A. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

MAURANDYA. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen twiners. Young 
cuttings or seeds. Light rich soil. 

MAURITIA. Three species. Palms. 
Rich sandy loam, and a strong moist 
heat. 

MAXILLARIA. Fifty-four species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

MAXIMILIANA regia. Palm. Rich 
sandy loam, and a good moist heat. 

MAY requires the gardener's especial 
care in every department of his grounds. 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Angelica, sow. — Artichokes, plant, 
b.; clean beds. — Asparagus, keep clean; 
apply liquid manure. — Balm, plant. — 
Basil, plant out. — Beans, sow, hoe, top. 
— Beet, (Red,) thin ; (White and Green), 
sow. — Borage, sow. — Borecole, sow, b.; 
plant ; prick out ; plant out ; hoe ; leave 
for seed. — Brocoli, sow, b.; plant; prick 
out. — Burnets, sow and plant. — Cab- 
bages, sow; plant; earth up. — Capsicum, 
plant out.— Carrots, sow ; thin. — Car- 
doons, sow, b. — Cauliflowers, take 
glasses from ; sow the late variety for 
autumn use. — Celery, sow, b. ; prick 
out; plant out; water; leave for seed. 
Chamomile, plant. — Chervil, sow ; leave 
for seed. — Chives, plant. — Coriander, 
sow; leave for seed. — Cress, sow ; (Wa- 
ter), plant. — Crops, failed, replace forth- 
with. — Cucumbers, prick out; plant out; 
attend to forcing. — Dill, sow, and plant. 
— Earthing-up, attend to. — Endive, 
sow, e.; leave for seed. — Fennel, sow 
and plant. — Finochio, sow; clean. — 
Hot-beds attend to; linings, &c. — Hyssop, 
sow and plant. — Kale, (Sea,) attend to 
blanching, &c. — Kidney-Beans (dwarfs), 
sow, b.; (runners) sow. — Lavender plant. 
Leeks, sow; thin; leave for seed. — 
Lettuces, sow; plant out; tie up. — Mari- 
golds, sow. — Marjorams, sow and plant. 
— Melons, sow, b.; prick out; ridge out; 
attend to forcing; thin laterals. — Mint, 
plant. — Mushroom-beds, make, b, ; at- 
tend to those producing. — Mustard and 
Cress, sow; leave for seed. — Nasturti- 
ums, sow, b. — Onions, weed, &c. ; sow 
for planting again in spring'; (Welch), 
leave for seed. — Parsley, sow ; leave 
for seed; (Hamburgh), thin. — Parsnips, 



MAY 



367 



MAY 



thin, &c. — Peas, sow ; top those bloom- 
ing. — Pennyroyal, plant. — Pompions, 
sow 9 b. ; ridge out, b. — Potatoes, plant, 
b. ; hoe. — Purslane, sow ; leave for 
seed. — Radishes, sow ; leave for seed. 
— Rape, tor salading, sow ; (Edible- 
rooted), sow, e, — Rosemary, plant. — 
Rue, plant. — Sage, plant. — Salsafy, 
thin, &c. — Savory, sow and plant. — Sa- 
voys, sow, b.; plant; prick out. — Scor- 
zonera, thin, &c. — Sorrels, sow and 
plant. — Spinach, sow; thin; leave for 
seed. — Tansy, and Tarragon, plant. — 
Thyme, sow and plant. — Tomatoes, plant 
out. — Turnips, sow ; thin. — Turnip- 
Cabbage, sow. — Watering, attend to in 
dry weather. — Weeds, destroy as they 



ORCHARD. 

Apples (Wall and Espalier), trim and 
train, e. — Apricots, trim and thin their 
fruit. — Budded Trees, remove shoots 
from stocks below the buds. — Grafts, 
remove clay and loosen bandages from, 
e. ; remove shoots from stock. — Insects, 
watch for and destroy with lime-dust, 
tobacco, or other application. — Mulch, 
continue round late-planted trees. — 
Nectarines, trim and train ; thin fruit. — 
Peaches, trim and train ; thin fruit. — 
Pears (Wall and Espalier), trim and 
train, e. — Plums (Wall and Espalier), 
trim and train, e. — Salt, strewn along 
the top of a wall, prevents slugs and 
snails coming over from the shaded 
side.— Snails, destroy ; they are very 
destructive now to wall-fruit, especially 
nectarines. — Vines, trim and train ; hoe 
frequently those in vineyard. — Wall 
Trees generally require training this 
month. — Water, apply by the engine 
to wall-trees and espaliers; give to 
newly-planted trees, in dry weather, 
frequently. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Anemones, take up, and separate off- 
sets as leaves decay. — Annuals, remove 
from hot-bed to borders. — Auriculas, 
done blooming, remove to north-east 
aspect, where they will not have the 
sunshine after nine; offsets, detach and 
plant ; seedlings, keep in the shade ; 
water moderately in dry weather. — 
Awnings or other shelter, continue 
over beds of hyacinths, tulips, e., now 
in bloom. — Biennials, sow, b. — Bulbous 
Roots, generally, directly leaves decay, 
take up and store; seedlings, shade 



during midday; (Autumn blooming), 
plant again after separating offsets, or 
else store until end of July. — Carna- 
tions, remove side-buds from flower- 
stems; shade from meridian sun; water 
in dry weather; sow. — Dahlias, plant 
out from green-house ; e. — Dress the 
borders, &c, almost daily. — Evergreens 
may be planted, b. — Fibrous-rooted pe- 
rennials, propagate by cuttings of young 
flower-stalks. — Flowering- Plants re- 
quire staking, &c. — Grass, mow and 
roll weekly. — Gravel, roll weekly. — 
Hoeing cannot be too frequent. — Hya- 
cinths, take up and store as leaves de- 
cay. — Mignionette, sow for succession, 
b. — Perennials, sow, b.; propagate by 
slips and cuttings. — Polyanthuses, part, 
if not done in April; shade, and through- 
out the summer, sunshine destroys 
them. — Roses, this is the best season for 
budding. — Stake and tie up plants ; seed- 
lings, thin. — Tulips, remove seed-pods ; 
take up and store as leaves decay. — 
Turf may be laid, and grass-seed sown, 
b. ; water frequently in dry weather. — 
Wall-flowers, sow, to bloom next year. 
— Water-glass bulbs, plant in borders 
as flowers decay. — Watering, attend to 
in dry weather, especially to plants 
newly removed. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit as freely as possible. — 
Bark-Beds may be renewed, if not done 
in April. — Figs, keep well watered; 
pick off laterals. — Fruit Trees, in forc- 
ing, for treatment see April. — Grapes, 
gather before dead ripe, and hang in 
grape-room. — Pines, water every fourth 
morning ; shift last year's crowns, if not 
done in April, b. ; temperature at night 
75°, and at midday 100°.— Potted Plants 
may yet be shifted, b. ; shade for a few 
days after. — Propagate by seeds, cut- 
tings, &c, if before omitted. — Pruning 
should have been finished last month; 
pinch down the fruit-shoots.— Strawber- 
ries, fruiting, give liquid-manure. — Sy- 
ringing, generally, as fruit ripens, dis- 
continue. — Vines, keep at a night tem- 
perature of 70°, and tit midday 85° ; 
when grapes are beginning to ripen 
cease from syringing; remove super- 
fluous shoots. — Water, supply very fre- 
quently, but moderately. — Work, gene- 
ral, required. (See April.) 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air is now so essential that potted 



MAY 



368 

— • — 



plants of hardier kinds move to outside. 
— Cuttings of some plants will still 
grow. — Earth, is pots, stir. — Layering 
will yet be successful. — Leaves, clean, 
before removing from house. — Orange- 
stocks, seedlings pot singly ; in arching 
of the orange and lemon may yet be 
practised. — Pruning must now be only 
casual. — Shifting into larger pots com- 
plete, b. — Succulent Plants, as aloes, 
&c, may be moved out, e. — Water fre- 
quently but moderately; it may be 
poured freely over their foliage as a 
cleanser. — Windows and doors open 
daily, and during mild nights, to harden 
before moving out. 



ME A 

Podophyllum pelta- 



MAY APPLE. 
turn. 

MAYTENUS. Four species. Half- 
hardy or green-house evergreen shrubs 
or trees. Ripe cuttings. Peat, loam, 
and sand. 

MAZE. See Labyrinth. 

MAZUS pumilio, a hardy annual ; and 
M. rugosus, a half-hardy trailing an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil, and a warm 
situation. 

MEADOW-SAFFRON. Colchicum. 

MEADOW-SWEET. Spircea ulma- 
ria. 



MEASURES, ENGLISH. 

GRAIN MEASURE. 

4 Gills . make .... 1 Pint . containing 

2 Pints 1 Quart .... 

4 Quarts 1 Gallon .... 

2 Gallons 1 Peck .... 

4 Pecks 1 Bushel .... 

4 Bushels 1 Sack .... 

8 Bushels 1 Quarter .... 

5 Quarters 1 Load .... 



34f Cubic Inches. 
69i 



277i 

554i 

22181 

5* 

10i 

51* 



Feet. 



TIMBER MEASURE. 



A load of timber, unhewn, is 40 cub. ft. 
squared, 50 " 

1 inch plank 600 sq. ft. 
H " 400 " 

2 " 300 " 



A load of 2^ inch plank 240 sq. ft. 

3 " 200 " 
3| " 170 " 

4 " 150 " 



LAND MEASURE. 



The English statute acre contains 
4840 square yards ; the Scotch, 5760 ; 
the Irish, 7840 ; the Devonshire, cus- 
tomary, 4000; the Cornish, 5760; the 
Lancashire, 7840 ; the Cheshire and Staf- 
fordshire, 10,240 ; the Wiltshire tenant- 



ry, 3630. The French arpent is an 
English acre and three-fourths of a 
rood. The Strasburg acre is nearly 
half an English acre ; the Prussian mor- 
gen is not quite three-fourths of an 
acre. 



LONG MEASURE. 



12 Inches 


. . . 1 Foot. 


40 Poles . . 


. . 1 Furlong. 


3 Feet . 


. . . 1 Yard. 


8 Furlongs . 


. . 1 Mile. 


6 Feet . 


. . . 1 Fathom. 


3 Miles . . 


. . 1 League. 


5| Yards 


. . . 1 Pole. 


| 69i Miles 


. . 1 Degree. 




SQUARE 


MEASURE. 




Inches. 


Feet. 






144 


1 


Yards. 


Poles, Rods, 




1,296 


9 


1 


or Perches. 




39,204 


272£ 


30£ 


1 1 Roods. 




1,568,160 


10,890 


1210 


40 1 


1 Acre. 


6,272,640 


43,560 


4840 


160 4 


1 1 



30 Acres are 1 Yard of Land. 
100 ... 1 Hide of Land. 
640 ... 1 Square Mile. 



ME A 



ME A 



CUBIC MEASUBE. 

1728 Cubic Inches make . . . 

27 " Feet 

40 « « of Rough Timber ; 

50 " " of Hewn, do. • 

108 " " ' 

128 « « 



1 Cubic Foot. 
1 " Yard. 

1 Load. 

1 Stack of Wood. 
1 Cord. 



LONDON MARKET FBUIT AND VEGETABLE MEASURES. 



These being made either of osier or 
deal shavings, vary triflingly in size 
more than measures made of Jess flexi- 
ble materials. They are as follow : — 

Sea-Kale Punnets. — Eight inches di- 
ameter at the top, and seven inches and 
a half at the bottom and two inches 
deep. 

Radish Punnets. — Eight inches di- 
ameter, and one inch deep, if to hold 
six hands ; or nine inches by one inch 
for twelve hands. 

Mushroom Punnets. — Seven inches 
by one inch. 

Salading Punnets. — Five inches by 
two inches. 

Half-Sieve. — Contains three imperial 
gallons and a half. It averages twelve 
inches and a half diameter, and six in- 
ches in depth. 

Sieve. — Contains seven imperial gal- 
lons. Diameter, fifteen inches ; depth, 
eight inches. 

Bushel-Sieve. — Ten imperial gallons 



and a half. Diameter at top, seven- 
teen inches and three quarters ; depth, 
eleven inches and a quarter. 

Bushel-Basket — Ought, when heaped, 
to contain an imperial bushel. Di- 
ameter at bottom, ten inches ; at top, 
fourteen inches and a half; depth, se- 
venteen inches. Walnuts, nuts, apples, 
and potatoes are sold by this measure. 
A bushel of the last-named, cleaned, 
weighs 56 lbs., but 4 lbs. additional are 
allowed if they are not washed. 

A Pottle is a long tapering basket 
that holds about a pint and a half. 

Hand — Applies to a bunch of ra- 
dishes, which contains from twelve to 
thirty, according to the season. 

A Bundle contains six to twenty heads 
of brocoli, celery, &c; and in the case 
of asparagus from 100 to 150. 

A Bunch is applied to herbs, and va- 
ries much in size according to the 
season. 



HEAPED MEASURES. 



English market-gardeners, and re- 
tailers of fruit, potatoes, &c, generally 
vend their commodities as if the Act of 
Parliament, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 63, did 
not exist. By this statute selling by 
heaped measure is forbidden under a 
penalty of not more than 40s. for every 
such sale. Section 8 provides that, as 
some articles heretofore sold by heaped 
measure are incapable of being stricken, 
and may not inconveniently be sold by 
weight, it is enacted, that all such arti- 
ticles may henceforth be sold by a 
bushel-measure, corresponding in shape 
with the bushel prescribed by the 5 
Geo. IV. c. 74, for the sale of heaped 
measure, or by any multiple or aliquot 
part thereof, filled in all parts as nearly 
to the level of the brim as the size and 
shape of the articles will admit; but 
nothing herein shall prevent the sale by 
weight of any article heretofore sold by 
heaped measure. The 5 Geo. IV. c. 
74, thus referred to, enacts, by section 
24 



7, that for potatoes, fruit, &c, the 
bushel shall be made round, with a 
plain and even bottom, and being nine- 
teen inches and a half from outside 
to outside, and capable of containing 
801bs. weight of water. 

Of Wood Fuel. — English Measure. — 
Wood-fuel is assized into shids, billets, 
faggots, fall-wood, and cord-wood. A 
shid is of fall-wood and cord-wood. 

A shid is to be four feet long, and, 
according as they are marked and 
notched, their proportion must be in 
the girth : viz., if they have but one 
notch they must be sixteen inches in 
the girth ; if two notches, twenty-three 
inches; if three notches, twenty-eight 
inches ; if four notches, thirty-three 
inches ; and if five notches, thirty-eight 
inches about. 

Billets are to be three feet long, of 
which there should be three sorts ; 
namely, a single cask, and a cask of 
two. The first is seven inches; the se- 



MEC 



370 



MEL 



cond ten inches ; and the third fourteen 
inches about. They are sold by the 
hundred of five score. 

Faggots are to be three feet long, and, 
at the band, of twenty-four inches about, 
besides the knot ; of such faggots fifty 
go to the load. 

Bavins and Spray-wood are sold by 
the hundred, which are accounted a 



load. Cord-wood is the bigger sort of 
fire-wood ; and it is measured by a cord 
or line, whereof there are two measures 
— that of fourteen feet in length, three 
feet in breadth, and three feet in height ; 
the other is eight feet in length, four 
feet in height, and four feet in 
breadth. 



MEASURE OF WOOD. 

1000 Billets of Wood = 1 Cord. 

10 Cwt. of Wood = 1 Cord. 

1 Cord of Wood = a Chaldron of Coals. 

100 Lbs. of Wood = 1 Quintal of Wood. 



MECONOPSIS. Three species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Seeds. 
Light soil. 

MEDIC AGO. Seventy -two species. 
Chiefly hardy annuals, and, for the most 
part, trailers. The herbaceous peren- 
nial kinds are increased by division ; 
the shrubby species by cuttings; and 
the annuals by seed. Common soil 
suits them all. 

MEDICK. Medicago. 

MEDINILLA erythrophylla. Stove 
evergreen shrub. 

MEDLAR. Mespilus germanica. 

Varieties. — Blake's Large ; Dutch, 
largest fruit; Nottingham, small, but 
best flavoured ; Stoneless, inferior, but 
keeps longer than others. 

Propagation by Seed. — This is a tedi- 
ous mode, the seed usually lying two 
years before it germinates. Sow imme- 
diately the fruit containing the seed de- 
cays, in common light soil. Water the 
seedlings frequently in dry weather ; 
thin them to two feet apart ; and when 
four or five years old they will be fit for 
final planting. 

By Layers. — This may be done in 
February and March, making use of 
shoots of the previous year. They will 
have rooted by the autumn. 

Grafting and Budding may be done 
on the White Thorn, but the Pear is a 
better stock for the medlar. 

Soil. — A well-drained, but retentive 
loam suits it best. 

Planting, Pruning, fyc. — See the di- 
rections given for the Pear. 

Storing. — The fruit ought not to be 
gathered until November, for if the 
gathering is made before the fruit is 
fully matured, it shrivels without ripen- 
ing in its decay. Spread them singly 
upon sand, the calyx, or open side 



downwards, and dipping the stalk end 
in a strong brine of common salt and 
water, which is said to check the oc- 
currence of mouldiness. 

MEGACLINIUM. Three species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

MEGASTACHYA. Nine spe- 
cies. Grasses. Chiefly annuals. Seeds. 
Common soil. 

MELALEUCA. Forty-six species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Half- 
ripened cuttings. Loam, peat, and 
sand. 

MELANTHIUM. Eight species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets or seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 

MELASPH^RULA. Four species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Sandv peat. 

MELASTOMA. Twelve species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. M. 
elongata, is a tuberous- rooted perennial, 
and very beautiful. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

MELHANIA. Three species. Stove 
or green-house evergreen trees. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. 

MELTA. Nine species. Stove or 
green-house evergreen trees. M. aze- 
darach, is deciduous : large ripened 
cuttings, with the leaves not shortened. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

MELIANTHUS. Three species. 
Green-house or hardy evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Light rich soil. 

MELICHRUS. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
dy peat. 

MELICOCCA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen fruit trees. Ripe cuttings. 
Light loamy soil. 

MELICOPE ternata. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 



MEL 



371 

— ♦— 



MEL 



MELISSA. Balm. Four species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
Common soil. 

MELITTA melissophyllum and two 
varieties. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Common soil. 

MELOCACTUS. Melon thistle. 
Fourteen species. Stove evergreen 
shrubs. Offsets. Sandy peat. 

MELODINUS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

MELOLONTHA, the Cockchafer. 

M. vulgaris. Common Cockchafer. 

M. horticolo. May-Bug, or Bracken- 
clock. Feeds upon the leaves of the 
Raspberry and Rose. Mr. Curtis justly 
observes, that — " When the roses are 
in full bloom in May, these beetles 
sometimes do very extensive mischief 
to the flowers, by eating out the anthers 
and consuming the petals. Having de- 
posited about a hundred eggs in the 
earth, the female dies, and the larva? 
hatch and commence their attacks upon 
the roots of the grass. It is stated, that 
they are feeding three years, and they 
reside about an inch beneath the turf; 
but as winter approaches, they retire 
deeper into the earth ; and even in 
November, when frost has set in, they 
have buried themselves a spade deep. 
The larvae are rather active and can 
walk tolerably well, dragging their bo- 
dies after them ; they lie, however, 
generally curved up in the shape of a 
horse-shoe; the head is deep, ochreous 
and destitute of eyes. The body is 
ochreous white with a few brown hairs. 
To kill these larvae, water the grass in 
the autumn with one-tenth gas liquor 
to two-tenths water, it will do no mis- 
chief to the grass, but will extirpate 
these miners. Where the gas liquor 
cannot be obtained, employ strong salt 
water." — Gard. Chron. 

MELON. Cucumis melo. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties 
of the Melon of which the Nutmeg may 
be considered as the type ; it and the 
Citron are, however, the most desirable, 
which have come under our observa- 
tion. The mode of out-door culture 
is very similar to that of the cucumber; 
they delight in light land well manured ; 
are quite tender, and should not be 
planted until all fear of frost has ceased. 

To force Melons. — Although a com- 
mon hot-bed is generally used for this 
plant, yet a pit, as it is technically 



termed, is more economical, and by 
enabling a more regular temperature to 
be sustained, renders the fruit in great- 
er perfection. The pit is a rectangular 
frame or bin, built of nine inch brick- 
work, in preference to boards, which 
have to be renewed every five or six 
years, if employed and enclosed by a 
glass case of the necessary dimensions. 
Mr. Smith, gardener to A. Keith, Esq., 
of Ravelstone, N. B., has suggested a 
mode of building a pit which renders 
the renewal of the heat in it easy; and 
as the committee appointed to examine 
it report, is the means of considerable 
saving compared with the common 
mode of forming an open bed. But the 
facility with which linings may be ap- 
plied is its best feature ; for if by any 
chance the heat failed, there was seldom 
any alternative in the old pits but to 
break them up. 

The accompanying sketch will kt 
once show the form of the pit, and Mr. 
Smith's mode of applying the linings. 
A is the pit the side of which a a in- 
stead of being a continuous piece of 




brick-work are merely rows of pillars 
six feet apart ; and the brick-work of 
the frame b b is supported by bars of 
iron reaching from pillar to pillar. An 
outer wall, c c, is constructed at two 
and a half feet distance from the pillars 
on each side ; thus two bins are formed 
in which the linings are inserted, as is 
found necessary, and are kept close 
covered with thick boards ; d represents 
the lights, which thus are formed with- 
out any wooden frames. For other 
modes of construction, see Pits, 8fC. If 
a common hot-bed is employed, fifteen 
barrow loads of dung is the usual al- 
lowance to each light, which make it 
about six inches higher than is allowed 
for the cucumber bed of largest dimen- 
sions. If a melon house be employed, 
the following is the form and mode 
adopted by Mr. Fleming. 

" The house is twenty-eight feet long, 
and fifteen wide, and is heated by 



MEL 



Fig. 99. 



372 
— •— 



MEL 




sowing before February is well ad- 
vanced, and more risk of failure incur- 
red. On the average, fifteen weeks 
elapse; on the shortest and coldest 
days of winter eighteen ; and as the 
spring advances it decreases to eleven 
or twelve; these periods necessarily 
varying in different years. The mode 
of sowing, managing the seedlings, 
out, &c, being the same as 



means of a saddle boiler, with four-inch 
pipes passing round the outside of the j prickin 

pit, which pipes are fitted with cast-iron i with the cucumber, only that a few de- 
troughs for holding water to regulate grees higher temperature is required, I 
the moisture of the atmosphere. Be- refer the reader to that head. The pots 



neath the pit is an arched chamber, a, \ in which 



the seed 



• wn should be 



along the front of which runs the nue, 
&, imparting a slight degree of heat to 
the soil above, and also serving to heat 
a series of arches, c, which run along 
beneath the path, and are entered from 
a house in front, d, and which are used 
for forcing rhubarb, &c, in the winter." 
— Gard. Chron. 

.Mr. Green has published the follow- 
ing excellent mode of heating a melon 
pit with hot water : — 

" The annexed figure represents a 
section of the pit: 1, 1, are the flow 
pipes and the water troughs ; 3, the 
pipes to fill the troughs; 4, the pipe by 
which the water is let out of the trough 
5, the bed for the plants; and 6 
trellis on which the shoots are trained 

Fig. 100 




Time and Mode of Sowing. — Seed 
may be sown about the middle of Jan- 
uary ; but the usual time is about the 
same period of the succeeding month, 
or not even until its close, if severe 
weather; to be repeated towards the 
end of March, and lastly in the first 
weeks of April and May. The length 



three or four inches deep. Each sow- 
ing is best performed twice, four or five 
days elapsing before the second inser- 
tion ; this guards as much as possible 
against failure. The pots should be 
plunged by degrees, and not at once 
down to the rim. Those for pricking 
into must be about five inches in di- 
ameter. The first stopping is usually 
performed in the seed-beds. 

Ridging out. — The soil must be two 
feet deep, and the plants inserted in the 
centre of each light, care being taken to 
remove them with as little injury as pos- 
sible to the roots. The removal should 
take place soon after the attainment of 
the the rough leaves, or immediately on the 
appearance of the lateral runners. If 
the bed is not ready, those from the 
earth of the seed-beds must be moved 
into pots, and those already in them 
turned into larger ones, from whence 
they may be finally removed without 
detriment; one plant only should be 
allowed to remain, for no more are re- 
quired for each light. Water must be 
given with the precautions enumerated 
for cucumbers, and especial care taken 
not to wet the foliage, or to apply it too 
abundantly, and repeated two or three 
times until the plants are establish- 
ed. When completely rooted, the 
bed may be earthed by degrees to its 
full depth, sixteen inches; it being first 
added immediately round the cones, 
and pressed moderately firm as it is laid 
on. The pruning and training must be 
performed as in cucumbers, and the 
same precautions taken to admit air and 
light, and to shade and cover, &c. It 
is in the training and management of 
the foliage in particular that the ge- 
nerality of gardeners are careless, al- 
though the labours of the physiologist 



of time between the sowing and cutting 

depends chiefly upon the variety em- [ and chemist have demonstrated how 

ployed. But little time is gained by j important it is that every leaf should be 



MEL 



373 

— • — 



MEL 



kept in its natural posture and vigour. 
So convinced was Mr. Knight of the 
little attention paid to this point, that 
he took some melon plants under his 
especial care. He placed one under 
each light, the glass of which was six 
feet by four ; the branches were trained 
regularly and secured by pegs in every 
direction; and still further, to present 
the largest possible surface of foliage to 
the light, the leaves were held erect 
at equal distances from the glass. As 
great injury is sustained by these from 
the common mode of watering, it was 
so performed as not to touch them. By 
this simple additional care, the other 
routine of their management being the 
same as usual, the fruit attained an ex- 
traordinary degree of perfection, and 
ripened in an unusually short space of 
time. Mr. Knight further directs, how- 
ever, that wherever a sufficient quantity 
of fruit is set, the production of more 
leaves is to be prevented, if they can- 
not be exposed to the light without 
overshadowing the fruit, by pinching 
off the laterals as soon as formed. No 
part of full-grown leaves, however, 
should be destroyed though far distant 
from the fruit. 

Temperature. — The temperature re- 
quires particular attention at the time 
of setting and ripening; though neglect 
at all the stages of growth is fatal. It 
must never fall below 70°, or rise above 
80*. The seed or nursery bed may 
continue about the minimum, but never 
below it : and the fruiting one as con- 
stantly approximating the maximum as 
possible until the fruit is full grown, 
when the temperature during the day 
may vary between 85° and 95o. Im- 
pregnation must be performed as di- 
rected for cucumbers. When the run- 
ners completely touch the side of the 
frame, if the season is genial it must be 
raised three or four inches by means of 
bricks, otherwise they must be pruned 
or stopped. From this, the propriety 
of having only one plant to a light, is 
evident; .for the runners being often 
six or seven feet long, and very numer- 
ous, require, if there is not room for 
training, the frame to be lifted long 
before the season will allow it. As 
soon as the fruit is set they must be 
looked over three or four times in a 
week to observe which is the most 
vigorous and finest; of these, one that 
has the largest footstalk, and the near- 



er the main stem the better, must be 
left on. each runner, and all others 
nipped off, the runner at the same time 
being broken away at the third joint 
above it. Eight melons on one plant 
of the large varieties, and about twelve 
of the smaller are quite sufficient to be 
left; if more are suffered to remain, 
they will either be of inferior size and 
quality, or not ripen at all. By this 
pruning fresh runners are often in- 
duced ; but these must in like manner 
be stopped, and any fruit that they may 
produce be removed. If a superabun- 
dance are produced, which especially, 
if new seed is employed, will some- 
times happen, it is necessary to thin 
them, and in doing this the weakest and 
most luxuriant must alike be rejected, 
those of an average size being the most 
fruitful. It must always be kept in 
mind, that air should be admitted as 
much and as often as circumstances 
will allow. During mild and serene 
afternoons and evenings, the glasses 
may be entirely removed, but on no 
consideration left off all night. In very 
warm weather they may be kept off, 
from ten in the morning until five, a 
shade being afforded to the plants dur- 
ing the meridian if they flag at all. It 
is necessary, both for melons and cu- 
cumbers, that something should be laid 
between the fruit and the earth of the 
bed, otherwise it will be speckled and 
injured in appearance; clean straw and 
reeds spread in thin but regular layers 
are often employed for this purpose. 
If tiles or pieces of board are made use 
of, it is of considerable service in for- 
warding the ripening, to have them 
painted or charred black; but what 
would be still better is coal ashes 
spread over the surface of the bed two 
or three inches deep and beat smooth. 
This, I am of opinion, is preferable 
from its power of absorbing and re- 
taining heat, and inferior in no other 
quality to drifted sea or river sand, 
recommended by Mr. Henderson, of 
Brechin Castle, N. B., which, he ob- 
serves, extirpates the slater or wood- 
louse, by preventing it concealing it- 
self from the rays of the sun ; it keeps 
down the steam, affords a bed for the 
fruit as warm and as dry as tiles or 
slates, retains the moisture longer, 
whilst it becomes dry itself sooner than 
those coverings, and is a powerful pre- 
ventive of the evil — the mildew. If 



MEL 



374 

— • — 



MEL 



tiles or slates are employed, they must 
be put under the fruit as soon as it has 
attained the size of a walnut, the ocher 
materials immediately after the plants 
are well established. A regular moist- 
ure should be kept up by moderate wa- 
terings applied with the precaution inti- 
mated for cucumbers; but when the j fo re> 
fruit is becoming ripe, water must be 
either altogether withheld or applied 
very sparingly. About thirty or forty 
days usually elapse between the setting 
and full ripeness ; it must be gently 
turned twice or three times during a 
week, otherwise that side which lies 
constantly on the ground will be blanch- 
ed and disfigured. Its maturity is inti- 
mated by a circular crack near the 
footstalk, sometimes by becoming yel- 
lowish; but more decidedly by the 
emission of a fragrant smell. The 
cutting should be performed early in 
the morning, and the fruit kept in a 
cool place until wanted. The whole 
of the stalk is left pertaining to it when 
cut. To prevent the fruit's bursting, 
it is a very successful plan to elevate 
the further end of the fruit as much as 
30° above the stalk end. 

To Obtain Seed. — For the production 
of seed, some fruit of the earliest raised 
crops must be left : of these the finest 
and firmest should be selected, the 
choice being guided by the circum- 
stances, as are mentioned for cucum- 
bers. No two varieties should be grown 
in the same frame, either when the seed 
is an object, for then it would be con- 
taminated ; or if the fruit is alone re- 
quired; for their growth and vigour 
almost always differing, different treat- 
ment is required by each. Neither 
should cucumbers or gourds be allowed 
to vegetate in such a situation, as to 
risk mutual impregnation by insects. 
Both of the melon and cucumber, such 
seed only should be kept as sinks freely 
to the bottom of water. Seed is best 
for sowing when three or four years 
old ; if less than two, the plants raised 
from it are apt to produce a super 



twenty years old it has been known to 
produce fruitful plants. 

Hand Glass Crops. — For these, plants 
are required from sowings of the middle 
of March, April, or early in May, and 
whose fitness for planting out, is marked 
by the rough leaf, &c, as intimated be- 



The bed must be four and a half feet 
wide, in length proportionate to the 
number of glasses, which must be at 
least four feet apart ; and, eight barrow 
loads of dung being allowed to each 
glass, it will be about two and a half 
feet high. It may be founded in a 
trench, if the soil is dry, but it is best 
constructed on the surface. The earth- 
ing, planting, and other points of man- 
agement are precisely the same as for 
the frame crops. The temperature 
need not, however, be so high, the 
maximum required being 70°, but it 
must never sink below 65°, which may 
easily be accomplished by linings, &c. 
The runners must not be allowed to 
extend from beneath the glasses until 
June, or the weather has become genial 
and settled, but be kept within as no- 
ticed for cucumbers. When allowed 
to escape, all dwindled or supervigor- 
ous shoots must be removed, and the 
training be as regular as for those in 
the frames. The glasses raised upon 
props must, however, be kept con- 
stantly over the centre as a shelter to 
the capital parts. 

The bed requires to be hooped over 
for the support of mats in cold or wet 
weather. If paper- frames are employ- 
ed, the most unremitting attention is 
required, the plants being very apt to 
spindle under them. They may, how- 
ever, be employed with advantage in 
the place of mats for sheltering and 
shading. If the weather is at all un- 
favourable at the time the fruit is ap- 
proaching maturity, it is highly ad- 
vantageous to place hand-glasses over 
those that are growing exterior to the 
original one. The latest fruit seldom 
luxuriance of vine'and a multitude of I ri P en even with the greatest care and at- 
male blossoms. If new seed is una- J tention, unless there are spare frames to 
voidably employed, it should be hung j ^close them entirely; those which do 
in a paper or phial near the fire until not > are employed in pickling, 
wanted, or be carried in the pocket for j For a tolerable supply throughout the 
three or four weeks. If, on the con- season, a small family requires one 
trary, the seed is very old, it should be ( three-light frame, and three hand-glass- 
soaked in milk-warm water for twoorjes; these together will yield on the 
three hours before sowing. When j average thirty or forty melons. The 



MEL 



375 

— • — 



MEN 



largest establishment will not require 
more than four times as many. 

MELON, WATER. The Water 
Melon is cultivated in the United States 
precisely like the Nutmeg. There are 
many kinds, of which the Mountain 
Sprout, Mountain Sweet, and Black 
Spanish are most esteemed at Philadel- 
phia. The culture is so simple, and 
so generally understood, that direction 
must be needless. To produce fine 
Melons on heavy or wet soil, it is ne- 
cessary to prepare a light rich compost 
in sufficient quantity to supply the wants 
of the vines — hills four or five feet in 
diameter, and two feet in depth. 

MELON PUMPKIN. Cucurbita me- 
lopepo. 

MELON THISTLE. Melocactus. 

MELON TURK'S CAP. Melocactus 
communis. 

MEMECYLON. Two species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy peat and loam. 

MENIOCUS linifolius. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. 

MENISCIUM. Five species. Stove 
Ferns. Division or seeds. Loam and 
peat. 

MENISPERMUM. Five spe- 
cies. Hardy deciduous or stove ever- 
green twiners. Division, cuttings, or 
seeds. Common soil. 

MENONVILLEA filifolia. Hardy 
annual. Seeds. Light loamy soil. 

MENTHA. Mint. Twenty-five 
species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Common soil. 

Spear or Green Mint. M. viridis. 
Is employed in sauces and salads, as 
well as dried for soups in winter. There 
are two varieties, the broad and narrow 
leaved, equally good. 

Penny Royal. M. Pulegium. Is cul- 
tivated for its use in culinary and phar- 
maceutical preparations. There are 
two varieties, the trailing, which is 
usually cultivated, and the upright. 

Peppermint. M. piperita. For dis- 
tilling, and the production of its pecu- 
liar oil and water. 

Soil and Situation. — These plants are 
best grown on a tenacious soil; even a 
clay is more suitable to them, than a 
light silicious one. It should be mode- 
rately fertile, entirely free from stag- 
nant moisture, and consequently on a 
dry subsoil or well drained. A wet 
soil makes them luxuriant in summer 



or situation that is sheltered from the 
meridian sun, is always to be allotted 
them, as in such they are most vigorous 
and constant in production. A com- 
partment entirely secluded from the in- 
fluence of the sun is, however, equally 
unfavourable with one that is too much 
exposed. 

Time and Mode of Propagation. — 
They are propagated by parting the 
roots in February or March, September 
or October, and by slips or offsets at 
the same seasons. The mints likewise 
may be increased by cuttings of the an- 
nual shoots in May or June, as well as 
by cuttings of the roots in spring or au- 
tumn. For production of green tops 
throughout the winter and early spring, 
the spearmint is often planted in a. hot- 
bed, and more rarely pennyroyal, every 
three weeks during October and three 
following months. 

Planting in the open ground at what- 
ever seasons, or by whatever mode, 
should if possible be performed in 
showery weather, or water must be 
given plentifully, especially to cuttings. 
If propagated by divisions of the root, 
they must be inserted in drills two 
inches deep ; if by slips or cuttings, 
they must be five or six inches in 
length, and their lower half being di- 
vested of leaves, planted to that depth 
in every instance, being set in rows ten 
inches apart each way. 

The only after cultivation required 
is the constant destruction of weeds, 
which are peculiarly injurious. 

After July, the produce of green tops 
is of little value; they should therefore 
be allowed then to advance to flower, 
which they will produce towards the 
beginning of September, when they are 
in the fit state for gathering, either for 
drying or distilling. In either case the 
stalks should be cut just previously to 
the flower opening. At the close of 
September or beginning of October, the 
stems must be cut down as close as 
possible, the weeds cleared entirely 
away, and a little fine fresh mould 
spread over them. The beds should 
never be allowed to continue longer 
than four years ; by constant gathering, 
the plants not only become weakened, 
but the roots becoming matted and 
greatly increased, produce only numer- 
ous diminutive shoots or entirely decay. 

Forcing. — For forcing, a moderate 



but ensured decay in winter. A border | hot-bed is necessary, earthed over about 



MEN 



376 



MIC 



three inches thick ; in this the roots may 
be inserted about four inches apart, and 
one fdeep. They are sometimes only 
protected with mats, but frames are 
preferable. If it is inconvenient to con- 
struct a bed purposely, they may be 
planted in pots and plunged in any bed 
already in operation, or be set on the 
side of the stove. The temperature 
should never vary beyond the extremes 
of70°and80°. 

MENTZELIA. Four species. Stove, 
green-house, and hardy perennials. M. 
aspera, a half-hardy annual. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

MENZIESIA. Three species and 
many varieties. Hardy deciduous or 
evergreen shrubs. Layers. Sandy peat. 

MERENDERA caucasica. Har- 
dy bulbous perennial. Seeds or offsets. 
Light loam. 

MERIANIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Half-ripe cuttings. 
Sandy peat and loam. 

MERODON narcissi. Narcissus Fly. 
Of this insect we have the following par- 
ticulars by Mr. Curtis ; — 

ii In the month of November, one or 
two large roundish holes are sometimes 
found on the outsides of the bulbs of 
the Daffodil, which are more or less 
decayed within, where a maggot will 
generally be found, which by feeding in 
the heart during the summer and autumn 
months, has been the sole author of the 
mischief. 

" This larva is somewhat like the 
flesh-maggot, and not unlike a bot, only 
that it is not serrated with spines, and 
instead of being whitish, its natural 
colour, is changed to brown by its living 
amongst the slimy matter which has 
been discharged from its own body, 
causing the gradual rotting of the bulb. 

" Towards the end of November, the 
maggot is transformed into a pupa, to 
accomplish which it eats its way out of 
the bulb near the roots, and buries it- 
self in the surrounding earth. The 
pupae are dull brown, elliptical, rough, 
and strongly wrinkled. In this state 
they remain until the following spring, 
when the flies issue from their tombs. 
Their eggs are then deposited, but upon 
what part of the plant they are laid, 
has not been observed, but probably 
upon the bulb near the base of the 
leaves. April seems to be the month 
when most of the flies hatch ; and they 
have been compared to small humble- 



bees, from the disposition of the colours, 
which are, for the most part, yellow, 
orange, and black, but they certainly 
bear a greater resemblance to some of 
the bots ; from bees they are readily 
distinguished by having only two wings, 
the horns and proboscis are totally dif- 
ferent, and they have no stings. 

" Bulbs are affected by these maggots, 
and they are readily detected by their 
not throwing out leaves ; when, there-' 
fore, a bulb fails to vegetate, it ought to 
be immediately dug up and destroyed."- 
— Gard. Chron. 

MERTENSIA. Eight species. Har- 
dy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
They thrive best in sandy peat. 

MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. Three 
hundred and seventeen species, and 
many varieties. Chiefly green-house 
evergreen shrubs ; many are trailing 
plants, some annuals and herbaceous 
perennials. M. christallinum and M. 
cultratum are hardy. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

MESPILUS. Medlar. Two species 
and eight varieties. Hardy deciduous 
trees. M. germanica stricta is ever- 
green. Budding or grafting on the 
common hawthorn or pear, or seeds. 
Common soil. See Medlar. 

MESSERSCHMIDIA. Four species. 
Stove evergreens. M. hirsutissima, a 
tree, the rest climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

MESSUA ferrea. Stove evergreen 
tree. Seeds or cuttings. Strong loam, 
peat, and sand. 

METALASIA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
dy peat and loam. 

METEOROLOGY. See Weather. 

METROS I DEROS. Six species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. M. ve- 
rus, a stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

MEXICAN TIGER FLOWER. Ti- 
gridia pavonia. 

MICE. Various plans have been 
suggested to preserve peas and beans, 
when sown, from the ravages of mice. 
VVe believe, we have tried them all. 
Dipping the seeds in oil, and then roll- 
ing them in powdered resin ; putting 
small pieces of furze in the drills and 
over the rows after the seed has been 
sown, but before covering with the 
earth — were both partially successful, 
but the mode attended with the most 
complete safety, has always been that 



MIC 



377 



MIL 



of covering the surface of the soil over 
the rows, to the depth of full an inch, 
and six inches wide, with finely sifted 
coal ashes. The mice will not scratch 
through this, and it has the additional 
advantage, by its black colour absorbing 
the solar heat, of promoting the early 
vegetation of the crop. 

MICHAELMAS DAISY. Aster. 
MICHAUIA. Two species. Hardy 
biennials. Seeds. Rich loam. 

MICHELIA champaca. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Light loam. 

MICONIA. Fourteen species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

MICRANTHEMUM orbiculatum. 
Half-hardy evergreen trailer. Division. 
Sandy peat. 

MICROCALA. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

MICROLOMA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

MICROMERIA. Eight species, and 
a few varieties. Chiefly half-hardy ever- 
green shrubs. Cuttings. Common soil. 
MICROPERA. Two species. M. 
banksii, a green-house tuberous-rooted 
perennial. M. pallida, a stove orchid. 
Offsets. Rich mould. 

MICROTIS. Three species. Half- 
hardy tuberous-rooted orchids. Divi- 
sion. Loam and peat. 

MIDGE. See Cecidomyia and Sciara. 
MIGNONETTE. Reseda odorata. 
Soil. — Light loam, well drained, and 
manured with leaf-mould. 

Sowing in the open ground from the 
end of April to the beginning of July 
will produce a sure succession of blooms 
through the year. If allowed to seed 
and the soil suits it, mignonette will 
continue to propagate itself. If not al- 
lowed to ripen its seed, the same plants 
will bloom for two or more seasons, 
being a perennial in its native country. 
For Pot Culture and the production 
of flowers to succeed those of the open 
ground plants, sow once in August, and 
again in September. The soil as above, 
well drained and pressed into forty-eight 
pots : cover the seed a fourth of an inch. 
Thin the seedlings to three in a pot. 
Water sparingly. When mignonette is 
deficient of perfume, it is because the 
temperature is too low. 

Tree mignonette. — Dr. Lindley says, 
" That this is obtained by selecting and 
potting a vigorous young plant, the 



flowers of which are to be pinched off 
as often as they appear during the 
first season. It must be repotted as 
occasion may require; the lower shoots 
must be removed in autumn, and the 
plant must be kept during winter in a 
room or green-house above the freezing 
point. The second season it may be 
treated in a similar manner, and the 
next year it may be allowed to bloom, 
which, with care, it will continue to do 
for several years." — Gard. Chron. 

MIKANIA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Light 
rich soil. 

. MILDEW, whether on the stems of 
the wheat, or on the leaves of the 
chrysanthemum, pea, rose, or peach, 
appears in the form of minute fungi, 
the roots of which penetrate the pores 
of the epidermis, rob the plant of its 
juices, and interrupt its respiration. 
There seems to me every reason to be- 
lieve that the fungus is communicated 
to the plants from the soil. Every 
specimen of these fungi emits annually 
myriads of minute seeds, and these are 
wafted over the soil by every wind, 
vegetating and reproducing seed, if 
they have happened to be deposited in a 
favourable place, or remaining until the 
following spring without germinating. 
These fungi have the power of spread- 
ing also by stooling or throwing out off- 
sets. They are never absent from a 
soil, and at some period of its growth 
are annually to be found upon the 
plants liable to their inroads. They are 
more observed in cold, damp, muggy 
seasons, because such seasons are pe- 
culiarly favourable to the growth of all 
fungi. The best of all cures is a 
weak solution of common salt and wa- 
ter sprinkled over the foliage of the 
plant affected by the aid of a painter's 
brush, or impelled by a syringe. Dis- 
solve three ounces of the salt in each 
gallon of water, and repeat the applica- 
tion on two or three successive days, 
applying it during the evening. Nitre 
has been employed with similar success, 
using one ounce to each gallon. Uredo 
rosce, Puccinia roses, and Cladosproium 
herbarum, are the mildew fungi of the 
rose tree : Oidium crysiphoides of the 
peach tree ; and Erysiphe communis of 
the pea. Of course there are many 
others. 

MILFOIL. Achillea. 

MILLA. Two species. Half-hardy 



MIL 



378 

— ♦— 



MIX 



bulbous perennials. Offsets. Sandy 
loam. 

MILLINGTONIA simplicifolia. 
Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

MILLIPEDE. See Julus. 

MILTONIA. Three species. Stove 
orchids. Mr. Paxton says, " that to 
propagate them, the stems should be 
cut half through, young plants are then 
emitted ; cut through the stem quite, 
a month before separating the young 
plants ; plant in rough peat and pot- 
sherds." 

MIMETES. Eight species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Light turfy loam. 

MIMOSA. Twenty-two species. 
Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. M. 
pudica, an annual. M. viva, an her- 
baceous perennial. Young cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

M I M U L U S . Seventeen species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials 
increased by division or seed. Com- 
mon soil. The green-house and half- 
hardy species require a light rich soil, 
and increase by cuttings. The annuals, 
seeds. Common soil. 

MIMUSOPS. Six species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Light 
loamy soil, or loam and peat. 

MINT. See Mentha. 

MIRABILIS. Five species and 
several varieties. Green-house fusiform 
rooted perennials. Seeds. Light rich 
soil. 

MERBELIA. Six species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

MISLETOE (Viscum album) is some- 
times required to be introduced upon the 
trees of the shrubbery, and other parts 
of the pleasure ground. The easiest 
and best way to propagate it is by 
placing ripe seeds on the smooth 
branches of the common apple, pear, 
or white thorn, in February or March, 
without in any way damaging the bark 
on which they are placed. The seeds 
should be fixed on the under side of 
the branch, as there they are shaded, 
and more likely to escape being eaten 
by birds when they begin to vegetate. 
Misletoe may be grafted on the apple 
tree : but success is so precarious, that 
few succeed at present. — Gard. Chron. 

MITCHELLA repens. Hardy herba- 
ceous creeper; increased by cuttings 
of the stem. Peat, or peat and sand. 



MITE. Acarus. 

MITELLA. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Peaty 
soil. 

MITRASACME. Three species. 
M. canescens, a green-house herbaceous 
perennial ; the other two annuals. 
Seeds. Sandy peat and loam. 

MIXTURE OF SOILS is one of the 
most ready and cheapest modes of im- 
proving their staple, and thus render- 
ing them more fertile; and upon the 
subject I have nothing to add to the 
following excellent remarks of my bro- 
ther, Mr. Cuthbert Johnson : — 

" I have witnessed even in soils to 
all appearance similar in composition, 
some very extraordinary results from 
their mere mixture. Thus in the gra- 
velly soils of Spring Park, near Croy- 
don, the ground is often excavated to a 
depth of many feet, through strata of 
barren gravel and red sand, for the 
purpose of obtaining the white or silver 
sand, which exists beneath them. When 
this fine sand is removed, the gravel 
and red sand is thrown back into the 
pit, the ground merely levelled, and 
then either let to cottagers for gardens, 
or planted with forest trees; in either 
case the effect is remarkable; all kinds 
of either fir or deciduous trees will now 
vegetate with remarkable luxuriance ; 
and in the cottage garden thus formed, 
several species of vegetables, such as 
beans and potatoes, will produce very 
excellent crops, in the very soils in 
which they would have perished pre- 
vious to their mixture. The permanent 
advantage of mixing soils, too, is not 
confined to merely those entirely of 
an earthy composition ; — earths which 
contain inert organic matter, such as 
peat or moss earth, are highly valuable 
additions to some soils. Thus, peat 
earth was successfully added to the 
sandy soils of Merionethshire, by Sir 
Robert Vaughan. The Cheshire farm- 
ers add a mixture of moss and cal- 
careous earth to their tight-bound 
earths, the effect of which they de- 
scribe as having ' a loosening opera- 
tion ;' that is, it renders the soil of 
their strong clays less tenacious, and, 
consequently, promotes the ready ac- 
cess of the moisture and gases of the 
atmosphere to the roots. The culti- 
vator sometimes deludes himself with 
the conclusion that applying sand, or 
marl, or clay, to a poor soil, merely 



MOE 



379 



MON 



serves to freshen it for a time, and that 
the effects of such applications are ap- 
parent for only a limited period. Some 
comparative experiments, however, 
which were made sixteen years since, 
on some poor, hungry, inert heath land 
in Norfolk, have up to this time served 
to demonstrate the error of such a con- 
clusion. In these experiments, the 
ground was marled with twenty cubic 
yards only per acre, and the same com- 
post ; it was then planted with a proper 
mixture of forest trees, and by the side 
of it, a portion of the heath, in a state 
of nature, was also planted with the 
same mixture of deciduous and fir 
trees. 

" Sixteen years have annually served 
to demonstrate, by the luxuriance of 
the marled wood, the permanent effects 
produced by this mixture of soils. The 
growth of the trees has been there 
rapid and permanent; but on the ad- 
joining soil, the trees have been stunted 
in their growth, miserable in appear- 
ance, and profitless to their owner. 

" Another, but the least commonly 
practiced mode of improving the staple 
of a soil by earthy addition, is claying ; 
a system of fertilizing, the good effects 
of which are much less immediately 
apparent than chalking, and hence one 
of the chief causes of its disuse. It 
requires some little time to elapse, and 
some stirring of the soil, before the 
clay is so well mixed with a sandy soil, 
as to produce that general increased 
attraction and retentive power for the 
atmospheric moisture, which ever con- 
stitutes the chief good result of claying 
poor soils. Clay must be moreover ap- 
plied in rather larger proportions to the 
soil than chalk ; for not only is its ap- 
plication rarely required as a direct 
food for plants for the mere alumina 
which it contains ; since this earth en- 
ters into the composition of plants in 
very small proportion, but there is also 
another reason for a more liberal addi- 
tion of clay being required, which is 
the impure state in which the alumina 
exists in what are commonly called clay 
soils." — Farm. Encyc. 

MOERHINGIA. Two species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
Sand, loam, and peat. 

MOIST STOVE. See Stove. 

MOLDAVIAN BALM. Dracocepha- 
lum moldavicum. 

MOLE CRICKET. Gryllus gryllo- 



talpa is known also in England as the 
churr-worm, jarr-worm, eve churr, and 
earth crab. It is, occasionally, very 
destructive to culinary vegetables ; 
creeping under ground through holes 
it digs. It attains a length of two 
inches, is dark brown, and resembles 
in most respects the common cricket. 
Mr. Kollar thus describes its habits : — 
" The female hollows out a place for 
herself in the earth, about half a foot 
from the surface, in the month of June, 
and lays her eggs in a heap, which 
often contains from two to three hun- 
dred. They are shining yellowish 
brown, and of the size and shape of a 
grain of millet. This hollow place is 
of the shape of a bottle gourd, two 
inches long, and an inch deep, smooth 
within, and having on one side a wind- 
ing communication with the surface of 
the earth. The young, which are hatch- 
ed in July or August, greatly resemble 
black ants, and feed, like the old ones, 
on the tender roots of grass, corn, and 
various culinary vegetables. They be- 
tray their presence under the earth by 
the withered decay of culinary vegeta- 
bles in the garden. In October and 
November they bury themselves deep- 
er in the earth, as a protection from 
cold, and come again to the surface in 
the warmer days in March. Their pre- 
sence is discovered by their throwing 
up the earth like moles. 

" The surest and most efficacious of 
remedies is, without doubt, destroying 
the brood in June or July. Practised 
gardeners know from experience where 
the nest of the mole cricket is situated ; 
they dig it out with their spades, and 
destroy hundreds in the egg state with 
little trouble." — Kollar. 

MOLINERIA plicata. Stove herba- 
ceous perennial. Division. Peat and 
loam. 

MOLUCCA BALM. Moluccella. 

MOLUCCELLA. Three species. 
Hardy annuals. M. tuberosa,a. tuberous- 
rooted perennial. Seeds. Common soil. 

MONACHANTHUS. Monk's-flower. 
Four species. Stove epiphytes. Divi- 
sion. Wood. 

MONARDA. Seven species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

MONETIA barlerioides. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

MONEYWORT. Dioscorea nummu- 
lar ia. 



MON 



380 



MOT 



MONEYWORT. Lysimachia num- 
mularia. 

MONEYWORT. Taverniera num- 
mularia. 

MONK'S FLOWER. Monachanthus. 

MONK'S HOOD. Aconitum. 

MONNINA obtusifolia. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings or seed. 
Peat and loam. 

MONOPSIS conspicua. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Peat and Sand. 

MONOSCHILUS gloxinifolia. Stove 
tuberous-rooted perennial. Division. 
Peat and loam. 

MONOTAXIS simplex. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

MONOTOCA. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

MONSONIA. Four species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. M. ovata, 
a biennial, is increased by seed ; the 
others, cuttings or division. Turfy loam 
and leaf mould. 

MONTEZUMA spsciosissima. Stove 
evergreen tree. Half-ripened cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

MOON-SEED. Menispermum. 

MOON-WORT. Botrychium. 

MORiEA. Twenty species. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Division. 
Sandy Peat. 

MORENOA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

MORICANDIA arvensis. Hardy bi- 
ennial. Seed. Common soil. 

MORINA. Two species. Green- 
house or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials. Seed. Light rich soil. 

MORINDA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. M.jasminoides is a green-house 
evergeen climber. 

MORISIA hypogcea. Hardy herba- 
ceous perennial. Seed. Light loam. 

MORISONI A americana. Stove ever- 
green tree. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

MORMODES. Five species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

MORN A. Two species. Green- 
house annuals. Seeds. Sandy peat 
and leaf mould. 

MORRENIA odorata. Green-house 
evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Rich 
mould. 

MORUS. Mulberry. Nine species, 
and many varieties. Chiefly hardy de- 



ciduous trees ; a few are stove ever- 
greens. Layers. A loamy soil and a 
moist situation. See Mulberry. 

MOSCHARIA pinnatifida. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. 

MOSCHATEL. Adoxa. 

MOSCHOSMA. Two species. Stove 
annuals. Seeds. Light rich soil. 

MOSS is useful to the gardener for 
packing round the roots of plants ; and 
even some bulbous roots have been cul- 
tivated in it ; but when it infests the 
trunks of trees, or our lawns, it is one 
of the gardener's pests. 

" Moss only attacks lawns, the soil of 
which is unable to support a greensward 
of grass. When soil is exhausted, 
grasses begin to die off, and their place 
is taken by moss. The obvious mode, 
then, of proceeding, is to give the lawn 
a good top-dressing in winter, either of 
malt-dust, or nitrate of soda, or soot, 
or any other manure containing an 
abundance of alkali. The gardener 
finds the growth of moss arrested by 
frequent raking in wet weather, or by 
the application of pounded oyster-shells; 
but these are mere palliatives, and not 
remedies. Make your grass healthy, 
and it will soon smother the moss." — 
Gard. Chron. 

The most effectual, most salutary, 
and least disagreeable remedy for moss 
on trees is of trivial expense, and which 
a gardener need but try upon one indi- 
vidual to insure its adoption. It is with 
a hand scrubbing brush, dipped in a 
strong brine of common salt, as often 
as necessary to insure each portion of 
the bark being moistened with it, to 
scrub the trunks and branches of his 
trees at least every second year. It 
most effectually destroys insects of all 
kinds, and moss ; and the stimulating 
influence of the application, and the 
friction, are productive of the most 
beneficial effects. The expense is not 
so much as that of dressing the trunks 
with a solution of lime, which, how- 
ever efficient in the destruction of moss, 
is not so in the removal of insects — is 
highly injurious to the trees, by filling 
up the respiratory pores of the epider- 
mis, and is decidedly a promoter of 
canker. On gravel walks, a strong so- 
lution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) 
has been found the most effectual de- 
stroyer of moss. 

MOTH. Verbascum Blattaria. 
MOTHERWORT. Leonurus. 



MOT 



381 

— ♦— 



MUL 



MOTHS, of most kinds, are the pa- 
rents of caterpillars preying upon some 
plant under the gardener's care, and 
should be destroyed whenever disco- 
vered. 

MOULDINESS is the common term 
applied to that crop of fungi which 
appears on moist putrescent vegetable 
matters. These fungi are Mucores, 
and are effectually destroyed whenever 
common salt or lime can be applied. 

MOUNTAIN ASH. Pyrus Aucupa- 
ria. 

MOUSE TAIL. Bendrobium Myo- 
surus. 

MOUSE THORN. Centaurea Mya- 
cantha. 

MOVING PLANT. Desmodium gy- 
rans. 

MOWING is, next to digging, the 
most laborious of the gardener's em- 
ployments ; and requires much practice, 
as well as an extremely sharp scythe, 
before he can attain to the art of shav- 
ing the lawn or grass plot smoothly 
and equally. A mowing machine has 
been invented by Mr. Budding and 
others, and is represented in this out- 
Fig. 101. 




line. It cuts, collects 
grass at the same time. 

Mowing is most easily performed 
whilst the blades of grass are wet, as 
they then cling to the scythe, and are 
consequently erect against its cutting 
edge. The operation, therefore, should 
be performed early in the morning, be- 
fore the dew has evaporated, or whilst 
the grass is wet from rain or artificial 
watering. See Scythe. 

MUDDING or Puddling, is dipping 
the roots of trees, shrubs, and seedlings 
in a thin mud or puddle, and retaining 
them there until again planted, when- 
ever they are removed. . It is one of 
the best aids to success, and should be 
universally adopted, for it is a rule 
without exception, that the less the 



roots of a plant are injured, and the 
moister they are kept during its re- 
moval, the less does it suffer by the 
transplanting. The best of all muds 
for the purpose is formed of three 
pounds of garden soil, one ounce of 
salt, eight ounces of soot, and one 
gallon of water. 

MULBERRY. Morus nigra. The 
Black, or Garden Mulberry. 

Soil and Site. — The soil most suitable 
for the mulberry is a rich, deep, and 
rather light loam, not cold nor wet, 
but well drained. It succeeds best as 
a standard, in a well-sheltered situa- 
tion, open to the south. It may be 
trained also against a south wall with 
advantage in a cold climate, but re- 
quires much space. — Gard. Chron. 

Propagation — by Seed — is rarely 
practised, the seedlings varying in 
quality, and being long before they 
bear fruit. Sow in a warm border, 
during March, in drills half an inch 
deep. Give moderate waterings in dry 
weather to the seedlings, and shelter 
by mats during cold nights. They re- 
quire remaining two years in the seed 
bed, and then four in the nursery, be- 
fore they are fit for final planting. 

By Layers. — To obtain these in large 
quantities, some mulberry trees should 
be headed down near to the ground, to 
induce lateral shoots for layering. — 
Where only a few are wanted, pots of 
earth may be raised to the branches. 
See Layering and Circumposition. 

Grafting and Budding — may be 
practised, taking any species of the 
genus Morus for the stock. Grafting 
is more difficult of success than bud- 
ding, and Mr. Knight recommends 
grafting by approach as the only cer- 
tain mode. 

By Cuttings. — Mr. Knight recom- 
mends cuttings five inches in length, 
having two-thirds of their length two- 
year old wood, and one-third yearling 
wood, to be planted in November, be- 
neath a south wall. In March, move 
them into pots, leaving only one bud 
uncovered, and plunge in a moderate 
hot-bed. Shade during bright weather, 
and success is almost unfailing. A 
more simple and expeditious mode is 
the following, but whether it is gene- 
rally successful I am unable to state: — 
" Lop off a straight branch, at least 
eight feet long, from a large tree, in 
March, the nearer the trunk the better j 



MUL 



382 



MUS 



clear away every little branch, and 
leave it quite bare; dig a hole four feet 
deep, plant the naked branch and make 
it firm in the ground; leave around it a 
little basin of earth to hold water, and 
if the season be dry, give it every 
morning a bucketfull of water through- 
out the summer. In two years it will 
have made a good head, and will bear 
fruit." — Gard. Chron. 

Pruning. — Standards do not require 
pruning, further than to remove the 
dead wood and irregular growths. On 
walls and as espaliers train in all the 
lateral annual shoots, for near the ends 
of these next year is the fruit mostly pro- 
duced, and pinch off all foreright un- 
fruitful buds as they are produced. In 
training, always make the branches 
descend below the horizontal. 

Forcing. — The mulberry bears forc- 
ing excellently, and will ripen its fruit 
early in June. It will bear a very high 
temperature. It may also be grown of 
a dwarf size in pots, and be thus 
forced. 

MULCHING, is placing mulch, or 
long moist stable litter, upon the sur- 
face of the soil, over the roots of newly 
planted trees and shrubs. The best 
mode is to form a trench about six 
inches deep, to put in the mulch, and 
cover it with the earth. This prevents 
the mulch being dried or scattered by 
the winds, and is more neat than ex- 
posing it on the surface. Mulching 
keeps the moisture from evaporating, 
and prevents frost penetrating to the 
roots, straw being one of the worst 
conductors of heat. 

MULE or Hybrid, is a plant raised 
from seed generated by parents of dis- 
tinct species, and consequently un- 
fertile. See Hybridizing. 

MULLERA moniliformis. Stove 
evergreen tree. Young cuttings. — 
Loam and peat. 

MULTIPLICATE FLOWER. See 
Double Flower. 

MUNDIA spinosa, and its variety. 
Green-house and evergreen fruit shrubs. 
Young cuttings. Sandy peat. 

MUNTINGIA calabura. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
loamy soil. 

MURALTIA. Fourteen species. — 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy peat. 

MURRAYA. Two species. Stove 
evergreens; one a shrub, the other a 



tree. Ripe cuttings, with their leaves. 
Turfy loam and peat. 

MURUCUYA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

MUSA. The Banana and Plantain 
belong to this genus, of which there 
are ten species. Stove herbaceous 
perennials. Suckers. Rich soil. The 
most valuable of the species is M. 
cavendishii; and upon its culture, and 
upon that of the whole genus, we have 
the following observations by Mr. W. 
Buchan, gardener at Blithfield : — 

" To bring musas to a high state of 
perfection, they should be grown in a 
house entirely devoted to them. It 
may have a ' ridge and furrow' roof, 
nearly flat, and should be divided into 
pits about two feet six inches square, 
in order to grow the plants separately, 
so that when they have done fruiting, 
each may be removed and replaced 
without disturbing its neighbour. The 
stem of this musa seldom attains a 
greater height under the most favoura- 
ble culture than six feet; and allowing 
two feet for the expansion of its foliage, 
a house ten feet high in front and twelve 
feet in the back, with sliding lights in 
the front and ends, would suit it admi- 
rably. But it may be easily fruited, 
and with good success, in a pit where 
there is sufficient height without crowd- 
ing the leaves. 

" The soil which suits all kinds of 
musa best is a mixture of half rotten 
dung and half sandy loam, with about 
one-fourth sandy peat, well mixed to- 
gether. The pits or tubs, in which 
latter M. cavendishii may also be 
fruited, should be well drained, as the 
plant requires to be supplied liberally 
with water at the root when growing. 

" They should never cease growing, 
and never be allowed to want heat and 
moisture from the time they are planted 
in the pit or tub, until the fruits have 
attained their full size. A strong moist 
heat, never below 75° or 80° Fahren- 
heit, should be constantly kept up ; the 
plants frequently syringed over head, 
and exposed to full light, without any 
shade. This should be continued until 
the fruits are set and have attained 
their full size, taking care, however, 
not to wet the flowering plants. Young 
healthy plants will throw up their fruit 
in nine or ten months after being 
planted out, if treated as above; and 



MUS 



383 

— • — 



MUS 



as soon as all the fertile flowers are set, 
the end of the spadix, an inch or two 
above the last tier of perfectly set fruit, 
should be cut off. When the upper 
tier of fruit on the spike begins to 
change colour, totally discontinue wa- 
ter, both at the root and over head." — 
Gard. Chron. 

M. coccinea. The cultivation of this 
species is thus detailed by Mr. G. Wat- 
son, gardener at Norton Vicarage : — 

" In the latter part of February, plant 
in pots five or six inches in diameter, 
well drained, and the drainage covered 
with a little moss. Plunge the pots into 
a bottom heat between 60 Q and 70°. 
Water freely, but give no more water 
than the plants can take up from the soil. 
As soon as the pot is filled with roots, 
shift the plant into a pot a size larger. 
After it has filled this pot with roots, a 
final shifting into a pot at least sixteen 
inches in diameter may be given, and 
two or three suckers may then be left 
on the plant, which will succeed the 
centre or principal plant in blooming. 
At this last shifting, pot as many suckers 
in the same way as may be required for 
succession plants. The plant is grow- 
ing vigorously in this pot; cover the 
surface of the soil with moss, and place 
the pot in a shallow pan of water, and 
water it at least once or twice a day. I 
continue to keep the plant growing till 
November, after which I gradually get 
it into a dormant state, by withholding 
water during winter. It is allowed to 
remain dry till the soil separates from 
the edge of the pot, and may thus be 
kept in a cool green-house till spring. 
The suckers taken off at the last pot- 
tings, after being shifted into pots ten 
inches in diameter, and thrown into a 
dormant state at the same time as the 
old plant, will not only be much better 
wintered in the green-house, but will 
flower much earlier. In those parts 
where suckers are left on the mother 
plant, the centre will bloom by the be- 
ginning of May, and the suckers will 
flower in succession during the latter 
end of July and August, the latest 
flowers keeping fine till Christmas. In- 
stead of taking off suckers in the spring, 
leave two or three on the mother plant 
till July, then take them off, and treat 
them in the same manner as the succes- 
sion plants of the previous year." — 
Gard. Chron. 

MUSCARI. Eleven species. Hardy 



bulbous perennials. Offsets. Sandy 
loam. 

MUSHROOM. Agaricus campestris. 
To produce mushrooms artificially, beds 
variously constructed are employed. 

Times of forming the Beds. — Beds 
may be constructed from January until 
the beginning of May, for spring and sum- 
mer production; and from July to the 
close of the year, for autumn and winter. 

Construction. — A bed is usually con- 
structed of stable dung, &c, prepared 
as already directed for cucumbers. It 
is made in the form of the roof of a 
house, four or five feet wide at the base, 
narrowing to an apex, which should be 
rather rounded, three or four feet high, 
and the length from ten to fifty feet. 
The dung being laid in alternate rows, 
with clayey loam, from which the largest 
stones have been sorted ; each layer of 
dung to be a foot thick, and of loam 
four inches, so that three layers of each 
will be sufficient to complete the requi- 
site height. The dung must be well 
separated and mixed, and beat, but not 
trod down. When completed, the bed 
must be covered with litter or other 
light covering, to keep out the wet, as 
well as to prevent its drying; clean dry 
straw will do, but sweet hay, or matting, 
is to be preferred. 

Situation. — The bed should be made 
in a dry sheltered situation, and on the 
level ground in preference to founding 
it in a trench, which prevents the spawn- 
ing being performed completely at the 
bottom, and guards against the settling 
of water, which may chill it. If the site 
is not dry, it must be covered with 
stones, clinkers, &c, to act as a drain ; 
for nothing destroys mushrooms sooner 
than excessive moisture, except an ex- 
treme of heat or cold. To obviate the 
occurrence of these unfavourable cir- 
cumstances, it is by far more preferable 
to construct it under a shed. If it is 
constructed in a shed, it may be built 
against one side, sloping downwards 
from it. To proceed with greater cer- 
tainty during the winter, a fire flue may 
pass beneath the bed; but it is by no 
means absolutely necessary, for by the 
due regulation of covering, it may 
always be kept of sufficient temperature. 

Management. — The spawn must not 
be inserted before the temperature has 
become moderate. 

Temperature. — The minimum is 50°, 
and the maximum 65 Q . Insert the 



MUS 



384 



MUS 



spawn as soon as the violence of the 
heat has abated, which it will in two or 
three weeks, though sometimes it will 
subside in eight or ten days. 

Spawning. — The large lumps of 
spawn, being broken into moderately 
small pieces, are to be planted on both 
sides of the bed and ends, if it is hip- 
ped; each fragment just beneath the 
surface of the dung, in rows six or eight 
inches apart each way. Some gardeners 
erroneously scatter the spawn irregular- 
ly over the surface. Fine rich loam, 
rather light than otherwise, is then to be 
put on, two inches deep, the stones 
being carefully separated. Some gard- 
eners, endeavouring to imitate the natu- 
ral mode of growth, spread an inch in 
depth of mould over the beds, in which 
they set the spawn, and gently cover it 
with half an inch more. Others lay a 
ledge of mould, four inches high, and 
two thick, all round the bed ; upon this 
close to the dung, they lay the spawn ; 
then a second ledge, six inches, of 
similar thickness, on this they set an- 
other row of spawn, and so proceed 
until the bed is finished ; but this has no 
advantage over the first mode described, 
and is much more tedious. Lastly, a 
covering of straw, six or twelve inches 
thick, according to the temperature, is 
to be laid on, and continued constantly. 
When the earthing is finished, the sur- 
face must be gently smoothed with the 
back of the spade, which fixes it pro- 
perly, and if in the open air throws oft' 
any excessive rain. If, after the bed has 
been spawned and covered up, the heat 
appears to be renewed in any consider- 
able degree, the greatest part of the 
covering must be removed, but restored 
again during rain, if the bed is not under 
cover; and to guard against this con- 
tingency it is a good practice to mould 
over only two-thirds of the bed at first, 
leaving the top uncovered to serve as a 
vent for the heat and steam, but when 
all danger is passed it may then be com- 
pleted. 

Mr. Haukin, gardener to Capt. Nut- 
ford, thus completes his preparations : 
— " In about a week or ten days after- 
wards, I finish off the beds with green 
turf, one inch and a half in thickness, 
making the beds in my boxes, in all 
about nine inches in depth. I beat down 
the turf very firmly with the back of a 
spade ; in finishing afterwards, I have 
no farther trouble except in paying at- 



tention to the fire, and in admitting fresh 
air as it may be required. The house 
is heated by open tanks, which run 
through the centre of it, and which re- 
turn again into the boiler, giving out a 
sufficient quantity of moisture for the 
necessary development and growth of 
the mushroom. During night, the 
grassy turf becomes copiously loaded 
with moisture ; and should the follow- 
ing day prove fine, I never omit giving 
abundance of fresh air by the doorway. 
The temperature of the house ranges 
from 60° to 65° during the day, and at 
night it is frequently allowed to fall as 
low as temperate. 

" The great advantage of growing 
the mushroom upon fresh grassy turf is 
obvious to any one accustomed to its 
cultivation. I have been in the habit 
of growing it, and with great success, 
upon coal refuse for the last two years; 
and at present I have two boxes at 
work, one covered with coal dust, the 
other with turf; the produce of these 
shows the relative advantage of the two 
methods, for although those from the 
coal dust are large and of good flavour, 
they are decidedly inferior in both re- 
spects to those produced by the grass 
covered beds; indeed, such is the supe- 
riority of the latter, that if the mush- 
rooms from both beds were gathered, 
and mixed indiscriminately, any one 
could, without difficulty, select those 
grown upon the turf from those raised 
on the beds covered with the small 
coal." — Gard. Chron. 

In four or five weeks after spawning, 
in spring and autumn, the bed should 
begin to produce, but not until much 
later in summer and winter; and if kept 
dry and warm, will continue to do so 
for several months. 

A gathering may take place two or 
three times a week, according to the 
productiveness of the bed. It some- 
times happens that beds will not come 
into production for five or six months ; 
they should not therefore be impatiently 
destroyed. 

Watering. — In autumn, the bed will 
not require water until the first crop is 
gathered, but it is then to be repeated 
after every gathering ; a sprinkling only 
is necessary. In spring and summer, 
during dry weather, the same course is 
to be pursued. As excessive or un- 
equal moisture is studiously to be 
avoided, the best mode of applying the 



MUS 



385 

-Ml — 



MUS 



water is to pour it through a rose pan 
on to a thin layer of hay, which has 
previously been spread over the bed, 
and thus allowed to percolate by de- 
grees. In winter, waterings are not al- 
lowable; to keep the mould moist, hot 
fermenting mulch may be put on outside 
the covering. If the bed is in the open 
ground, in a warm day succeeding to wet 
weather, it may be left uncovered for not 
more than two or three hours. During 
excessive rains, the additional covering 
of mats, &c, must be afforded ; and on 
the other hand, if a moderate warm 
shower occurs during summer after ex- 
cessive droughts, it may be fully admit- 
ted, by taking off the covering. 

Mode of Gathering. — In gathering, 
the covering being carefully turned off, 
only such are to be taken as are half an 
inch or more in diameter before they 
become flat, but are compact and firm. 
Old mushrooms, especially, should be 
rejected for the table, as it is found that 
some which are innoxious when young, 
become dangerous when tending to de- 
cay ; they also then lose much of their 
flavour. 

Each individual is detached by a gen- 
tle twist completely to the root; a knife 
must never be employed, for the stumps 
left in the ground decay, and become 
the nursery of maggots, which are lia- 
ble to infect the succeeding crop. 

Other Modes of Cultivation. — Some 
gardeners merely vary from the preced- 
ing by building entirely of dung, with- 
out any layers of earth. Many garden- 
cars grow mushrooms in the same bed 
with their melons and cucumbers. The 
spawn is inserted in the mould and on 
the hills of the beds, as soon as the 
burning heat is passed. 

In September or October, when the 
bines of the plant decay, the bed is then 
carefully cleaned, the glasses put on 
and kept close, and when the mould 
becomes dry, water is frequently but 
moderately given, as well as every gen- 
tle shower admitted when necessary. 
A gentle heat is thus caused, and the 
produce is extraordinarily abundant, fre- 
quently two bushels, from a frame ten 
feet by six, and individuals have been 
produced two pounds in weight. 

Mushrooms are thus produced with- 
out any trouble but the giving moderate 
waterings until frost prevents their ve- 
getation ; the glasses, if wanted, are 
then removed, and the beds covered 
25 



lightly with straw, but not otherwise. 
The warm showers of the ensuing spring 
will again cause an abundant produc- 
tion, as also in the autumn, if left; but 
the beds are generally broken up for 
the sake of the dung, and the spawn 
collected and dried. 

Hampers or boxes containing about 
four inches depth of fresh, dry stable 
dung, or, in preference, of a mixture of 
three barrow loads of horse dung, and 
one perfectly dry cow dung, well pressed 
in, may be set in some situation, where 
neither damp nor frost can enter. After 
two or three days, or as soon as heat is 
generated, the spawn may be inserted, 
a mushroom brick to be broken into 
three equal parts, and each fragment to 
be laid four inches asunder, on the sur- 
face of the dung ; after six days an inch 
and a half depth of fresh dung to be beat- 
en down as before. In the course of a 
fortnight, or as soon as it is found that 
the spawn has run nearly through the 
whole of the dung, mould must be ap- 
plied two inches and a half thick, and 
the surface made level. This mould 
must be prepared six months before 
wanted, by laying alternate layers, of 
six inches depth, of fresh stable dung, 
and three inches of light mould, to such 
an extent as may be deemed necessary 
for the supply of a year ; in six months 
the dung will be sufficiently decayed, 
and the whole may then be broken toge- 
ther, and passed through a garden sieve 
for use. In five or six weeks the mush- 
rooms will begin to come up, and if the 
mould appear dry, may then be gently 
watered ; the water being slightly heat- 
ed. Each box will continue in produc- 
tion six or eight weeks. 

Mr. J. Oldaker, late gardener to the 
Emperor of Russia, introduced a house 
purposely constructed for the growth 
of the mushroom. The house is found 
of great use in storing brocoli during 
the winter. It is usually built against 
the back wall of a forcing house, as in 
the annexed plan, but if built uncon- 
nected with another building,. the only 
necessary alteration is to have a hipped 
instead of a lean-to roof. The outside 
wall, g h, should be eight feet and a 
half high for four heights, the width ten 
feet within the walls, which is most con- 
venient, as it admits shelves three feet 
and a half wide on each side, and a 
space up the middle three feet wide, 
for a double flue, and wall upon it. 



MUS 



386 



MUS 



When the outside of the house is 
finished, a floor or ceiling is made over 
it, as high as the top of the outside 
walls, of boards one inch thick, and 
plastered on the upper side, e e, with 
road sand, well wrought together, an 
inch thick ; square trunks,/, being left 
in the ceiling nine inches in diameter, 
up the middle of the house, at six feet 
apart, with slides, s, to ventilate with 
when necessary. 

Fig. 102. 




Two single brick walls, v v, each five 
bricks high, are then to be erected at 
three feet and a half from the outside 
walls, to hold up the sides of the floor 
beds, a a, and form at the same time 
one side of the air flues. Upon these 
walls, v v, are to be laid planks four 
inches and a half wide and three inches 
thick, in which are to be mortised the 
standards, I k, which support the 
shelves. These standards to be three 
inches and a half square, and four feet 
and a half asunder, fastened at the top, 
k k, into the ceiling. The cross bearers, 
•/ ?, i i, which support the shelves, o o, 
must be mortised into the bearers and 
into the walls ; the first set of bearers 
being two feet from the floor, and each 
succeeding one to be at the same dis- 
tance from the one below it. The 
shelves, o o, are to be of boards one 
inch and a half thick ; each shelf hav- 
ing a ledge in front, of boards one inch 
thick, and eight inches deep, to support 
the front of the beds, fastened outside 



the standards. The flue to commence 
at the end of the house next the door, 
and running the whole length to return 
back paralleled, and communicate with 
the chimney; the walls of the insides 
to be the height of four bricks laid flat, 
and six inches wide ; this will allow a 
cavity, t, on each side betwixt the flues, 
two inches wide, to admit the heat from 
their sides into the house. The middle 
cavity, x y, should be covered with tiles, 
leaving a space of one inch betwixt each. 
The top of the flue, including the co- 
vering, should not be higher than the 
walls that form the fronts of the floor 
beds. The wall itself is covered with 
three rows of tiles, the centre one co- 
vering the cavity x y, as before men- 
tioned, the outside cavities, tt, are left 
uncovered. 

As the compost, the formation of the 
beds, &c, are very different from the 
common practice, I shall give a con- 
nected view ofMr. Oldaker's directions. 
The compost employed is fresh horse- 
dung, which has been subject neither 
to wet nor fermentation, cleared of the 
long straw, but one-fourth of the short 
litter allowed to remain, with one-fourth 
of dry turf mould, or other fresh earth : 
this enables the bed to be made solid 
and compact, which is so congenial to 
the growth of mushrooms. 

The beds are to be made by placing 
a layer of the above compost, three 
inches thick, on the shelves and floor, 
which must be beat as close as possible 
with a flat mallet, fresh layers being 
added and consolidated until the bed is 
seven inches thick, and its surface as 
level as possible. If the beds are 
thicker, the fermentation caused will 
be too powerful ; or, if much less, the 
heat will be insufficient for the nourish- 
ment of the spawn. As soon as the 
beds intimate a warmth of 80° or 90°, 
they are to be beat a second time to 
render them still more solid, and holes 
made with a dibble, three inches in 
diameter and nine apart, through the 
compost, in every part of the beds ; 
these prevent too great a degree of 
heat arising and causing rottenness. 

If the beds do not attain a proper 
heat in four or five days after being put 
together, another layer, two inches 
thick, must be added. If this does not 
increase the heat, part of the beds must 
be removed and fresh horse-droppings 
mixed with the remainder. The spawn 



MUS 



387 

- » ■ 



MUS 



is to be inserted in three or four days 
after making the holes; when the ther- 
mometer indicates the desired degree 
of heat, the insides of the holes are 
dry; and while the heat is on a decline, 
every hole is to be filled, either with 
lumps or small fragments well beaten 
in, and the surface made level. 

In a fortnight, if the spawn is vege- 
tating freely, which it will if not dam- 
aged by excess of heat or moisture, 
and the beds are required for immediate 
production, they may be earthed over ; 
but those for succession left unearthed, 
three or four weeks in summer, and 
four or five in winter. If the spawn is 
introduced in hot weather, air must be 
admitted as freely as possible until it 
has spread itself through the beds, 
otherwise these will become spongy, 
and the crop be neither good nor abund- 
ant. 

The mould employed should be 
maiden earth, with turf well reduced ; 
neither too dry nor too wet, otherwise it 
will not be capable of being beat solid. 
It must be laid regularly over the beds 
two inches thick. From the time of 
moulding, the room is to be kept at a 
temperature of 50° or 55°. If higher, 
it will weaken or destroy the spawn ; 
if lower, it will vegetate slowly, and 
if watered in that state, numbers of 
mushrooms will be prevented attaining 
perfection. Water must be applied with 
extreme caution, being nearly as warm 
as new milk, and sprinkled over the beds 
with a syringe or small watering-pot. 
Cold water destroys both the crop and 
the beds. If suffered to become dry, 
it is better to give several light than 
one heavy watering. 

Beds thus managed will bear for 
several months; and a constant supply 
kept up by earthing one bed or more 
every two or three months. 

If, when in full production, the mush- 
rooms become long-stemmed and weak, 
the temperature is certainly too high, and 
air must be proportionately admitted. 
As the beds decline, to renovate them, 
the earth must be taken off clean, and 
if the dung is decayed they must be re- 
formed, any good spawn being preserv- 
ed that may appear; but if the beds 
are dry, solid, and full of good spawn, 
a fresh layer of compost, three or four 
inches thick, must be added, mixed a 
little with the old, and beat solid as 
before. 



Mushrooms may be grown in a cellar, 
or other vaulted place, with equal suc- 
cess, andnotunfrequently with a greater 
advantage, the same rules being adopt- 
ed ; but no fire is necessary, and less 
water. 

Heating by Hot-Water. — Instead of 
flues, as used by Mr. Oldacker, the fol- 
lowing plan, by Mr. Sellers, gardener 
to L. V. Watkins, Esq., of Pennoyre, 
may be substituted :— 

Fig. 103. 



& 



j\ 



m i m 



k 



3/ 



" This cut represents a section of the 
interior of the house, with three beds 
for mushrooms, a a a, eighteen feet 
long, and three feet wide, and three 
shelves for forcing rhubarb, bbb. If 
circumstances permit, these shelves 
may be made wider, and used for mush- 
rooms. Stones are placed on each side 
of the passage, at c c, for the standards 
to be placed on which support the 
bearers of the shelves, and mortised at 
d d. The stones should be about six 
inches square on the surface, and three 
inches thick ; and the standards about 
three inches and a half square. 

« When the standards and cross- 
bearers are fixed, the shelves may be 
formed by laying along the latter boards 
one inch and a half thick; and it will 
be convenient, when removing or put- 
ting fresh dung, if a board eight inches 
broad and one inch thick is placed be- 
hind the standard at i, or cut so as to 
come flush with it. 

" When the shelves are fixed, a 
trench, nine inches deep, is made in 
the passage, ml m, for the reception of 
the pipes ; on each side this trench a 
brick-wall, i i, is built, to prevent rub- 
bish from falling in. The bottom of 
the trench must be puddled with clay, 
so that the water thrown on the pipes 
will not escape. 



MUS 



388 



MUS 



" The pipes used are about one inch 
and a half bore, and they are laid in the 
trench three inches apart; a wooden 
trellis is placed over them, resting on 
the brick walls i i, and forms a path. 

" When the mushrooms want steam- 
ing, it is only necessary to take a fine 
rose watering-pot, and sprinkle the 
pipes with it till the steam arises so 
thick that objects cannot be seen at the 
further end of the house. Steaming is 
better than watering over head for 
mushrooms, as much water is injurious 
to the spawn. — Gard. Chron. 

Spawn, where to be found. — Spawn is 
constituted of masses of white fibres 
arising from the seeds of mushrooms 
that have fallen into situations suitable 
for their germination, from which it is 
to be obtained : such places are stable 
dung-hills, dungy horse-rides in stable- 
yards, horse mill-tracks, dry spongy 
composts: the droppings of hard-fed 
horses also produce it in greater abund- 
ance than the dung of any other ani- 
mal ; and more sparingly under sheds, 
where horses, oxen, or sheep have been 
kept. The dung of the two latter af- 
fords it in greater perfection than that 
of grass-fed horses. It has also been 
found in pigeons' dung ; but the most 
certain mode of obtaining it is to open 
the ground about mushrooms growing 
in pastures, though it is said not to be 
so productive. 

Time of Collecting. — It must be col- 
lected in July, August, and September, 
being reckoned in the greatest perfec- 
tion in this last month. It may be 
found, however, and should be collect- 
ed, when it appears in the spring. It 
generally occurs spread through the 
texture of cakes, or lumps of dry rotted 
dung. Put it in a heap under a dry 
shed; and a current of air, passing 
through the shed, is of great utility. If 
kept dry, spawn may be preserved 
three or four years: if damp, it will 
either vegetate before being planted, 
or putrefy. 

Spawn must not be so far advanced 
in vegetation as to appear in threads or 
fibres ; for, when in this state, it is no 
longer applicable to a mushroom-bed ; 
it may produce a mushroom if left to it- 
self, but otherwise is useless. Spawn 
proper for inserting in a«bed should 
have the appearance of indistinct white 
mould. 



being raised artificially. The following 
is the manner: — 

Two barrow-loads of cow-dung, not 
grass-fed, one load of sheep's-dung, and 
one of horses', well-dried and broken 
so small as to pass through a coarse 
sieve, are well mixed, and laid in a 
conical heap during March, in a dry 
shed, being well trod, as it is formed, 
to check its heating excessively. This 
heap is covered with hot dung, four 
inches thick, or only with mats if the 
shed is warm ; for here, as in all the 
stages of growth, the heat should only 
range between 55o and 60°. In about 
a month the heap is examined ; and if 
the spawn has not begun to run, which 
is shown by indistinct white fibres per- 
vading its texture, another covering of 
equal thickness to the first is applied 
over the old one ; in another month it 
will indubitably make its appearance. 
The time varies from three to ten weeks. 

May be increased. — If a small quantity 
of spawn only can be collected, it may 
be increased by the following methods, 
the first of which is chiefly recommend- 
able on account of its simplicity and fa- 
cility of adoption: — 

Small pieces of the spawn may be 
planted a foot asunder, just beneath the 
surface of the mould of a cucumber-bed 
constructed in the spring. In about 
two months the surface of the spawn 
will assume a mouldy appearance ; it 
may then be taken up, with the earth 
adhering to it, and when dried stored 
as before directed. 

The second mode is variously prac- 
tised. In the course of May a heap of 
the droppings of cow, sheep, and horses, 
or any one or two of them, without the 
admixture of any undecomposed straw, 
is to be collected, and one-fifth of road- 
scrapings with one-twentieth of coal- 
ashes added, the whole being mixed 
together with as much of the drainings 
from a dung-hill as will make it of 
the consistency of mortar. Being well 
incorporated, it is then to be spread in 
a dry, sheltered, airy place, on a smooth 
surface, and beat flat with a spade. 
When become of the consistency of 
clay, it is to be cut into slabs about 
eight inches square, a hole punched 
half through the middle of each, and 
piled to dry, an opening being left be- 
tween every two bricks. When per- 
fectly dry, a fragment of the spawn is 



May be raised. — Spawn is capable of to be buried in the hole previously 



MUS 



389 

— « — 



MUS 



made : it will shortly spread through 
the whole texture of the slabs, if kept 
in a warm dry place, when each may be 
broken into four pieces, and when quite 
dry laid on shelves — separate, and not 
in heaps, otherwise a bed will be form- 
ed for the spawn to run in. Mr. Wales 
recommends the composition to consist 
of three parts horse-dung without lit- 
ter, two of rotten tree-leaves, two of 
cow-dung, one of rotten tanners' bark, 
and one of sheep's dung, mixed to the 
consistency of mortar, and moulded in 
small frames like those used by brick- 
makers, six inches long, four broad, 
and three deep. Three holes to be 
made half through the bricks, an inch 
apart, with a blunt dibble, for the re- 
ception of the spawn. They should be 
put on board for the convenience of 
moving abroad during fine days, as they 
must be made perfectly dry, which they 
often appear to be on the outside when 
they are far otherwise internally. Be- 
fore they are perfectly dry they require 
great care in handling and turning, from 
their aptitude to break ; but in about 
three weeks, if dry weather, when per- 
fectly exsiccated, they become quite 
firm. To pervade them with the spawn, 
a layer of fresh horse-litter, which has 
laid in a heap to sweeten as for a hot- 
bed, must be formed, six inches thick, 
in a dry shed. On this a course of the 
bricks is to be laid, and their holes 
completely filled with spawn ; and, as 
the bricks are laid in rows upon each 
other, the upper side of each is to be 
scattered over with some of the same. 
The bricks are not placed so as to touch, 
so that the heat and steam of the dung 
may circulate equally and freely. The 
heap is to terminate with a single brick, 
and when completed, covered with a 
layer, six inches thick, of hot dung, to 
be reinforced with an additional three 
inches after a lapse of two weeks. The 
spawn will generally have thoroughly 
run through the bricks after another 
fortnight. If, however, upon examina- 
tion this is not found to be the case, 
they must remain for ten days longer. 
The bricks being allowed to dry for a 
few days before they are stored, will 
then keep for many years. 

Mr. Oldaker recommends the bricks 
to be made of fresh horse-droppings, 
mixed with short litter, to which must 
be added one-third of cow-dung and a 
small portion of earth, to cement them 



together. The spawn to be inserted 
when they are half dry. 

Quantity required. — One bushel of 
spawn is required for a bed five feet by 
ten; two bushels for one double that 
length ; and so on in proportion. 

MUSK-FLOWER. Mimulus mos- 
chata. 

MUSSiENDA. Eight species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

MUSTARD. Sinapis alba. 

Soil and Situation. — It succeeds best 
in a fine rich mouldy loam, in which the 
supply of moisture is regular; it may 
rather incline to lightness than tenacity. 
If grown for salading it need not be 
dug deep; but if for seed, to full the 
depth of the blade of the spade. 

In early spring, and late in autumn, 
the situation should be sheltered ; and 
during the height of summer, shaded 
from the meridian sun. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — For sal- 
ading, it may be sown throughout the 
year. From the beginning of November 
to the same period of March, in a gentle 
hot-bed appropriated to the purpose, 
in one already employed for some other 
plant, or in the corner of a stove. From 
the close of February to the close of 
April it may be sown in the open ground, 
on a warm sheltered border, and from 
thence to the middle of September in 
a shady one. Both the white and black, 
for seed, may be sown at the close of 
March, in an open compartment. For 
salading, it is sown in flat-bottomed 
drills, about half an inch deep and six 
inches apart. The seed cannot well 
be sown too thick. The earth which 
covers the drills should be entirely di- 
vested of stones. Water must be given 
occasionally in dry weather, as a due 
supply of moisture is the chief induce- 
ment to a quick vegetation. The sow- 
ings are to be performed once or twice 
in a fortnight, according to the demand. 
Cress (lepidium sativum) is the almost 
constant accompaniment of this salad- 
herb ; and as the mode of cultivation 
for each is identical, it is only neces- 
sary to remark that, as cress is rather 
tardier in vegetating than mustard, it is 
necessary, for the obtaining them both 
in perfection at the same time, to sow 
it five or six days earlier. 

It must be cut for use whilst young, 
and before the rough leaves appear, 
otherwise the pungency of the flavour 



MUT 



390 



MYR 



is disagreeably increased. If the top 
only is cut off, the plants will in ge- 
neral shoot again, though this second 
produce is always scanty, and not so 
mild or tender. 

To obtain Seed. — For the production 
of seed sow thin. When the seedlings 
have attained four leaves they should 
be hoed, and again after the lapse of 
a month, during dry weather, being set 
eight or nine inches apart. Throughout 
their growth they must be kept free from 
weeds; and if dry weather occurs at the 
time of flowering, water may be applied 
with great advantage to their roots. 

The plants flower in June, and are 
fit for cutting when their pods have be- 
come devoid of verdure. They must 
be thoroughly dried before threshing 
and storing. 

Forcing — For forcing, the seed is 
most conveniently sown in boxes or 
pans, even if a hot-bed is appropriated 
to the purpose. Pans of rotten tan are 
to be preferred to pots or boxes of 
mould ; but whichever is employed the 
seed must be sown thick, and other 
restrictions attended to, as for the open- 
ground crops. The hot-bed need only 
be moderate. Air may be admitted as 
abundantly as circumstances will allow. 

MUTISIA. Three species. Stove 
or green-house evergreen climbers. 
Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

MYAGRUM perfoliatum. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

MYANTHUS. Fly-wort. Four spe- 
cies. Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 

MYGINDA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs, except M. myrti- 
folia, which is hardy. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

MYLOCARYUM ligustrinum. 
Half-hardy evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

MYOPORUM. Twelve species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

MYOSOTIS. Eleven species. Har- 
dy annuals and aquatic and herbaceous 
perennials. M. intermedials a decidu- 
ous trailer ; M. palustris is the well- 
known Forget-me-not. The perennials 
require a moist soil, and may be in- 
creased by division or seed ; the an- 
nuals by seed, in a dry sandy soil. 

MYRCIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 



MYRIADENUS tetraphyllus. Stove 
biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 

MYRICA. Eleven species. Green- 
house evergreen and hardy deciduous 
shrubs. The green-house kinds are 
increased by cuttings; the hardy by 
seeds or layers. Peaty soil. 

MYRICARIA. Two species. Hardy 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Com- 
mon soil. 

MYRISTICA. Nutmeg. Three 
species. Stove evergreen trees. Ripe 
cuttings. Sandy loam. 

MYROBALAN PLUM. Prunus do- 
mestica myrobalana. 

MYRSIPHYLLUM. Two species. 
Green-house deciduous twiners. Di- 
vision. Sandy loam and peat. 

MYRTLE. Myrtus. 

MYRTLE-BILBERRY. Vaccinium 
myrtillus. 

MYRTUS. The Myrtle. Eleven 
species, and many varieties. Green- 
house or stove evergreen shrubs. Half- 
ripened cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
Water freely whilst they are growing 
in spring and summer. The common 
myrtle is M. communis, of which there 
are several varieties, chiefly character- 
ized by the breadth and size of the 
leaves or doubleness of the flowers. 

Propagation. — By Slips and Cut- 
tings. — The young shoots, either of 
the same or former year's growth, of 
from about two or three to five or six 
inches long, either slipped or cut off, 
are the proper parts for planting, and 
may be struck either with or without 
artificial heat. By either method June 
or July is the best season, especially 
when intended to use the shoots of the 
year. The previous year's shoots will 
also strike tolerably, especially if plant- 
ed in spring, or, by aid of hot-beds, may 
be made to strike root readily at 
any time in the spring or summer. 
By aid of a hot-bed both one and two 
year shoots may be greatly facilitated 
in rooting. A dung hot-bed, under 
common frames and lights, will do, 
though a bark hot-bed of a stove, 
&c, is the most eligible and effectual. 
Plants thus struck in spring, or early 
in summer, from plants of the same 
year, will be fit to pot off separately 
early in autumn. Choose straight clean 
shoots, and as robust as possible, which 
divest of the lower leaves two-thirds of 
their length; they are then ready for 
planting. Fill the pots or pans with 



NAI 



391 

— •— 



N AR 



light rich mould, in which plant the 
slips or cuttings — many in each pot or 
pan if required, putting them in within 
an inch of their tops, and about an inch 
or two asunder. Give directly some 
water, to settle the earth closely about 
each plant; then, either plunge the 
pots, &c, in a shallow garden-frame, 
and put on the glasses, or cover each 
pot or pan close with a low hand-glass, 
which is the most eligible for facilitating 
their rooting. In either method, how- 
ever, observe to plunge the pots in the 
earth or hot-bed. 

Afford them occasional shade from 
the mid-day sun, and give plenty of 
water three or four times a week at 
least, or oftener in very hot weather ; 
thus they will be rooted in a month or 
six weeks. Let them remain in the 
open air until October, then remove 
them into the green-house for the 
winter; and in spring the forwardest in 
growth may be potted off separately in 
small pots ; but if rather small and 
weak, or but indifferently rooted, let 
them have another summer's growth, 
and pot them out separately in Sep- 
tember or spring following, managing 
them as other green-house shrubs of 
similar temperature, and shifting them 
into larger pots annually, or according 
as they shall require. 

By Layers. — Such plants as are fur- 
nished with young bottom branches or 
shoots, situated low enough for laying, 
may be layered in spring in the usual 
way ; every shoot will readily emit 
roots, and be fit to transplant into 
separate pots in autumn. 

By Seed. — These may be sowed in 
spring, in pots of light mould, and 
plunged in a moderate hot-bed. The 
plants will soon come up, which, when 
two or three inches high, pot off sepa- 
rately in small pots : manage them as 
the others. — Abercrombie. 

With respect to the general culture, 
see Green-house Plants. 

NAILS for training wall trees are 
best made of cast iron, being the 
cheapest, stoutest, and most enduring. 
Before using they should be heated 
almost to redness, and then be thrown 
into cold linseed oil. When dry, they 
have a varnish upon them which pre- 
serves them from rusting, and prevents 
the mortar of the wall sticking to them 
so corrosively as it does if they are 
unoiled. In drawing old nails from 



walls, the mortar is not so much dis- 
turbed if the nails are driven in a little 
further before they are extracted. Old 
nails may be renovated by being heated 
to redness, and then thrown into water: 
this removes from them the mortar; 
and then they may be again heated and 
put into oil as before directed. The 
cast iron nails used by gardeners are 
known to the ironmonger as wall nails, 
and are described as 2£, 3, 4, and 5 lb. 
wall nails, accordingly as 1,000 of 
them are of those weights. 

" Nails in most cases require to be 
driven only a very little way into the 
mortar, and wails then do not become 
defaced by them for many years. In 
all summer nailing of peach trees, 
roses, &c, the point only requires to 
be driven in, so that the nail may be 
easily withdrawn by the fingers. If 
these precautions are attended to, and 
the nails are not driven into the face of 
the bricks, but between the mortar 
joints, a good wall will last for half a 
century without requiring fresh pointing, 
and by nails the branches of a tree can 
always be better placed than by loops 
or similar contrivance."--Gard. Chron. 

NANDINA domestica. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loarn 
and peat. 

NAPOLEON'S WEEPING WIL- 
LOW. Salix Napoleana. 

NARAVELIA zeylanica. Stove 
evergreen climber. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

NARCISSUS. Eighty-five species; 
all hardy bulbs, including the Daffodil 
(JV. Pseudo-Narcissus); Two-coloured 
(N.bicolor) ; White, or Poet's Narcissus 
(JV. poeticus) ; Hoop-petticoat Narcis- 
sus (JV. bulbocodium) ; Small autumn 
Narcissus (JV. serotinus) ; Polyanthus 
Narcissus (JV. tazetta); Jonquil (N.jon- 
quilla) ; and Paper Narcissus (JV. papy- 
raceus); with varieties of each. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — Mr. 
Glenny says — " that in the Narcissi the 
flowers should be circular and large, 
they should expand flat, and the cup 
which is in the centre should stand out 
well. The petals should be thick, 
smooth, firm, free from notch or rough- 
ness on the edges, and have no points. 
The bunch of flowers should not con- 
sist of less than seven ; the footstalks 
should be of such length as to allow 
the flowers to touch each other at the 
edge, and present an even, though 



N AR 



392 

■ ♦ 



N AR 



rounding or dome-like surface, with 
one bloom in the middle, the other six 
forming a circle round it. The stem 
should be strong, firm, elastic, and not 
more than ten inches in length. The 
leaves should be short, broad, and 
bright, and there must not be more 
than one flower stem to a show flower. 
If the variety be white, it should be 
pure ; and the yellow cup should be 
bright. If the variety be yellow, it 
cannot be too bright. Double flowers, 
and Narcissi of numerous kinds, with 
only one or two flowers in a sheath, 
will not be considered subjects of ex- 
hibition, except in collections of forced 
flowers." — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 

Propagation. — The propagation of 
all the Narcissi is effected principally 
by offsets ; also by seed, to obtain new 
varieties. 

By Offsets. — All the sorts increase 
plentifully by offset bulbs from the main 
roots annually ; and the proper time for 
separating them is in summer, when 
they have done flowering, and the 
leaves and stalks begin to decay. 

By Seed. — It will be often six or 
seven years before the seedlings will 
flower in perfection. The seed ripens 
in June or July, which sow soon after 
in pots or boxes of light rich earth, half 
an ineh deep, then place them in a full 
sunny situation for the winter, allowing 
them shelter in severe frosts. In March 
or April they will come up. Give fre- 
quently sprinklings of water, and, occa- 
sional shade from the midday sun at 
their first appearance ; and as the 
warm season advances, move the pots 
to an eastern aspect, to have only the 
morning sun till ten or eleven o'clock. 
In June or July the leaves will decay, 
when stir the surface lightly, and clear 
off the decayed leaves, all weeds, and 
mossiness; then sift a little fine mould 
over the surface, half an inch thick, 
repeating it in October. Let them re- 
main till the third year, treating simi- 
larly; and in the third summer, at the 
decay of the leaves, take up the bulbs, 
and separate the largest, which plant 
in beds, in rows, five or six inches 
asunder and three deep ; and the small 
bulbs you may scatter, mould and all, 
on the surface of another bed, and 
cover them two or three inches deep 
with fine earth, which after a year's 
growth may be transplanted in rows as 
above. In these beds let the seedlings 



remain till they show flowers, and after 
the second year's bloom you will be 
able to judge of their properties, when 
mark the good sorts, and manage them 
as directed for the blowing roots. 

Soil and Culture. — They succeed 
very well in any good, light, rich earth, 
in a sheltered situation and eastern 
aspect, with the beds a little elevated 
above the common level ; and in win- 
ter and early in spring give occasional 
shelter of mats from frosts and incle- 
ment weather, especially after the 
flower buds appear above ground. All 
the sorts of these bulbs, planted in 
either of the above methods, may be 
suffered to remain in the ground two 
or three years, or more, unremoved; 
however, it is proper to take up the 
bulbs in general every third or fourth 
year, in order to separate the offsets, 
which in that time will be increased so 
greatly in number, that the tubes press- 
ing close against one another, the inner 
ones will be so much compressed and 
weakened, as greatly to impede their 
flowering. But where these bulbs are 
intended for sale, they should generally 
be lifted once a year, or once every 
two years, otherwise, by their growing 
close in clusters, pressing against one 
another, they will be flattened thereby, 
and rendered unsightly, and less sale- 
able. The proper time of year for 
taking up all the sorts is soon after 
they have done flowering, and their 
leaves and flower stalks attained a 
state of decay ; at which time of lifting 
the bulbs, separate them all singly, and 
the smaller offsets from the larger, re- 
serving the large roots for planting 
again in the principal compartments; 
and the smaller may be deposited in 
nursery beds for a year or two, to gain 
strength, when they will become good 
flowering roots, and may then be taken 
up at the proper season, in order for 
planting where wanted. When the 
roots are lifted at the above season, 
they may either be planted again di- 
rectly, or in a month or six weeks 
after; or may be cleaned and dried, 
and retained out of the ground in a dry 
room, two or three months, or longer, 
if occasion shall require. 

Method of Planting. — The best gene- 
ral season for planting all these bulbs 
is in autumn, from about the begin- 
ning or middle of September until No- 
vember: they will flower considerably 



NAR 



393 



NE A 



stronger, as well as furnish a greater 
increase of offsets than those planted 
later, or not till spring; if, however, 
some roots are retained out of ground 
until February, they will succeed those 
of the autumnal planting in flowering. 
Those in the open borders should be 
deposited in little patches of about 
three or four roots in each, planting 
them either with a blunt dibble, or with 
a garden trowel, four inches deep. 
When planted in beds by themselves, 
have the beds four feet wide, with al- 
leys, a foot and a half or two feet wide, 
between, plant the roots in rows length- 
wise, nine inches asunder, about four 
inches deep, and six distant in each 
row, covering them regularly with the 
earth, and rake the surface smoothly. 
Having planted the roots in either of 
these methods, all the culture they re- 
quire is to be kept clean from weeds ; 
and they will all flower in the following 
spring and summer. 

Water Culture. — The Polyanthus, 
Narcissus, and the large Jonquils, are 
bloomed in glasses of water in rooms, 
in winter and early in spring ; any of 
the other species may also be flowered 
in the same manner; observing to pro- 
cure such roots as were lifted at the 
season above mentioned. The season 
for placing in water is any time in win- 
ter or early spring, from October till 
March, observing to fill the glasses 
with fresh soft water, so full that the 
bottom of the bulb may just touch it. 
See Hyacinth. 

Pot Culture. — The same plants may 
be brought to early bloom in pots ; 
plant the bulbs in pots of light rich 
earth during August, and place in a 
warm room ; they will bloom about 
November. — Abercrombie. 

NARCISSUS-FLY. See Meurodon. 

NASTURTIUM. By this name are 
commonly known two species of Tro- 
pceolum. T. majus is a hardy annual 
twiner, and there are several varieties, 
distinguished by their double or crim- 
son flowers. T. minus is a hardy an- 
nual trailer, and a variety with double 
flowers, is a green-house evergreen. 

Although strictly annual when grown 
in the open ground in this country, yet 
they are naturally perennial, as may be 
proved if they are grown in a green- 
house. The Major Nasturtium being 
the most productive, as well of flowers 
and leaves as of berries, is the one that 



is usually cultivated in the kitchen gar- 
den ; the first two being employed in 
salads and for garnishing, and the last 
in pickling. 

Soil and Situation. — They flourish in 
almost any soil, but are most productive 
in a light fresh loam. In a strong rich 
soil, the plants are luxuriant, but afford 
fewer berries, and those of inferior fla- 
vour. They like an open situation. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — They 
may be sown from the beginning of 
March to the middle of May; the ear- 
lier, however, the better: one sowing 
in the kitchen garden, and that a small 
one, is quite sufficient for a moderate 
sized family. The seed may be inserted 
in a drill, two inches deep along its bot- 
tom, in a single row, with a space of 
two or three inches between every two, 
or they may be dibbled in at a similar 
distance and depth. The minor is like- 
wise often sown in patches. The ma- 
jor should be inserted beneath a vacant 
paling, wall, or hedge, to which its 
stems may be trained, or in an open 
compartment, with sticks inserted on 
each side. The runners at first require 
a little attention to enable them to 
climb, but they soon are capable of 
doing so unassisted. The minor may 
either trail along the ground, or be sup- 
ported with short sticks. If water is 
not afforded during dry weather, they 
will not shoot so vigorously, or be so 
productive. They flower from June 
until the close of October. The berries 
for pickling must be gathered when of 
full size, and whilst green and fleshy, 
during August. 

To obtain Seed. — For the production 
of seed, some plants should be left 
ungathered from, as the first produced 
are not only the finest in general, but 
are often the only ones that ripen. 
They should be gathered as they ripen, 
which they do from the close of Au- 
gust even to the beginning of October. 
They must on no account be stored 
until perfectly dry and hard. The finest 
and soundest seed of the previous year's 
production should alone be sown ; if it 
is older the plants are seldom vigorous. 

NAUCLEA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Layers and cuttings. 
Rich loam. 

NAVELWORT. Cotyledon. 

NEAPOLITAN VIOLET. Viola od(h 
rata pallida plena. See Violet. 



NEC 



394 

— ♦— 



NET 



NECTARINE. Persica lavis. } vated in the Philadelphia Nurseries, 

Varieties. — The following are culti- | and are among the better kinds : 

Explanation of Abbreviations. — Color — y yellow ; r red ; o orange ; g 
green; w white. Size — l large ; m medium. 

Those marked * are clingstones. 



Downton 

Elruge 

*Golden 

Peterborough 

*Red Roman .... 

*White Roman 

White Early .... 

For Culture, see Peach, which applies. 

NECTAROSOCORDUM sicu- 
lum. Honey Garlic. Hardy bulb. Off- 
sets. Common soil. 

NEGRO- FLY. See Athalia. 

NEGUNDO fraxinifolium. Two va- 
rieties. Hardy deciduous trees. Seed 
and layers. Light loam. 

NELITRIS jambosella. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings and layers. Loam 
and peat. 

NELUMBIUM. Five species. Stove 
aquatics. Seed and division. Rich loam 
in water. Mr. A. Scott, gardener to 
Sir G. Staunton, Bart., gives the follow- 
ing directions for cultivating N. specio- 
sum : — 

" Let it be kept dry during the win- 
ter, in a cool part of the plant stove, 
at about 50° Fahrenheit. In February, 
the roots to be divided and potted sepa- 
rately in turfy loam; the pots set in 
pans of water ; the temperature of air 
from 65° to 90o; temperature of the 
water in the cisterns being about 75°. 
In May plant out in a water-tight box, 
three and a half feet long, one and a 
half foot wide, and sixteen inches deep, 
filled with loamy soil, having a little 
gravel on the top to give it solidity, and 
allowing room for about two inches 
of water over the surface of the soil. 
Plunge the box into the bark bed ; the 
temperature of the soil and water in 
the box 80°. This bottom heat main- 
tain during the summer, the tempera- 
ture of the house varying from 65 Q to 
90°."— Hort. Soc. Trans. N. luteum is 
indigenous to the United States, though 
only found growing spontaneously in 
certain quarters. It has been intro- 
duced into the meadow ditches below 







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September 

August 

September 

September 

September 

August 

August 

Philadelphia, where it thrives luxu- 
riantly. We have seen it finely de- 
veloped in artificial ponds, evincing 
that it is of easy culture. 

NEMATANTHUS chloronema. Stove 
shrub. Cuttings. Light rich soil. 

NEMESIA. Four species. Two 
hardy annuals, and the other green-house 
herbaceous perennials. The first in- 
crease by seed, the second by cuttings. 
Rich light loam. 

NEMOPANTHES canadensis. Hardy 
deciduous shrub. Seed and layers. Peat. 

NEMOPHILA. Six species. Hardy 
annuals and perennials. Seed. Peat 
and light soil. 

NEOTTIA. Nineteen species. Hardy, 
green-house, and stove orchids. Divi- 
sion. Loam, peat, and chalk. 

NEPENTHES. Two species. " Stove 
evergreen climbers. N. distillatoria is 
the Pitcher Plant. Offsets. Coarse peat 
and moss. Pots plunged in moss, kept 
moist and at 80o ; air 70°." — PaxtoiVs 
Bot. Diet. 

NEPETA. Thirty-five species. Hardy 
herbaceous, except N. angustifolia, 
which is annual. Seed and division. 
Light loam. 

Twelve species. Green- 
Seed and offsets. Rich 



NERINE. 
house bulbs, 
light loam. 

NERIUM. 



Oleander. Four species 



and more varieties. Green-house and 
stove evergreens. Cuttings. Rich light 
loam. 

NESiEA triflora. Stove herbaceous. 
Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

NETTING is employed to prevent 
the radiation of heat from walls, and 
the rude access of wind to trees grown 
upon them, as well as to prevent the 



NET 



395 

— ♦ — 



NIC 



ravages of birds upon currants, cher- 
ries, &c. 

Netting is a very effectual preventive 
of cooling, for reasons which will be 
stated when considering Shelters gene- 
rally ; and in connection with that, it may 
be observed that it is not altogether im- 
material of what substance netting is 
formed. Worsted is to be preferred 
not only because it is the most durable, 
but because it is the best preventive of 
a wall's cooling. I have found the ther- 
mometer under a hemp net sink during 
the night, from two to four degrees 
lower than that under a net of worsted, 
the meshes being small and of equal 
size in both nets. This can only be 
because worsted is known to be a worse 
conductor of heat than hemp; and, not 
absorbing moisture so easily, is not so 
liable to the cold always produced by 
its drying. — Principles of Gardening. 

Netting will also exclude flies and 
other winged insects from the fruit 
against walls, although the meshes are 
more than large enough to permit 
their passage. Why this is the case is 
not very apparent, but the netting is 
equally efficient in keeping similar in- 
sects from intruding into rooms if there 
are no cross lights. If there are win- 
dows on different sides of the room, and 
it is to be presumed, therefore, also in a 
green or hot-house, nets would not be so 
efficient. 

It is not a useless scrap of knowledge 
to the gardener, that one hundred square 
yards of netting, according to some mer- 
chants' mode of measuring, will not cover 
more than fifty square yards of wall, for 
they stretch the net first longitudinally 
and then laterally, when making their 
measurement, and not in both directions 
at once, as the gardener must when co- 
vering his trees. Disappointment, there- 
fore, should be avoided, when ordering 
new nets, by stating the size of the sur- 
face which has to be covered. This 
may be done without any fear of impo- 
sition. 

Mr. Richardson, net maker, New 
Road, London, informs me, that one 
cwt. of old mackerel net, weighed when 
quite dry, will cover eight hundred 
square yards ; and one cwt. of old her- 
ring net (smaller meshes) will cover six 
hundred square yards. Mr. Hulme, of 
Knutsford, has sent me various speci- 
mens of his nets and open canvass for 
inspection — some made of woollen and 



others of hemp : the last does not shrink 
after being wetted like the woollen. I 
prefer that with about twenty-five meshes 
in a square inch, at bd. per square yard. 

NETTLE TREE. Celtis. 

NEUROLOMA arabidiflorum. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 

NEW JERSEY TEA. Ceanotkus 
Americanus. 

NEW ZEALAND SPINACH, Tetra- 
gonia expansa, is much admired as a 
substitute for summer spinach, being of 
more delicate flavor, and not so liable 
to run to seed. Mr. J. Anderson, gar- 
dener to the Earl of Essex, at Cassio- 
bury, Herts, gives the following direc- 
tions for its cultivation : — 

" Sow in the seed-vessel as gathered 
the preceding autumn, at the latter end 
of March in a pot, and placed in a me- 
lon frame. The seedlings to be pricked 
while small singly into pots, to be kept 
under a frame without bottom heat, until 
the third week in May, or until the dan- 
ger of frost is past. The bed for their 
reception is formed by digging a trench 
two feet wide and one deep, this being 
filled with thoroughly decayed dung, 
and covered six inches deep with mould. 
A space of at least three feet must be 
left vacant for the extension of the 
branches. Twenty plants will afford an 
abundant supply daily for a large fa- 
mily ; they must be planted three feet 
apart. 

" In dry seasons they probably require 
a large supply of water. In five or six 
weeks after planting, the young leave3 
may be gathered from them, these be- 
ing pinched off. The leading shoot 
must be carefully preserved, for the 
branches are productive until a late pe- 
riod of the year, as they survive the 
frosts that kill nasturtiums and pota- 
toes." 

To obtain Seed. — For the production 
of seed, a plantation must be made on 
a poorer soil, or kept stunted and dry in 
pots, as ice plants are when seed is re- 
quired of them. On the rich compost 
of the bed, the plants become so suc- 
culent as to prevent the production of 
seed. This vegetable has not proved, 
in the United States, worthy of its Eu- 
ropean reputation — probably owing to 
the intense heat of our summers. 

NEW ZEALAND TEA. Leptosper- 
mum scoparia. 

NICKER TREE. Guilandina. 

NICOTIANA. Thirty-one species, in- 



NIE 



396 



NON 



eluding JV. tabacum, the well-known To- 
bacco. This and nearly all the others 
are hardy annuals. Seed. Rich light 
loam. 

NIEREMBERGIA. Four species. 
Green-house herbaceous, except the 
hardy annual JV. aristata. Seed or cut- 
tings. Light loam. 

NIGELLA. Fennel flower. Eleven 
species. Hardy annuals and biennials, 
except the herbaceous JV. coarctata. 
Seed. Common soil. 

NIGHTSHADE. Solatium. 

NIGHT-SOIL. See Bung. 

NIGHT TEMPERATURE in hot- 
houses and frames should always ave- 
rage from 10 to 20 degrees lower than 
the temperature in which the plants are 
grown during the day. It is in the night 
that the individual functions are reno- 
vated by a temporary repose, and if 
left to the dictates of healthy nature, 
the sap, like the blood, flows at night, 
with a much diminished velocity. 

That plants do become exhausted by 
too unremitting excitement, is proved 
to every gardener who has peach- 
houses under his rule ; for if the great- 
est care be not taken to ripen the wood 
by exposure to the air and light during 
the summer, no peach tree will be fruit- 
ful if forced during a second successive 
winter, but will require a much more 
increased temperature than at first to 
excite it even to any advance in vegeta- 
tion. 

The experiments of Harting and 
Munter upon vines growing in the open 
air, and those of Dr. Lindley upon vines 
in a hot-house, coincide in testifying 
that this tree grows most during the less 
light and cooler hours of the twenty- 
four. But the hours of total darkness 
were the period when the vine grew 
slowest. This, observes Dr. Lindley, 
seems to show the danger of employing 
a high night temperature, which forces 
such plants into growing fast at a time 
when nature bids them repose. 

That the elevation of temperature at 
night does hurtfully excite plants is 
proved by the fact, that the branch of a 
vine kept at that period of the day in 
temperature not higher than 50°, in- 
hales from one-sixteenth to one-tenth 
less oxygen than a similar branch of the 
same vine during the same night in a 
temperature of 75°. The exhalation of 
moisture and carbonic acid is propor- 



tionably increased by the higher tem- 
perature. — Principles of Gardening. 

NIPHOBOLUS. Eight species. 
Stove ferns. Seed and division. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

NISSOLIA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen climbers and shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

NITRATES. See Saline Manures. 

NITTA TREE. Parkia. 

N I V E A . Seven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy peat and loam. 

NOCCA. Four species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. JV. latifolia is half-hardy. 
Cuttings. Common soil. 

NOCTUA, a genus of moths. The 
following are injurious to our gar- 
dens : — 

JV. gamma. The Y, or Gamma Moth. 
The caterpillars of this are very de- 
structive to peas and other kitchen ve- 
getables during the summer. Mr. Cur- 
tis describes it as " being beset with 
greenish hairs, and on the back with 
yellow or white ones. It has a brown 
head. When fully grown, which takes 
place in the course of a few weeks, it 
forms a white cocoon, and changes into 
a blackish brown pupa. 

" There are three or four generations 
of moths during the summer, which ap- 
pear at intervals between April and 
October. In the latter month, we have 
seen them fluttering round flowers at 
dusk literally by thousands : this remark 
applies more particularly to the southern 
counties of England. The wings are 
about an inch across, the upper ones 
are varied with grey and brown, having 
quite a silvery hue, and towards the 
centre there is a perfect silvery Greek 
gamma, y, with a rusty spot close be- 
fore it, the lower wings are pale ashy 
brown, with the nerves and hinder mar- 
gin deep brown. There are few reme- 
dies that can be applied to this pest; 
perhaps the best of all is hand-picking 
the caterpillars. — Gard. Chron. 

JV. exclamationis. The caterpillar 
of this moth feeds on the stalks of the 
potato. 

NOISETTIA longifolia. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Young cuttings. Light 
rich soil. 

N L A N A. Five species. Hardy 
annual trailers. Seed. Common soil. 

NOLINA georgiana. Hardy herba- 
ceous. Offsets. Sandy peat. 

NONATELIA. Four species. Stove 



NOR 



397 



NOV 



evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

NORANTEA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

NORMANDY CRESS. See Ameri- 
can Cress. 

NORWAY SPRUCE. Pinus cana- 
densis. 

NOTELiEA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

NOTHOCHLiENA. Nine species. 
Green-house and stove ferns. Seed and 
division. Sandy peat. 

NOTYLIA. Five species. Stove 
epiphytes. Offsets. Wood and moss. 

NOVEMBER is a month chiefly of 
routine neatness and preparation for 
winter. 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Artichokes, winter, dress. — Aspara- 
gus-beds, dress ; plant ; to force ; attend 
to that in forcing.— Beet, dig up for 
storing. — Cabbages, remove to winter 
quarters. — Cardoons, earth up,b. — Car- 
rots, dig up and store, b. — Cauliflowers, 
attend to, under glasses, &c. — Celery, 
earth up. — Coleworts, plant. — Com- 
posts, prepare. — Cucumbers, attend to, 
in forcing. — Brain vacant ground. — 
Dung, prepare for hot-beds. — Earth- 
ing-up, attend to. — Endive, blanch, &c. 
— Garlic, plant, b. — Herbary, clean, 
&c. — Horse-radish, dig up and store. — 
Hot-beds, make for salading, &c. — Jeru- 
salem Artichokes, dig up and store. — 
Leaves, fyc, continually clear away. — 
Lettuces, plant in frames; attend to 
those advancing. — Mint, plant; force in 
hot-bed. — Mushroom Beds, make ; at- 
tend to those in production. — Onions, 
in store, look over; plant for seed, b.; 
— Parsley, cut down, b. — Parsnips, dig 
up and store, b.; leave or plant out 
for seed. — Potatoes, dig up, b. — 
Radishes, sow, in hot-bed. — Salsafy, 
dig up and store. — Savoys, plant for 
seed, b. — Scorzonera, dig up and store. 
— Seeds, dress and store. — Shallots, 
plant, b. ; sow in hot-bed. — Spinach, 
thin, &c. — Thinning, attend to. — 
Trench, ridge, &c, vacant ground. — 
Weeds, destroy continually.^ 



prune; plant; cuttings plant. — Figs, 
rub off green fruit; train, but do not 
prune. — Fork over ground about fruit 
trees. — Gooseberries, plant ; prune ; 
cuttings plant. — Medlars, plant. — 
Mulberries, plant. — Mulch round 
trees newly planted. — Nectarines, 
prune; plant. — Nuts (Filberts), &c, 
plant.— Peaches, prune; plant. — Pears, 
prune; plant. — Plums, prune; plant. — 
Pruning and planting generally should 
be done; it is the best season. — Quinces, 
plant. — Raspberries, prune; plant. — 
Services, plant. — Stake trees newly 
planted. — Standards, plant; prune. — 
Stones of fruit sow. — Strawberries, 
dress, if not done last month. — Suckers, 
remove. — Trees for forcing, remove. — 
Trench and manure ground to be plant- 
ed, if not done months ago. — Vines, 
prune ; plant. — Wall Trees and Espa- 
liers generally, prune and plant; it is 
the best for their winter regulation. — 
Walnuts, plant. — Water all newly 
planted trees. — Weeds, destroy ge- 
nerally, and clean up. 



FLOWER GARDEN. 

Anemones, plant, if not done 



Apples, 
prune ; plant. 
Cherries, prune 



ORCHARD. 

prune ; plant. — Apricots, 



Berberries, plant 
; plant. — Currants, 



in Oc- 
tober. — Auriculas, shelter. — Bulbous 
roots, finish planting in dry weather, b. ; 
cover beds with mats, &c, in bad wea- 
ther ; pot for forcing. — Carnation lay- 
ers, potted, shelter; finish planting. — 
Climbers, as Ivy, Clematis, &c, plant 
and train against walls. — Composts, 
prepare. — Dahlias, take up after the 
first frost; dry and store under sand, 
where the temperature keeps about 
40°. — Dressing the borders' is now the 
chief occupation. — Edgings, plant. — 
Evergreens, finish planting, b. ; finish 
layering. — Fibrous-rooted plants, finish 
dividing and planting, b. — Fork over 
borders, shrubberies, &c. — Grass, roll ; 
keep free from leaves. — Gravel, weed, 
sweep, and roll. — Hedges, plant, clip, 
plash. — Hoeing and raking are the chief 
operations. — Hyacinths, &c, place in 
water glasses ; pot for forcing. — Marvel 
of Peru, take up and store. (See Dahlia.) 
— Mulch round shrubs lately planted. — 
Leaves, collect for composts. — Plant 
Perennials and Biennials. — Planting 
perform generally. — Potted Shrubs, 
plunge in the earth of a well sheltered 
border. — Pot Plants for forcing, as 
Roses, Carnations, &c. — Prune Shrubs 
generally. — Ranunculuses, plant, if not 
done in October. — Seedlings, in boxes, 



NUP 



398 

— ♦ — 



NUR 



remove to a warm situation. — Shrubs of 
all kinds, plant ; stake them as a sup- 
port against boisterous winds. — Suckers 
from Roses and other shrubs, separate 
and plant. — Tulips, finish main plant- 
ing, b. — Turf may be laid. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit as freely as the season al- 
lows. — Bark Beds, renew, if not done 
last month. — Dress the borders, by fork- 
ing, &c. — FireHeat, by whatever means 
it maybe distributed, must now be dai- 
ly employed. — Manure borders, &c, 
in which forcing trees are planted. — 
Leaves, clean with sponge, &c; remove 
those decayed. — Pines will require the 
day temperature to be kept between 
60° and 65°. — Peaches, prune ; wash 
with diluted ammonia water from the 
gas works, before training; day tempe- 
rature 50.° — Potted flowering plants, 
introduce. — Steam, admit into the house, 
where that mode of heating is used. — 
Strawberries, begin to force. — Tobacco 
fumigations employ to destroy insects. 
— Trees, in forcing, treat like the Peach. 
— Water (tepid), apply with the syringe 
to the leaves; give to their roots, occa- 
sionally; keep in pans about the house. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely, when mild. — Chry- 
santhemums require abundant watering. 
— Damp stagnant air is more to be dread- 
ed than cold. — Decayed parts, remove, 
as they appear. — Earth, in pots stir fre- 
quently. — Fires must be lighted, if frost 
severe, or heavy cold fogs occur. — 
Leaves, clean with sponge, &c. — Tem- 
perature, keep at about 45°, but not 
higher. — Water moderately. 

NUPHAR. Five species. Hardy 
aquatics. Division and seed ; ponds, 
cisterns, &c. 

NURSERY is a garden or portion of 
a garden devoted to the rearing of trees 
and shrubs during their early stages of 
growth, before they are of a size desired 
for the fruit or pleasure grounds. As 
every tenant of the nursery is separate- 
ly discussed in these pages, no more is 
required here than to make a few ge- 
neral observations. 

Extent, Soil, Situation, fyc. — With 
respect to the proper extent of a nurse- 
ry, whether for private use, or for pub- 
lic supply, it must be according to the 
quantity of plants required, or the de- 



a quarter or half an acre to five or six 
acres may be proper, which must be 
regulated according to the extent of 
garden ground and plantations it is re- 
quired to supply with the various sorts 
of plants, and if for a public nursery, 
not less than three or four acres of land 
will be worth occupying as such, and 
from that to fifteen or twenty acres, or 
more, may be requisite according to 
the demand, though some occupy forty 
or fifty acres in nursery ground. A 
nursery may be of any moderately light 
land, that is fifteen or eighteen inches 
depth of good working staple ; but if 
two or three spades deep, it will be 
the greater advantage. A good fresh 
fat soil, such as any good pasture, which 
having the sward trenched to the bot- 
tom is excellent for the growth of trees, 
a rich soil fit for corn is also extremely 
proper, or any other good soil of the 
nature of common garden earth is also 
very well adapted for a nursery. As to 
situation ; if this is rather low it will be 
better, because it is naturally warmer, 
and more out of the power of cutting 
and boisterous winds than a higher 
situation, though if it happens where 
some parts of the ground are high and 
some low, it is an advantage, the bet- 
ter suiting the nature of the different 
plants. It is also of advantage to have 
a nursery ground fully exposed to the 
sun and air, and where there is the 
convenience of having water, for the 
occasional watering. 

Mode of Arranging the Plants. — In 
the distribution of the various sorts of 
plants in the nursery, let each sort be 
separate, in lines or nursery rows, to 
stand till arrived at a proper growth for 
drawing off for the garden and planta- 
tions, placing the fruit trees, stocks, 
&c, for grafting and budding upon, in 
rows two feet asunder, and half that 
distance in the rows, varying the dis- 
tance both ways, according to the 
time they are to stand ; the shrub kind 
should likewise be arranged in rows 
about two feet asunder, and fifteen or 
eighteen inches distant in each line; 
and as to herbaceous plants, they should 
generally be disposed in four feet wide 
beds, in rows from six to twelve or 
eighteen inches asunder, according to 
their nature of growth, and time they 
are to stand. 

General Culture. — Those designed aa 
mand for sale ; if for private use, from ' stocks for fruit-trees should have their 



NUR 



399 



OCT 



stems generally cleared from lateral 
shoots, but never to shorten the lead- 
ing shoot unless it is decayed or be- 
comes very crooked, in which case it 
may be proper to cut it down low in 
spring, and it will shoot out again — 
training the main shoot for a stem, with 
its top entire, for the present, till graft- 
ed or budded. 

Forest trees should also be encou- 
raged to form straight clean stems by 
occasional trimming of the largest late- 
ral branches, which will also promote 
the leading top shoot in aspiring farther 
in height, always suffering that part of 
each tree to shoot at full length, unless 
where the stem divides into forks — in 
which case trim off the weakest, and 
leave the straightest and strongest shoot 
or branch to shoot out at its proper 
length, to form the top. 

The different sorts of shrubs may 
either be suffered to branch out in their 
own natural way, except just regulating 
very irregular growths, or some may 
be trained with single clean stems, from 
about a foot to two or three feet high. 

Every winter or spring the ground 
between the rows of all transplanted 
plants, in the open nursery-quarters, 
must be dug : this is particularly neces- 
sary to all the tree and shrub kind that 
stand wide enough in rows to admit the 
spade between; which work is, by the 
nurserymen, called turning-in, the most 
general season for which work is any 
time from October until March. But 
the sooner it is done the more advan- 
tageous it will prove to the plants. 

The ground is to be dug but half spade 
deep, proceeding row by row, turning 
the top of each spit clean to the bot- 
tom, that all weeds on the surface may 
be buried a proper depth to rot. 

In summer be remarkably attentive to 
keep all clean from weeds. The seed- 
lings growing close in the seminary-beds 
must be hand-weeded; but to all plants 
that grow in rows introduce the hoe. 
As any quarter or compartment of the 
nursery-ground is cleared from plants, 
others must be substituted in their room 
from the seminary ; but the ground 
should previously be trenched and lie 
some time fallow, giving it also the ad- 
dition of manure if it shall seem proper. 

It will be of advantage to plant the 
ground with plants of a different kind 
from those which occupied it before. 
The tender or exotic plants of all kinds 



require shelter only from frost whilst 
young, and by degrees become hardy 
enough to live in the open air. Such of 
them as are seedlings, in the open 
grounds, should be arched over with 
hoops or rods at the approach of winter, 
in order to be sheltered with mats in 
severe weather; and those which are in 
pots, either seedlings or transplanted 
plants, should be removed in October, 
in their pots, to a warm sunny place, 
sometimes sheltered with hedges, &c, 
placing some close under the fences, 
facing the sun, where they may have 
occasional covering, either of glass 
lights or mats, &c, from frost, observing 
of all those sorts here alluded to that 
they are gradually to be hardened to the 
open ground, and need only be covered 
in frosty weather. At all other times 
let them remain fully exposed, and by 
degrees, as they acquire age and 
strength, inure them to bear the open 
air fully, so that, when they arrive at 
from two or three to four or five years 
old, they may be turned out in the open 
ground . — Abercrombie. 

NUTMEG. Myristica. 

NUTTALIA. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed and division. Sandy 
peat. 

NUT-TREE. Corylus. See Filbert. 

NYCTANTHES arbortristis. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

NYMPH^EA. Water-lily. Eighteen 
species. Hardy and stove aquatics. 
Seed or division. Rich loam in water. 

NYSSA. Four species. Hardy de- 
ciduous trees. Seed and layers. Com- 
mon soil in a moist situation. 

OAK. Quercus. 

OBESIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam. 

C H N A . Seven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs, except the green- 
house O.atropurpurea. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

OCHROSIA borbonica. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Rich light 
loam. 

OCHRUS pallida. Hardy annual 
climber. Seed. Common soil. 

OCTOBER is one of the gardener's 
harvest months in the southern section 
of the Union ; in the middle and northern 
states, his out-door labours are drawing 
to a close. 



OCT 



400 

— • — 



OCT 



KITCHEN-GARDEN. 

Angelica, sow. — Asparagus - beds, 
dress, e.; for forcing, plant. — Balm, 
plant. — Beet take up for storing, e. ; 
Borecole, plant, b. ; earth up, &c. — Bur- 
net, plant. — Cabbages, prick out, &c. ; 
plant for seed. — Cardoons, earth up. — 
Carrots, take up to store. — Cauliflowers, 
prick out in frames. — Celery, earth up. 
— Chives, plant. — Coleworts, plant. — 
Cress (Water), plant. — Cucumbers, plant 
to force. — Dill, sow. — Dung, prepare 
for hot-beds. — Earthing-up, attend to. 
— Endive, attend to ; blanch, &c. — Fen- 
nel, plant. — Garlic, plant, e. — Herbary, 
dress. — Horse-Radish, plant. — Hyssop, 
plant. — Jerusalem Artichokes, stir, e. — 
Leaves, fallen, remove continually. — 
Leeks, plant, b. ; hoe, &c, advancing 
crops. — Lettuces, prick out, e. — Mint, 
plant. — Mushroom-beds, make ; attend 
to those in production. — Nasturtium 
Berries, gather as they ripen. — Onions, 
attend to those in store, plant for seed. 
—Parsley, cut down, b.; (Hamburgh), 
is fit for use. — Parsnips, take up for 
storing, e.; leave or plant out for seed. 
— Pennyroyal, plant. — Potatoes, dig up, 
e. — Rhubarb, sow. — Rosemary, plant. — 
Rue, plant. — Sage, plant. — Salsafy is in 
perfection; take up for storing. — Savory, 
plant. — Savoys, plant for seed. — Scor- 
zonera is in perfection ; take up for 
storing. — Seeds, gather as they ripen. — 
Shallots, plant, e. — Small Salading, 
sow. — Spinach, thin, &c. — Stir between 
rows of plants. — Tansy, plant. — Tar- 
ragon, plant. — Thinning, attend to. — 
Thyme, plant. — Turnips, plant for seed ; 
hoe young crops. — Vacant ground, 
trench, drain, &c. 

ORCHARD. 

Berberries, gather. — Chestjxuts, gather. 
— Currants and Gooseberries, plant; 
prune ; cuttings plant. — Fig Trees, pro- 
tect when leaves are off. — Fruit Trees, 
for forcing, plant in pots or in hot-house. 
— Gathering apples and pears, finish. 
— Grapes, ripe, gather and hang up, e. ; 
bag on the vines. — Layers of figs, fil- 
berts, mulberries, vines, &c, make ; 
those of last year take up and plant. — 
Medlars, gather, e. — Planting may be- 
gin generally, e. — Pruning, commence, 
e. — Quinces, gather, e. — Raspberries, 
prune and plant, if leaves have fallen. 
— Ridge up ground after pruning is 
finished. — Services, gather, e. — Stones 
of cherries and plums, sow. — Strawber- 



ries, dress ; plant. — Trench and prepare 
ground for planting. — Wall-fruit and 
espaliers generally, begin to prune, 
e. — Walnuts, gather. — Water, give 
abundantly at the time of planting. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Anemones, plant. — Annuals, done 
flowering, pull up ; sow hardy, b. — 
Auriculas, move to sunny shelter ; pro- 
tect from rain and snow ; remove dead 
leaves; slip. — Bulbous roots, plant; 
those in flower protect; place in water 
glasses. — Carnation layers, plant in 
pots, e. — Chrysanthemum cuttings, finish 
planting. — Climbers, plant. — Compost, 
prepare. — Cuttings, plant. — Dahlias, 
protect in flower ; begin to take up roots 
to dry and store as the leaves decay, e. 
— Edgings, trim. — Evergreens, plant; 
trim. — Fibrous-rooted plants, transplant 
where required ; divide roots. — Grass, 
mow and roll. — Gravel, weed and roll. 
Green-house plants, remove from bor- 
ders to the house. — Hedges, trim; plant; 
plash. — Hoe and Rake, as required. — 
Layers, make ; they will have to remain 
twelve months. — Leaves, gather as they 
fall, and store for composts. — Mignio- 
nette, shelter. — Pipings of Pinks, &c, 
finish planting to remain. — Planting, 
generally, may be done. — Potting, per- 
form as required ; dress old potted 
plants. — Primulas, all this genus (Poly- 
anthus, &c.) may be propagated by slips. 
— Prune, generally. — Ranunculuses, 
plant. — Seedlings, shelter. — Seeds, fin- 
ish gathering. — Suckers, remove and 
plant out. — Trench vacant ground. — 
Tuberous-rooted plants insert, especially 
Pseonies. — Turf may be laid. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely every fine day. — 
Bark-beds, renovate in fruiting stoves 
and succession house. — Fires must be- 
gin to be lighted where the old flue 
system is followed, e. — Flowering 
Shrubs in pots, introduce for winter 
blooming. — Glass, Flues, SfC, repair, if 
not done last month. — Pines, remove 
into fruiting stoves, b.; Crowns plant, 
if required. — Roses, introduce for 
Christmas blooming. — Shifting into 
larger pots may be done. — Water about 
twice weekly. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, give freely daily, and at night, 
if temp, not so low as 35°. — Camellias, 
bud. — Earth, give fresh before return- 



OC Y 



401 

— ♦— 



OLY 



ing into house. — Leaves clean, and dress 
plants before returning to house. — 
Potted Plants, return all into house, e.; 
place hardiest back, and tenderest in 
front. — Succulent Plants should all be 
in, b. — Water, give over the foliage 
after the plants are in house ; give wa- 
ter once or twice weekly. 

OCYMUM. Basil. Thirteen species. 
Chiefly hardy annuals, but some are 
stove evergreen shrubs. See Basil. 

ODONTARRHENA microphylla. 
Hardy evergreen trailer. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

ODONTOGLOSSUM. Eight species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood and 



(ECEOCLADES. Two species. Stove 
epiphytes. Lateral shoots. Wood and 
moss. 

(E D E R A prolifera. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

(ENOTHERA. Evening Primrose. 
Seventeen species. Hardy annuals, 
biennials and perennials, except the 
green-house evergreen shrub CE. cheir- 
anthifolia. Seed; and the perennials 
also by division. Common light soil. 

SELECT SHOWY SPECIES. 

Perennials. 
(E. Speciosa, white. 
CE. Macrocarpa, yellow. 
CE. Taraxacifolia, white. 
CE. Glauca, yellow. 
(E. Serotina, yellow. 

Annuals. 
CE. Rubicunda, pink. 
(E. Lindleyana, purplish-rose. 
CE. Tenuifolia, purple. 
(E. Tetraptera, white. 
CE. Odorata, yellow. 
CE. Romanzovii, blue. 

(Enothera Drummondii, is a fine large 
yellow sort, and very ornamental, but 
it is tender, and requires the same 
treatment as petunias and verbenas. — 
Gard. Chron. 

CE. serotina, is a beautiful autumn 
flower, and its culture is thus recom- 
mended : — " The bed should be looked 
over every morning, and the flowers of 
the previous day carried off. This will 
very considerably add to its beauty. 
Where a quantity of it is wanted for 
bedding, May is the fit time to attend 
to its propagation, by preparing cut- 
tings (as soon as the young wood has 
26 



advanced to the length of one and a 
half or two inches), pricking them out 
in sand, in the open ground, and cover- 
ing them with a hand-glass. If treated 
in this manner, the whole of the cut- 
tings may be expected to root, and be 
ready for planting out in a month ; 
whereas, if deferred until the autumn, 
when the increase of flower-garden 
stock is considered en masse, the pro- 
bability is that not one will succeed." 
— Gard. Chron. 

This mode of culture is applicable to 
all the perennial species. 

OFFSETS are side bulbs produced by 
some bulbous roots, and by which the 
species can be propagated. Whatever 
checks the upward growth of the parent 
plant, as an early breaking down of the 
stem, compels the sap to find other or- 
gans for its reception, and, consequent- 
ly, promotes the production of offsets. 
" The practice," says Dr. Lindley, " of 
scarring the centre of bulbs, the heads 
of echino cacti, and such plants, and 
the crown of the stem of species like 
Littoea geminiflora, in all which cases 
suckers are the result, is explicable 
upon the foregoing principle." 

OGECHiE LIME. Nyssa candicans. 

OIL NUT. Hamiltonia. 

O K R A. " The Okra is a native of 
the West Indies, where it is much used 
in soups and stews ; its use is rapidly 
increasing here. There are two vari- 
eties, the large and the small podded 
or capsuled. 

"The seeds are planted late in spring, 
either in rows or hills, three feet apart ; 
the plant thrives readily, and requires 
no further care than is requisite to keep 
it free from weeds." — Rural Reg. 

OLAX. Two species. Stove, ever- 
green climbers. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

OLD-MAN'S-BEARD. Geropogon. 

OLE A. The Olive. Green-house 
and stove evergreen trees, except O. 
sativa, which is hardy. Ripe cuttings, 
and grafting on the Common Privet 
(Ligustrum vulgare). Loam and peat. 

OLEANDER. Nerium. 

OLEASTER. Elaagnus. 

OLIBANUM. Boswellia. 

OLIVE. Olea. 

OLIVE-WOOD. Elaodendron. 

OLYNTHIA disticha. Stove ever- 
green tree. Young cuttings. Sandy . 
loam and peat. 



OMA 



402 

— • — 



ONI 



OMALANTHUS populifolia. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Peat 
and loam., 

OMIME PLANT. Plectranthus ter- 
natus. 

OMPHALOBIUM. Two species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Light Joam and peat. 

OMPHALADES. Eight species. 
Hardy annuals and herbaceous peren- 
nials ; the first being increased by seed 
in open borders ; the second by divi- 
sion, in shaded situations. 

ONCIDIUM. Fifty-nine species. 
Stove epiphytes. Shoots, moss, and 
rotten wood. 

ONE-SHIFT SYSTEM in potting, is 
thus described by Mr. Ayres : — " The 
distinguishing difference of this system 
is, that instead of taking a plant through 
all the different-sized pots, from a 
thumb to a twenty-four or sixteen, or 
any other size that it may remain in 
permanently, it is removed to the per- 
manent pot at once, or at any rate to 
one very considerably larger than is 
the general custom; thus in purchasing 
small specimens of new plants, they 
may be placed at once in a twenty- 
four, sixteen, or twelve-sized pot, in 
which they will remain for four or five 
years. 

"The principal thing to attend to in 
this system will be to have the pots 
thoroughly drained ; for if water stag- 
nates in such a mass of soil, all hope 
of success will be at end. In growing 
specimen plants, it is a good plan to 
drain the soil with an inverted pot, tak- 
ing great care to prevent the soil from 
falling among the drainage by covering 
it securely with moss. Porous stones 
of various sizes, in considerable quanti- 
ties, sticks in a half-decomposed state, 
and even charcoal for some plants, 
have been used with satisfactory re- 
sults. 

" Another very important point to be 
attended to in this system of potting is, 
to use the soil as rough as possible. 
Plants potted in this way will not re- 
quire so much attention as those potted 
in the usual manner; because one wa- 
tering will serve them for several days, 
whereas in small pots they would re- 
quire constant attention." — Gardener's 
Chron. 

There is no doubt that this system 
much abridges the gardener's labour, 
and there is an equal certainty that by 



it large specimens may be rapidly ob- 
tained; but as, with due care, magni- 
ficent specimens may be grown in small 
pots, annually increased in size when 
the plants are shifted, the general adop- 
tion of the one-shift system will never 
be general, accompanied as it is by such 
a great sacrifice of space in the stove 
and green-house. 

ONION. " The Onion is a biennial 
plant, supposed to be a native of Spain. 
The varieties are numerous. Those es- 
teemed the best, are the Silver Skin, 
and Large Yellow Strasburgh ; the 
latter is the best keeper, though perhaps 
not so delicately flavoured as the Silver 
Skin. 

" The Wethers field red is grown 
extensively in the eastern states, where 
it perfects itself the first season. 

" It is the practice with the market 
gardeners of Philadelphia, who grow 
the Strasburgh and Silver Skin, to the 
exclusion of all others, to sow the seed 
thickly in beds in the middle of spring. 
At midsummer they are taken up, and 
placed in a dry airy situation, until the 
succeeding spring, when they are re- 
planted ; in this way they get large, 
firm, well keeping Onions early in the 
season. It should be observed that if 
not sown quite thickly they attain too 
large a size, and when replanted shoot to 
seed. When sown early, and very thin- 
ly, on strongground, bulbs large enough 
for family use, may be had the first sea- 
son ; they do not, however, usually at- 
tain a size large enough for the market. 
When sown in this way, they should 
be frequently hoed, and kept perfectly 
clean ; and the Wethersfield is perhaps 
the best." — Rural Reg. 

To save Seed. — To obtain seed, some 
old onions must be planted in autumn 
or early in Spring. The finest and firm- 
est bulbs being selected and planted in 
rows ten inches apart each way, either 
in drills or by a blunt-ended dibble, the 
soil to be rather poorer, if it differs at 
all from that in which they are culti- 
vated for bulbing. They must be bu- 
ried so deep, that the mould just covers 
the crown. Early in Spring their leaves 
will appear. If grown in large quanti- 
ties, a path must be left two feet wide 
between every three or four rows to 
allow the necessary cultivation. They 
must be kept thoroughly clear from 
weeds, and when in flower have stakes 
driven at intervals of five or six feet on 



ONI 



403 



OR A 



each side of every two rows, to which a 
string is to be fastened throughout the 
whole length, a few inches below the 
heads, to serve as a support and prevent 
their being broken down. The seeds 
are ripe in August, which is intimated 
by the husks becoming brownish ; the 
heads must then be immediately cut, 
otherwise the receptacles will open and 
shed their contents. Being spread on 
cloths in the sun, and during inclement 
weather they soon become perfectly 
dry, when the seed may be rubbed out, 
cleaned of the chaff, and, after remain- 
ing another day or two, finally stored. 
It is of the utmost consequence to em- 
ploy seed of not more than two years 
old, otherwise not more than one in 
fifty will vegetate. The goodness of 
seed may be easily discovered by forc- 
ing a little of it in a hot-bed or warm 
water a day before it is employed ; a 
small white point will soon protrude if 
it is fertile. 

ONION-FLY. See Anthomyia and 
Eumerus. 

ONISCUS. 0. asellus, 0. armadillo. 
Woodlice. 

The first is most easily distinguished 
from the second by its not rolling up in 
a globular form when at rest. They 
are found in old dry dunghills, cucum- 
ber frames, &c, and they are injurious 
to many plants, fruits, &c, by gnawing 
off the outer skin. Gas lime will expel 
them from their haunts, and two boards 
or tiles kept one-eighth of an inch 
apart form an excellent trap. — Gard. 
Chron. 

ONOBROMA. Five species. O. 
glaucum is a hardy annual, and O. ar- 
borescens, a green-house shrub, the 
others hardy herbaceous. Seed, cut- 
tings, or divisions. Common soil. 

ONOBRYCHIS. Saintfoin. Twenty- 
three species. Hardy herbaceous. Seed. 
Chalky loam. 

ONOCLEA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed and division. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

ONONIS. Thirty-seven species. 
Mostly hardy annuals and shrubby 
plants. Seed or cuttings. Loam. 

ONOSMA. Sixteen species. Hardy 
herbaceous, except the stove O. triner- 
vum. Seed. Rich chalky loam. 

ONOSMODIUM. Two species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Rich light 
loam. 

OPHIOPOGON. Three species. 



Half-hardy herbaceous. Division. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

OPHIOXYLON serpentinum. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

OPHRYS. Ten species. Hardy and 
half-hardy orchids. Seed. Chalky loam 
and peat. 

OPLOTHECA. Two species. 

O.florodana is hardy herbaceous, in- 
creased by division. 0. interrvpta is a 
stove biennial, by seed. Both require 
loam and peat. 

OPUNTIA. Eighty-seven species. 
Stove cacti, except 0. fragilis and O. 
missouriensis, which are hardy ; and the 
half-hardies, 0. media, 0. po'lyacantha, 
and O. vulgaris. Slips, slightly dried; 
sandy peat. 

ORACH, Atriplex hortensis, is 
cooked and eaten in the same manner 
as spinach, to which it is much prefer- 
red by many persons, although it be- 
longs to a tribe whose wholesomeness 
is very suspicious. 

Soil and Situation. — It flourishes 
best in a rich moist soil, and in an open 
compartment. Those, however, of the 
autumn sowing require a rather drier 
soil. 

Sowing. — It may be sown about the 
end of September, and again in the 
spring for succession. The sowing to 
be performed in drills six inches apart. 
The plants soon make their appearance, 
being of quick growth. When they are 
about an inch high, they must be thin- 
ned to six inches asunder, and those 
removed may be planted out at the 
same distance in a similar situation, and 
watered occasionally until established. 
At the time of thinning, the bed must 
be thoroughly cleared of weeds, and if 
they are again hoed during a dry day, 
when the plants are about four inches 
high, they will require no further at- 
tendance than an occasional weeding. 
For early production, a sowing may be 
in a moderate hot-bed at the same time 
as those in the natural ground. The 
leaves must be gathered for use whilst 
young, otherwise they become stringy 
and worthless. 

To save Seed. — Some plants of the 
spring sowing must be left ungathered 
from, and thinned to about eight inches 
apart. The seeds ripen about the end 
of August, when the plants must be 
pulled up, and when perfectly dry rub- 
bed out for use. 



ORA 

Citrus aurantium. 



404 

— ♦ — 



ORC 



See 



ORANGE 

Citrus. 

ORANGERY is a green-house or 
conservatory devoted to the cultivation 
of the genus Citrus. The best plan for 
the construction of such a building is 
that erected at Knowsley Park, and 
thus described by the gardener, Mr. J. 
W. Jones. 

Fig. 104. 




"Measured inside, this house is four- 
teen and a half yards long, eight broad, 
and six high. In the centre of the 
house are eight borders, in which the 
oranges, &c, are planted ; these borders 
are all marked a. The two borders 
against the back wall are sixteen inches 
broad, and three feet deep. The six 
borders immediately in the centre of 
the house are fourteen inches broad, 
and three feet deep ; the paths are 
marked c, the front wall <?, and the 
back one e; p, p, p, represent orna- 
mental cast iron pillars, which, besides 
supporting the roof, serve also to sup- 
port light wire trellises ; there is one of 
these pillars in each row for each rafter. 
The house is entirely heated by smoke 
flues, two furnaces being placed at /. 
The dotted lines along the central path 
show the direction of the flues beneath, 
from the back to the front entrance, 
when they diverge, the one entering a 
raised flue, g, on the right, the other 
also entering a raised flue on the left. 
These flues again cross the house at 
each end, and the smoke escapes by 
the back wall ; it being found incon- 
venient to place the furnaces in any 
other situation. 



" Two stoves immediately connected 
with each end of the orangery contain 
the collection of tropical plants bearing 
fruit. The communication between 
these stoves and the orangery is unin- 
terrupted by any glass or other division, 
so that the orange tribe are subjected 
to nearly as high a temperature as the 
tropical plants. The central borders 
of the orangery, as may be seen in the 
section, are raised a little above each 
other, as they recede from the front 
of the house. The oranges, citrons, 
&c, are all trained as espaliers; a light 
wire trellis being stretched from pillar 
to pillar parallel with the borders, and 
about eight feet high. The spaces, 6, 
between the borders being about three 
feet wide, permit a person to walk 
along between the plants, for the pur- 
pose of pruning, watering, &c. These 
spaces are of the same depth as the 
borders, and were originally filled with 
tan ; but part of this is now removed, 
and its place is filled with good soil. 
In this some fine climbing plants have 
been turned out, amongst which are 
several plants of Passiflora quadrangu- 
laris, which bear an abundant crop of 
fine fruit. Besides these, there are 
also two fine plants of the beautiful 
new Gardenia Sherbournia. These, 
and other climbers, are trained up the 
rafters, &c, in such a manner as not to 
materially intercept the light from the 
orange. The great advantage of having 
the trees trained on the trellis system 
is, that every part of the tree is fully 
exposed to the light, and by planting 
them in rows one behind the other, a 
larger surface is obtained for the trees 
to cover than could be got by adopting 
any other plan ; and consequently, for 
the space, a larger quantity of fruit is 
procured. The trees being hung loose- 
ly and irregularly to the wires, assume 
as natural an appearance as circum- 
stances will permit, and the introduc- 
tion here and there of large plants in 
pots has a tendency to prevent formal- 
ity. Two plants are placed in each 
border." — Gard. Chron. 

O R B E A . Twenty-three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings slight- 
ly dried ; sandy loam and lime rubbish. 

ORCHARD is an inclosure devoted 
to the cultivation of hardy fruit trees. 
In it may be, as standards, apple-trees, 
most sorts of pears and plums, and all 
sorts of cherries, which four are the 



ORC 



405 

— ♦ — 



ORC 



chief orchard fruits ; but to have a com- 
plete orchard, also quinces, medlars, 
mulberries, service trees, filberts, nuts, 
berberries, walnuts, and chestnuts must 
be included. The two latter are par- 
ticularly applicable for the boundaries 
of orchards, to screen the other trees 
from impetuous winds. A general or- 
chard composed of all the before men- 
tioned fruit trees, should consist of a 
double portion of apple trees. With 
respect to the situation and aspect for 
an orchard, avoid very low damp situa- 
tions as much as the nature of the place 
will admit: for in very wet soils no 
fruit trees will prosper, nor the fruit be 
fine; but a moderately low situation, 
free from copious wet, may be more 
eligible than an elevated ground, as 
being less exposed to tempestuous 
winds; though a situation having a 
small declivity is very desirable, espe- 
cially if its aspect incline towards the 
east, south-east, or south, which are 
rather more eligible than a westerly 
aspect; but a north aspect is the worst 
of all for an orchard, unless particu- 
larly compensated by the peculiar tem- 
perament or good quality of the soil. 
Any common field or pasture that pro- 
duces good crops of corn, grass, or 
kitchen garden vegetables, is suitable 
for an orchard ; if it should prove of a 
loamy nature, it will be a particular 
advantage ; any soil, however, of a good 
quality, not too light and dry, or too 
heavy, stubborn, or wet, but of a me- 
dium nature, friable and open, with not 
less than one spade deep of good staple, 
will be proper. 

Preparation of the Ground. — The 
preparation of the ground for the re- 
ception of the trees is by trenching one 
or two spades, as the soil will admit. 
And if in grass, turn the sward clean 
to the bottom of each trench, which 
will prove an excellent manure. The 
ground must be fenced securely against 
cattle, &c, either with a good ditch 
and hedge, or with a paling fence, as 
may be most convenient. 

Method of Planting the Trees.— The 
season for planting all the sorts of fruit 
trees is autumn, soon after the fall of 
the lea'f, from about the latter end of 
October until December, though it may 
be performed any time in open weather, 
from October until March or April ; on 
light land the autumn is usually pre- 
ferred, on heavy land the spring is best. 



Let several varieties of each particu- 
lar species be chosen that ripen their 
fruit at different times from the earliest 
to the latest, according to the nature of 
the different sorts, that there may be a 
sufficient supply of every sort during 
their proper season ; and of apples and 
pears, in particular, choose a much 1 
greater quantity of the autumnal and 
late ripening kinds, than the early sorts ; 
but most of all of apples ; for the sum- 
mer ripening fruit is but of short dura- 
tion, only proper for temporary service ; 
but the latter ripening kinds keep sound 
some considerable time for autumn and 
winter use. The arrangement of the 
trees in the orchard must be in rows, 
each kind separate, at distances ac- 
cording to the nature of growth of 
the different sorts; but for the larger 
growing kinds, such as apples, pears, 
plums, cherries, &c, they should stand 
from twenty-five to thirty or forty feet 
every way asunder, though twenty-five 
or thirty feet at most is a reasonable 
distance for all these kinds. Each spe- 
cies and its varieties should generally 
be in rows by themselves, the better 
to suit their respective modes of growth. 
Stake the new planted trees, to support 
them in their proper position, and se- 
cure them from being rocked to and 
fro by the wind, which would greatly 
retard their rooting afresh, placing two 
or three strong tall stakes to each tree ; 
but the most effectual method is to have 
three stakes to each, placed in a trian- 
gle, meeting at top near the head of 
the tree, wrapping a hayband round 
that part of the stem, to prevent its 
being barked by the stakes or tying; 
then tie the stakes at top close to the 
tree with some proper bandage, bring- 
ing it close about the stem and stakes 
together, over the hay wrapping, so as 
to secure the tree firmly in an erect 
posture. If laid down in grass no cat- 
tle should be turned in to graze at 
large, unless the stem of each tree is 
previously well secured with posts and 
railing, or wattled with thorn bushes, 
especially in young orchards, otherwise 
they will bark the trees ; nor should 
large cattle be turned into orchards, 
where the branches of the trees are yet 
low and within their reach. — Abercrom- 
bie. See Tree-Guard. 

ORCHIDEOUS PLANTS are chiefly 
herbaceous, a very few are even semi- 
frutescent; but all are characterized 



ORC 



406 

— ♦— 



ORC 



either by singular beauty or fragrance ; 
and, as many of them are extremely 
impatient of cultivation, they have of 
late years obtained great attention 
from horticulturists; and pre-eminent 
among these, are Dr. Lindley, Mr. 
Lodiges, Mr. Bateman, Mr. Paxton, 
Mr. Catley, Mr. Clowes, &c. 



Goodyera. 

Thelymitra. 

Diuris. 

Orthoceras. 

Cryptostylis. 

Ponthieva. 

Prasophyllum. 

Calochilus. 

Neottia. 

Pelexia. 

Listera. 

Stenorhynchus. 

Arethusa. 

Calopogon. 

Pogonia. 

Microtis. 

Acianthus. 

Cyrtostylis. 

Chiloglottis. 

Eriochilus. 

Caladenia. 

Lyperanthus. 

Glossodia. 

Pterostylis. 

Epipactis. 

Cephalanthera. 

Corallorhiza. 

Galeya. 

Corysanthes. 

Prescotia. 

Gastrodia. 

Vanilla. 

Orchis. 

Glossula. 

Anacamptis. 

Nigritella. 

Aceras. 

Ophrys. 

Serapias. 

Disa. 

Habenaria. 

Gymnadenia. 

Platanthera. 

Chamorchis. 

Herminium. 

Bartholina. 

Bonatea. 

Satyrium. 

Pterogodium. 

Disperis. 



GENEBA. 

Corycium. 

Calanthe. 

Octomeria. 

Maxillaria. 

Camaridium. 

Ornithidium. 

Pholidota. 

Megaclinium. 

Ornithocephalus. 

Cryptarrhena. 

Aerides. 

Vanda. 

Sarcanthus. . 

Aeranthes. 

Angraecum. 

Ionopsis. 

Renanthera. 

Cymbidium. 

Cirrhaea. 

Lissochilus. 

Sarcochilus. 

Geodorum. 

Dipodium. 

Oncidium. 

Macradenia. 

Brassia. 

Cyrtopodium. 

Zygopetalum. 

Catasetum. 

Anguloa. 

Ceratochilus. 

Encyclia. 

Heterotaxis. 

Eulophia. 

Xylobium. 

Polystachya. 

Gongora. 

Trizeuxis. 

Rodriguezia. 

Sophronitis. 

Fernandesia. 

Tribrachia. 

Gomeza. 

Notylia. 

Bletia. 

Brassavola. 

Epidendrum. 

Cattleya. 

Broughtonia. 

Isochilus. 



Eria. 

Dendrobium. 

Anisopetalum. 

Caslogyne. 

Malaxis. 

Microstylis. 

Liparis. 



Calypso. 

Pleurothallis. 

Stanhopea. 

Stelis. 

Cypripedium. 

Saccolabium. 



Tender Orchideous Plants. — Dr. Lind- 
ley has given the following selections 
from the foregoing, with statements as 
to their appropriate modes of growth : — 

" To grow orchidaceous plants in 
the highest state of perfection, several 
houses would be requisite ; for exam- 
ple, there should be a cool house for 
those which inhabit the high lands of 
Mexico and Guatemala ; a warm and 
moist one for others which grow in the 
hot damp valleys of India, and other 
parts of the tropics ; a third, kept warm 
and dry, for containing those which are 
in a state of rest ; and a fourth for 
plants in flower. But, however beauti- 
ful and interesting this tribe may be, 
few persons would go to this expense ; 
and many have succeeded admirably in 
growing a selection mixed with other 
stove plants. It is difficult to give di- 
rections for the management of a house 
of this kind without seeing it, but the 
following should be attended to. Keep 
the orchidaceous plants as much toge- 
ther as possible, either at one side, or 
along the front itself. This is neces- 
sary in order that they may be kept more 
moist or shaded than the other plants. 
If the house fronts the south, shade 
will be indispensable during bright sun- 
shine in summer and autumn. The 
temperature of it during the dull months 
of winter, that is from November to 
February, should not exceed 60° by 
night. As the spring advances, raise 
it to 65° and 70°, and it may be kept 
at that as long as artificial heat is ne- 
cessary. If the summer and autumn 
are warm, no fire will be required for 
two or three months. Always allow 
the temperature to sink several degrees 
lower at night than during the day. If 
this is done, and the stove kept damp 
enough, the plants will be covered with 
dew in the morning. The following is 
a list of those most suitable. ♦ 

"1. To be grown in pots and placed 
near the warmest end of the stove. 
Dendrobium nobile, one of the most 
lovely yet known. Oncidium papilio, 
an interesting kind, having flowers like 



ORC 



407 

— ♦ — 



ORC 



a butterfly. Peristeria elata,ihe beau- 
tiful dove flower. Miltonia Candida, 
Cattleya labiata, C. Mossicc, C. crispa, 
C. intermedia, C. Harrisoniata : these 
flower in great profusion during sum- 
mer, and are remarkable for their great 
beauty. Cymbidium sinense, with dingy 
coloured flowers, but very fragrant. 
Zygopetalum Mackaii, Z. intermedium, 
Z. crinitum, very showy and sweet- 
scented. Brassia caudata, B. Lanceana, 
and B. maculata. Acanthaphippium bi- 
color is easily cultivated, and produces 
a nest of flowers in spring. Gongora 
atropurpurea likes heat and moisture, 
the flowers are striking and curious. 

" 2. To be grown in pols and placed in 
the coolest end of the stove. Oncidium 
Cavendishianum produces large spikes 
of yellow flower. Cattleya Skinneri, 
Epidendrum Stamfordianum, whose 
flowers hang very gracefully, and the 
violet markings of them are delicate 
and beautiful. Trichopilia tortilis with 
finely spotted flowers. Catassetum 
maculatum, and Phasius grandifolius, 
which should be kept near the light, 
and is very thirsty while growing. 
Maxillaria aromatica and M. cruenta 
have fine yellow flowers, highly fra- 
grant. M. tenuifolia has pretty spotted 
flowers. Cyrtochilium maculatum, and 
several varieties of it, are well worth 
cultivation. 

" 3. To be suspended in baskets, or 
on blocks of wood near the warmest 
end. Dendrobium cucullatum, macula- 
tum, and fimbriatum, the former with 
rose coloured, the latter with pretty 
yellow fringed flowers. Oncidium am- 
pliatum, large varieties ; 0. Lanceanum, 
one of the best of the genus, will also 
do well in a pot. Aerides odoratum, 
very sweet; Saccolabium guttatum ; 
both of these want a very warm and 
moist situation, but their beautiful rose 
and lilac blossoms will repay any 
trouble. 

" 4. To be suspended in baskets, or 
blocks of wood near the coolest end of 
the stove. Lalia autumnalis, L. albida, 
and L. anceps, are very ornamental, re- 
sembling Cattleyas. Oncidium leuco- 
chilum is easily grown, and the delicate 
white of the lip contrasts well with the 
brown markings of the other parts of 
the flower. Odontoglossum grande, 
whose flowers are very large and par- 
ticularly striking. Stanhopea tigrina 
and several other species send their 



flowers downwards in the same direc- 
tion as the roots, and have a very curi- 
ous appearance." — Gard. Chron. 

Hardy Orchideous Plants. — M. F. Otto 
has written as follows upon these: — 

" The best time for transplanting 
Orchises is early in autumn, when the 
plants are in a state of rest, and the 
cultivator must devise the means of 
finding them, although they are almost 
withered upon the ground. 

" They grow much better if placed 
between other plants, as they find them- 
selves in their natural situation. 

" They should be brought into the 
garden not only with the whole of their 
ball of earth, but also with all the sorts 
of plants belonging to it. They never 
thrive so well as if they stood among 
the other plants which naturally sur- 
round them. 

" Experience has taught that the 
greater part of the Swiss and Tyrol ese 
Alpine Orchises, as well as those from 
the south of Europe, are cultivated in 
pots, but in this situation the plants 
weaken from year to year, until the 
tubercles at last disappear. If we would 
retain them longer in our gardens, par- 
ticular attention must be paid to the 
soil in which they grow, and it would 
probably be best to cultivate them in 
boxes, which may be covered during 
the winter months. 

" It may be useful to those who would 
collect the northern species into gar- 
dens, to know the situation and soil in 
which they naturally grow. 

" Malaxis paludosa upon very wet 
peat earth, among sphagnum. Coral- 
lorrhiza innata upon stumps of roots in 
wooded peaty marshes. Liparis Loc- 
selii, in peat meadows, among sphag- 
num. Orchis morio, in meadows and 
pastures. O. palustris, in damp mea- 
dows, often half under water. 0. ?nas- 
cula, in meadows and pastures. 0. 
pollens, upon chalk, in mountain pas- 
tures. 0. militans, in meadows. 0. 
fusca, upon chalk, in mountain mea- 
dows. 0. coriophora, in meadows. 0. 
ustulata, in meadows. 0. globosa, in 
meadows. 0. sambucina, in meadows. 
O. maculata, in very dry meadows. 0. 
latifolia, in meadows. 0. anacamptis 
pyramidalis, in meadows. 0. gymna- 
denia conopsea, in meadows. 0. con- 
densiflora, in meadows. 0. platan- 
thera bifolia, in dry meadows, on 
mountains, and in forests. 0. hermin- 



ORC 



408 

— ♦ — 



ORC 



ium monarchis, in meadows. Ophrys 
myodes, in shady forests, particularly 
upon chalk. 0. arachnites, in mea- 
dows, also upon limestone. O. apifera, 
upon limestone hills. Epipogium 
gmelini, upon mouldering roots of 
trees, in mountainous woods. Spiran- 
thes autumnalis, in meadows. Neottia 
Nidusavis, growing upon roots of trees, 
in woods. Listera ovata, in damp 
places, in common woods. L. cordata, 
in mountain meadows and woods. 
Epipactis latifolia, in forests. E. atro- 
rubens, in mountain woods, particu- 
larly upon limestone. E. viridiflora, in 
shady places. E. palustris, in mea- 
dows. Goodyera repens, in fir woods 
among moss. Cephalanthera rubra, in 
shady woods. C. ensifolia, in shady 
forests. Cypripedium calceolus, in 
shady woods." — Gard. Chron. 

Stove for Tender Species. — The fol- 
lowing is the plan of a stove for these 
plants erected at Ealing Park, and for 
which I am indebted to the Gardener's 
Chronicle. 

Fig. 105. 




" The roof consists of three spans, 
which cover a breadth of something 
more than fifty feet, and is supported 
by columns, c c, to which creepers are 
trained. In the centre is an irregular 
piece of water, a a, called the ' lake,' 
surrounded by rock-work edging, 
heated by pipes passing through it 
from the boiler b, and containing aqua- 
tic plants. The flooring of the house 



and the shelves, b b, are of slate. 
Parallel with the shelves, and separa- 
ting them from the narrow part of the 
lake, are beds, d d, raised two feet 
and a half above the level of the floor, 
and each furnished in the middle with 
a tank, c c, the water of which is heated 
by a turn of pipe passing through it. 
At the north end, the house is closed 
by a solid wall, covered with bark and 
rough projections for ferns and such 
plants, at the other end it opens into 
what is called the plant house by two 
doors. The heating apparatus consists 
of a boiler, b, at the close end of pipes 
running through the water and under 
the slate shelves. 

" The heating apparatus," Mr. 
Butcher says, " is found to suit admi- 
rably as regards the temperature, both 
of the house and of the lake and tanks 
of water. The circulation of heat be- 
ing continued under water, commu- 
nicates sufficient warmth for the double 
purpose of creating an evaporation 
beneficial to the plants, and making 
the water of suitable temperature when 
applied by syringe or watering pot. 

" We can always command ten de- 
grees of heat in this house above the 
temperature of the plant stove, con- 
nected with and heated by the same 
apparatus, an arrangement of some 
importance, as it allows for placing in 
the plant stove those Orchidacea3 which 
require a lower temperature when in a 
state of rest. 

"The boiler is formed of cylindrical 
pipes placed in rows alternately above 
each other, all heated by one or two 
fires at pleasure. 

" From the roof as well as from trees 
placed in the centre of the lake, we 
suspend the Orchidacese in baskets ; 
and on logs of wood on the two large 
raised pits and wide shelves around 
the house, which complete the internal 
arrangements, we place plants in pots. 
Those of your readers conversant with 
floricultural affairs during that period, 
may remember the many prizes which 
have been awarded to specimens from 
our collection, and as this fact forbids 
the charge of presumption, I will ex- 
plain our mode of treatment by tak- 
ing the genus Zygopetalum for an in- 
stance. 

" When the plants are commencing 
their growth, (generally about the 
month of October,) a pot of suitable size 



ORC 



409 

— ♦ — 



ORC 



is filled three parts full of potsherds 
and the remainder with close peat, 
fastened down with pegs of wood. I 
prefer close peat for this genus, as I 
have found it do better than in lighter 
or more fibrous peat. 

" The plant so potted is then placed 
in the Orchidaceous house, tempera- 
ture ranging from sixty to seventy de- 
grees, the atmosphere moist, the plant 
kept moist and more liberally supplied 
with water as it advances in growth. 

" When it has completed its growth, 
it is removed to the plant-stove where 
the temperature is from fifty to sixty 
degrees, and water is given sparingly, 
but the plant is never allowed to be- 
come quite dry. It there remains un- 
til it again commences growth, when 
it undergoes the same routine as be- 
fore." 

Compost. — The best we have noticed 
is this recommended by Mr. T. Apple- 
by:- 

M Procure a quantity of sphagnum or 
common bog moss, have it dried and 
then chopped small. To this add half- 
rotten willow or poplar wood, on ac- 
count of their lightness and the absence 
of resin, chopped into small pieces of 
various sizes, the largest not bigger 
than pigeons' eggs. To these add the 
under stratum of sphagnum, which has 
become almost peat, likewise chopped 
fine, the whole in about equal parts. 

" These make altogether a light open 
compost, which appears admirably to 
suit the plants, as they root in it freely 
and thrive ; I use it chiefly for the spe- 
cies that grow upon trees. For such 
as grow upon the ground, I use stronger 
compost." — Card. Chron. 

Culture. — The following general sug- 
gestions are from Mr. Bateman's most 
valuable work on the Orchidaceaj of 
Mexico and Guatemala : — 

" Supposing the plants established in 
a Suitable house, then the following 
rules will be found to contain all that 
is most essential for their successful 
management. 

" 1st. The plants can scarcely have 
too much light or too little sun. Light 
prevents mildew, strengthens the fibre, 
and checks the disposition to throw uo 
a succession of weakly shoots, which 
are quite incompatible with the produc- 
tion of flowers. The sun, on the con- 
trary, scorches and turns the leaves 
yellow, especially when it first begins 



to shine powerfully upon plants that 
have just left their winter quarters. In 
order to secure as much light as possi- 
ble, many species should be suspended 
in the air from rafters or chains, some 
being placed on blocks of wood, (cork- 
wood is the best,) or fragments of co- 
coa-nut husks, and others in baskets of 
wire or wicker work filled with moss 
and broken peat, or in pots with pierced 
sides. The latter answer perfectly for 
plants {e. g. the Saccolabiums) which 
are of slow growth, and thrust their 
roots into the air. Baskets answer best 
for Stanhopeas and the like. To pre- 
vent injury from the rays of the sun, 
shading is of course necessary ; but this 
should be so arranged as to be easily 
removed, as it ought not to be con- 
tinued for more than ten or twelve 
hours on the very longest summer's 
day. Exotic climbing plants introduced 
sparingly are advantageous, and have a 
good effect. 

"2d. Take care of the roots. On 
the health o* the roots everything de- 
pends. The winter is with them the 
most critical season, for if suffered to 
grow too dry, they shrivel up and per- 
ish, if too wet they rot. Much of course 
depends upon the mode in which the 
plants are potted, and which should be 
such as to admit of their readily parting 
with all superfluous moisture, and to se- 
cure this, nothing is better than a plen- 
tiful admixture of broken pots-herds. 
High potting is now so generally prac- 
tised in good collections, that it is need- 
less to insist upon its importance. 

" Rapidly growing plants, such as the 
different species of Phaius, Gongorce, 
Peristerice, Starihopea, &c, require to 
be broken up and entirely repotted 
every second or third year; on the 
other hand, there are some air plants, 
&c, that may remain undisturbed for 
five or ten years together. 

3d. Beware of noxious insects. Or- 
chidaceffi are more particularly exposed 
to the attacks of the following insects : 
woodlice, crickets, and cockroaches, 
the thrip, a minute woolly white scale, 
and a diminutive species of snail, the 
two last being infinitely the most per- 
nicious. Woodlice are easily kept in 
check by placing the plants on saucers, 
or within troughs filled with water, es- 
pecially if the valuable aid of a few 
toads be called in. The Oniscampitre 
Epiphyte Stand, invented by Mr. Lyons, 



ORC 



410 

— ♦ — 



ORC 



is an ingenious and no doubt effectual 
way of accomplishing the same end. It 
is made by merely fixing a forked 
branch or back of wood, to the raised 
centre of a massive saucer or feeder, 
which being kept constantly full of 
water, forms a sort of foss, impassable 
to vermin, round the plant it is intended 
to guard; crickets and cockroaches are 
very fond of flour scapes, and to be 
dreaded accordingly; red wafers scat- 
tered over sand among the pots are to 
them very tempting baits, and if swal- 
lowed, the red lead they contain acts as 
a poison; but these pests are best de- 
stroyed by the mixture recommended 
for the white scale. The thrip does 
not do much mischief, except where 
plants are either neglected or grown in 
too hot and dry a temperature. It 
usually first appears among the lataseta, 
and is to be removed by careful wash- 
ing. Small snails abound in some col- 
lections, while in others they are un- 
known : it is difficult to conjecture 
whence they come, and alfbut impos- 
sible to eradicate them entirely. They 
batten upon the tenderest roots, such 
as plants put forth when they are just 
beginning to grow, and if not kept in 
check would speedily produce irre- 
trievable mischief. Lettuce leaves, 
slices of potato, turnips, &c, are very 
enticing, and while they divert the at- 
tention of the enemy from the roots, 
they also afford an opportunity of cap- 
turing him. The collections which are 
watered exclusively with rain water are 
the least infested. But the worst plague 
of all is the small white scale, which in 
its first insidious approaches, appears 
only as a white speck upon the leaves, 
then covers them with a soft whitish 
down, and finally kills them. For this 



since this mixture came into frequent 
use. Besides the above annoyances, 
the red spider and the brown scale are 
frequently injurious, but never except 
in cases of gross neglect. 

4th. Give the plants a season of rest. 
Without a season of rest most plants 
will not live at all, and others do so 
very imperfectly. It is easily accom- 
plished in a variety of ways, either by 
moving the plants from the warmer to 
the cooler end of the house, or by di- 
minishing the quantity of water, or by 
placing them in a cooler house. Even 
exposure in a hot dry atmosphere, al- 
though it scorches their leaves, not 
unfreqently throws them into vigorous 
flower. Plants from the East Indies 
and from other climates, where the ex- 
tremes of drought and wet are not felt 
so severely as in Brazil or Hindostan, 
require a season of rest proportionally 
short, and of a less decided character. 

" 5th. Attend to the condition of the 
air. In winter, 60s to 65o is a whole- 
some temperature for most of the spe- 
cies; in the summer it may rise to 70° 
or 75o, or even higher if derived from 
the heat of the sun. Where there are 
two houses, the warmer one should not 
be lower than 70° even in winter, but 
fortunately there are comparatively few 
kinds that insist upon so hot a berth. 

" The air should always be soft and 
nearly saturated with moisture. The 
latter should, however, be prevented 
from dripping upon the plants as it 
condenses, and this is easily effected by 
fixing a small copper pipe or piece of 
channeled wood under each rafter and 
sash-bar, to catch and carry off the 
water. 

" 6th. Bo not over-water. This a 
beginner is very apt to do, and a griev- 



the following remedy will be found ef- J ous fault it is. When plants do not 
ficacious, viz.: dissolve half a pound of i shrivel or flag, it is a sign that they are 



camphor in a pint of spirits of wine, the 
result will be an impalpable powder, to 
which add one pound of scotch snuff, 
one ditto pepper, one ditto sulphur, and 
keep in a bottle carefully stopped. This 
mixture should be dusted over the in- 
fected parts, and repeated whenever 
or wherever the enemy shows itself. 
If persisted in for some time the mix- 
ture rarely fails to effect a perfect cure ; 
and it has the further good property of 
acting as a more deadly poison to cock- 
roaches, &c, which have quite disap- 
peared in the collection at Knypersley 



content with the humidity that the at- 
mosphere of the house supplies. When 
watering is necessary, it should not be 
done indiscriminately, but according to 
the wants of particular plants. It is 
also of great importance to use rain 
water only, which may be collected for 
the purpose in a tank, as shown in the 
plan of Mr. Rucher's house, and which 
should not. be applied of a temperature 
below 60°. 

" Syringing in moderation maybe had 
recourse to in hot weather. Some of 
the sobralias, together with bromheadia 



ORC 



41: 



OTI 



palustris, grow more vigorously if their 
pots are set in saucers of water during 
the summer months. 

" To the foregoing rules the following 
advice may be added. Do not aim at 
having too large a collection, but rather 
strive to grow a few good kinds in the 
best style." 

ORCHIS. Thirty species. Chiefly 
hardy orchids. Seed. Chalky loam and 
peat. 

ORIGANUM. Marjoram. Eight spe- 
cies and some varieties. Hardy herba- 
ceous and half-hardy evergreen shrubs. 
The former are increased by division ; 
the latter by slips and cuttings. Sandy 
loam. See Marjoram. 

ORMOSIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat. ^ 

ORNITHIDIUM. TVo species. 
Stove epiphytes. 

ORNITHOCEPHALUS. Two species. 
Stove epiphytes. Both these genera 
are increased by dividing the bulbs, and 
planting them in moss and wood. 

ORNITHOGALUM. Fifty-nine spe- 
cies. Hardy, half-hardy, and green- 
house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

ORNITHOGLOSSUM. Two species. 
Green-house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

ORNIX rhodophagella. Rose Moth. 
Mr. Kollar says that — " In early spring, 
as soon as the rose tree begins to bud, 
if the new leaf-shoots are closely ex- 
amined, a little brownish seed is found 
here and there attached to them, in 
which a worm — the larva of a small 
moth, is concealed, which gnaws the 
tender shoots. When it has devoured 
one shoot it removes, with its house, 
and attacks another ; and thus, in a 
short time, one of these larvae can strip 
a whole branch of its shoots. The larva, 
which lives in the little case, is only a 
few lines long, yellow, with a black 
head, and black spotted collar. It un- 
dergoes pupation in its case. 

" The moth appears at the end of 
May. It is only three lines long, car- 
ries it wings very close to its body — al- 
most wrapped round it. The whole 
body is silvery shining gray, the upper 
wings strewed with minute black dots, 
deeply fringed at the posterior edge. 
The moth lays her eggs in May on the 
buds of the rose tree, and the caterpil- 
lars are hatched at the end of June. 



They immediately form for themselves 
small cases of parts of the leaves, and 
pass, the winter in them at the root of 
the rose-tree." 

ORNUS. Flowering ash. Five spe- 
cies. Hardy deciduous trees. Seed 
and grafting, or budding, on common 
ash. Light loam. 

OR OB US. Thirty-eight species. 
Hardy herbaceous, except O. saxatilis, 
which is annual, and 0. Americanus, a 
green-house evergreen shrub. Seed 
and division. Light loam. 

ORTEGIA. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed and cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat, well drained. 

ORTHOT^ENIA, 0. resinella, tur- 
pentine moth; 0. turionana, bud tor- 
trix. See Tortrix. 

ORTHRO SAN THUS multifiorus. 
Green-house herbaceous. Seed and di- 
vision. Loam and peat. 

OSAGE-APPLE. Maculura. 

OSBECKIA. Six species. Stove 
shrubs, deciduous, and evergreen. 
Young cuttings. Sandy loam and peat, 

OSIER. Salix viminalis. 

OSMITES. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Light 
rich soil. 

OSMUNDA. Seven species. Hardy 
ferns. Seed and division. Light rich 
loam. 

OSTEOSPERMUM. Thirteen spe- 
cies. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Light rich loam. 

OSTRYA. Hop-hornbeam. Two spe- 
cies. Hardy deciduous tree. Seed and 
layers. Common soil. 

OTANTHUS Maritimus. Hardy her- 
baceous. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

OTHOUNA. Twenty-six species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs, herba- 
ceous, and bulbs, except O. tagetes, an 
annual. This is increased by seed, 
and the others by cuttings, division, or 
offsets. Light rich loam. 

OTIORHYNCUS sulcatus. The suc- 
culent Weevil. Mr. Curtis remarks 
that : — 

" Sedums, and other succulents, in 
green-houses, will frequently be ob- 
served to get sickly, and perhaps die,* 
without any apparent reason. When 
this is the case they should be carefully 
examined, and the grubs of the weevil 
will be found to have eaten off the plant 
close to the surface of the soil. 

" These grubs are about half an inch 
long, of a dirty white colour, thick and 



OTI 



412 



OXA 



fleshy, slightly curved, and having nu- J 
merous short rigid hairs on the body. 
About the middle of May these grubs 
change into white pupae, which have no 
cocoons, but are placed in oval cells, in | 
the earth, perfectly smooth on the in- I 
side. They remain in the pupa state 
about fourteen days, and become bee- ' 
ties. In this latter state they are quite 
black, and the elytra, or wing-cases, 
are rather deeply furrowed. In the 
Berlin Botanic Garden they have been 
found to infest the roots of saxifrages 
and trollius, growing in the open bor- 
der, and cause their death. 

" The only methods of destroying 
them are, at this time of the year, to 
examine the roots of sedums and other 
succulent plants, and crush all that may 
be found ; and in June, when the per- 
fect insects appear, to look among the 
pots, where they are usually lurking, 
and kill them as soon as they come out, 
before they have time to deposit their 
eggs." — Gard. Chron. 

O. tenebricosus. Red-legged garden- 
weevil. Mr. Curtis says, — 

" The maggots of the red-legged 
garden-weevil are found round the base 
of the stems of wall-fruit, sometimes 
in very great quantities, a few inches 
below the surface, where they undergo 
their transformations. The beetles, 
which are old offenders, come out only 
at night to feed upon the buds of wall- 
fruit, doing great mischief to apricots, 
peaches, nectarines, plums, &c. They 
first destroy the fruit, and subsequently 
attack the bark and leaves, so as not 
unfrequently to endanger the life of the 
trees. They commence their depreda- 
tions in April by eating the unexpanded 
blossom-buds, clearing out the centre, 
and leaving only the external bractea, 
and occasionally fragments of the im- 
mature leaves. They will thus proceed 
along a branch until all the buds are 
destroyed, and afterwards demolish the 
young eyes which ought to produce 
wood-shoots, until nothing is left but 
the bare branches. 

" The beetles bury themselves by 
day in the earth, close to the founda- 
tion of the wall to which the trees are 
trained, likewise round the stems of 
the trees, and most probably in chinks 
of the bricks, and other dark hiding- 
places. When recently hatched it is 
clothed with a delicate yellow pube- 
scence, forming little irregular spots 



upon the elytra; but they soon wear 
off and disappear, when it becomes of 
a shining black, inclining to a pitch- 
colour. 

" The larvee of these otiorhynci being 
as destructive as the perfect beetles, 
the main object ought to be to destroy 
the former, if possible, in the autumn, 
which probably would be most readily 
effected by stirring the earth all along 
the base of the wall and round the 
stems of the fruit-trees, and then sprin- 
kling salt pretty thickly over the broken 
surface ; or salt and water, or, perhaps, 
liquid-manure, might be equally bene- 
ficial — if hot the better ; for it seems 
evident, from the peculiar spots in 
which they generate, or rather undergo 
their transformations, that situations 
sheltered irjpa great measure from the 
wet are most congenial to their habits. 

The beetles can only be arrested by 
hand-picking, with a candle and lan- 
tern, and afterwards pouring boiling 
water upon them, as their shells resist 
moderate heat." -Gard. Chron. 

0. notatus attacks the young shoots 
of the raspberry and rose, piercing 
them to the pith. 

OXALIS. Wood-sorrel. One hun- 
dred and twenty-four species. Chiefly 
green-house half-hardy and hardy bulbs, 
though some are shrubs, others herba- 
ceous, and a few annuals. The bulbs 
are increased by offsets, the shrubs by 
cuttings, the herbaceous by division, 
and the annuals by seed. They all 
thrive in sandy loam, manured with 
leaf mould. See Sorrel. 

0. Deppii. — Plant bulbs of this in 
pots, at the beginning of March, and 
shelter in a cold pit or green-house. 
When all fear of frost is passed plant 
them in a light soil, and in a southern 
aspect, about twelve inches apart each 
! way; or the bulbs may be kept out of 
the ground altogether until the middle 
; of April, and then be planted at once 
' in the open soil. It should be trenched, 
! and a little manure turned in with the 
bottom spit, as for other tap-rooted 
crops. The scaly bulbs, from which it 
is propagated, grow in a cluster round 
the crown of the root. The only culti- 
! vation required, is to keep the crop 
I free from weeds, and to water plenti- 
fully in dry weather ; otherwise, if the 
roots are allowed to become dry, they 
| split upon the occurrence of moist 
| weather. Protect from early frosts, in 



OX-E 



413 



P^N 



October or November, by a mat cover- 
ing. 

About ten roots are enough for a 
dish. They are very useful as a vege- 
table from early in October to the end 
of December; and Mr. Cockburn, gar- 
dener to the Earl of Mansfield, at 
Canewood, thinks they would be more 
cul tivated if better known. An inferior 
kind has often been substituted for it, 
viz., the Oxalis Jacquiniana ; but this 
is distinguished by having pink flowers. 
In Belgium, the leaves, being gratefully 
acid, are used for the same purposes 
as sorrel, and the flowers are mixed 
with other salad herbs. — Gard. Chron. 
182, and Hort. Trans, of Lond. iii. N. 
S. 30. 

As it is not a very common vegetable, 
it may be useful to state, as an improved 
mode of cooking, that after peeling the 
tubers, and cleaning out their hollow 
centres, they must be well boiled in 
rich stock (gravy), skimming off the fat, 
and then be served up hot, with a sauce 
made of a little butter heated until 
brown, with a spoonfull of flour, and a 
little of the stock. 

OX-EYE. Bupthalmum. 

OX-EYE DAISY. Chrysanthemum 
leucanthemum. 

OX- LIP. Primula elatior. 

OXYANTHUS speciosus. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Young cuttings. Loam 
and peat : abundant watering. 

OXYBAPHUS. Twelve species. 
Chiefly hardy and half-hardy trailers 
and creepers. Seed. Common soil. 

OXYCOCCUS. Cranberry. Three 
species. Hardy evergreens. See Ame- 
rican Cranberry. 

OXYLOBIUM. Ten species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

OXYPETALUM appendiculatum . 
Stove evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

OXYRIA reniformis. Mountain sor- 
rel. Hardy herbaceous. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

OXYSTELMA esculentum. Stove 
evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

OXYTROPIS. Twenty-eight species. 
Hardy herbaceous alpines. Seed. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

OXYURA chrysanthemoides. Hardy 
annual. Seed. Common soil. 

OYSTER-SHELLS. See Animal Mat- 
ters. 



OZOTHAMNUS. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs, proba- 
bly hardy. Young Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

PACHIDENDRON. Seven species. 
Green-house tree aloes. Suckers and 
leaves, slightly dried. Sandy loam and 
calcareous rubbish. 

PACHYPODIUM. Two species. 
Green-house deciduous succulents. Cut- 
tings, slightly dried. Sandy turfy loam 
and peat. 

PACHYRHIZAS angulatus. Stove 
evergreen twiner. Tubers, seed, and 
cuttings. Rich light loam. 

PACHYSANDRA procumbens. Hardy 
herbaceous ; and P. coriacea, stove ever- 
green shrub. Division or suckers. Com- 
mon soil. 

PiEDERIA f&tida. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Rich light loam. 

P^DEROTA. Two species. Hardy 
Ali^ne annuals. Seed. Sandy loam. 

pfeoNIA. Paeony. Twenty-two spe- 
cies, and many varieties. The follow- 
ing are most worthy of cultivation : — 
P. albiflora, white. 

— Candida, pinky. 

— fragrans, red. 

— Humeii, red. 

— Potsii, crimson. 

— Richardsonii, white. 

— rubescens, pink. 

— albiflora tartarica, pinky. 
Whitlejii, rosy. 

— anomala, crimson. 

— arborea, pink. 

— aretina Andersoni, rosy. 

— lobata, purple. 

— officinalis sabini, crimson. 

albicans, white. 

— Baxteri, crimson. 

carnescens, pinky. 

— rosea, red. 



— paradoxa fimbriata, purple. 

peregrina Byzantina, dark 

purple. 

compacta, pur- 



ple. 

— Russii, crimson. 

— sinensis, pink. 

— tenuifolia flore pleno, red. 

— moutan, tree pa?ony, purple. 
albida-plena, white. 

anemoneflora striata, rose 



and white. 



anneslei, purplish pink. 
Banksii, or Humeii, purple, 
carnea plena, rosy white. 



P j£0 



414 



V MO 



P. moutan chrysanthemiflora, rose and 

cream. 
Compte de Paris, dark rose 

and yellow. 

— elegans, white and sulphur. 

herieartiana, bright rose and 



)sy white. 



lacera, bright rosy red. 

Jutea variegata, rosy white 

and yellow. 

lutea alba, rose and cream. 

white. 



papaveracea. 



lac. 



plenissima,li 



— pumicea, carmine. 

— Rawesii, pink. 

— rosa-gallica, rosy red. 

— rosea, pink. 

— plena, red. 

— semiplena, red. 

— speciosa, pink. 
■ striata, rose and 



rosy white. 

sulphuria, sulphur becom- 



ing white. 
— variegata, white and purple. 

All the shrubby kinds are increased 
by cuttings, the same as is detailed 
hereafter in the cultivation of the tree 
preony. The herbaceous kinds are 
propagated by dividing the roots ; and 
new varieties of all are raised from 
seed. A rich light loam suits them. 

Tree-P-eony. P. moutan. Dr. 
Lindley's directions for cultivating this 
are as follow : — 

''Propagation. — It is easily increas- 
ed, and in several ways, when the 
plants are rather large and old ; but 
when they are small and young it is 
rather difficult, and should not be at- 
tempted. They should be rather en- 
couraged by watering freely during dry 
weather in summer ; by mulching with 
a little rotten dung, and covering with 
a hand-glass, during the winter. 

" When the plants are of a sufficient 
size and strength, they may be increas- 
ed in the following ways: 

" By Division. — Take up one of the 
largest plants about the end of October, 
and after shaking all the soil from the 
roots, separate each of the stems which 
have got any roots attached to them 
with a sharp knife ; then shorten the 
top of each, and pot them in some good 
rich mould, placing them afterwards in 
a cold pit, where they are tolerably se- 
cure from frost, and where they can be 
kept dry during the winter. In the 



spring place them where a little artifi- 
cial heat is used ; they will then begin 
to grow and make good plants, fit for 
planting out in the autumn. 

" By Layering, which is performed 
in the following manner : — 

" Select, either in October or Februa- 
ry, some of the bottom shoots which 
are of the preceding year's growth ; 
tongue and peg them down in the usual 
way, covering the layers, about three 
inches, with a mixture of light sandy 
peat, leaf-mould, and a little water in 
dry weather ; but they must remain for 
two years attached to the mother-plant. 
There is another way of layering the 
tree-paeony, which is by selecting early 
in spring some of the bottom branches 
or stems, ringing them, with a sharp 
knife, about one inch above and below 
each bud, upon the stems; every bud 
will then occupy two inches of the 
stem, which is obstructed above and 
below. In ringing remove, in the usual 
way, a small ring of the bark all round 
the stem. The branches, so prepared, 
are then laid in the same way as the 
preceding, and the plants will be fit to 
separate in one year; but they will not 
be so strong as those raised in the pre- 
ceding manner. The Chinese are said 
to practise budding the rarer ones, on 
the more common kinds, with great 
success ; but that statement seems ra- 
ther doubtful. 

" From Seed. — This can only be done 
to increase the single ones, as the 
semi-double ones do not produce perfect 
seeds, or at least very seldom. When 
perfect seeds are obtained, shortly after 
they are ripe, they should be sown in 
pans filled with a mixture of fresh loam 
and a small portion of leaf-mould and 
sand, which should be placed in a cold 
pit or frame, and protected from wet 
until the following spring, when the 
seeds will begin to vegetate. If the 
seeds are not sown until the spring, 
they seldom grow before the following 
year; and frequently many of the seeds 
perish before that time arrives. 

"The seedlings must be allowed to 
remain in the seed-pans the first sea- 
son, and be transplanted the following 
spring, either into the open border, or 
singly in pots; and the time they are 
afterwards before they flower depends 
upon the treatment they receive, but 
generally they require two or three 
years. 



VMO 



415 

— ♦— 



P MO 



"From Single Eyes. — Any time when 
the plant is in a dormant state, cut off 
a branch of the two or three year old 
wood, which has aquantity of buds upon 
it, and cut it into pieces of about two 
inches in length, leaving a single bud 
on each piece ; then pot and treat them 
in the same manner as grape-vines are 
when raised from single eyes ; that is, 
plant them about two inches deep in 
pots filled with good rich soil, and place 
them in a gentle moist heat. Plants 
raised in this way are good but small. 
. "By grafting on the roots of the 
herbaceous kinds, as of P. officinalis ; 
but it is uncertain, and when it does 
succeed the plants are generally short- 
lived, except when the grafted part is 
placed sufficiently under the soil, in 
which case it frequently emits roots 
from the base of the graft, and becomes 
a healthy plant supported by its own 
roots. 

" The operation of grafting is per- 
formed in the following ways : — 

" Select some good tubers of the 
herbaceous paeonies — the Chinese P. 
albiflora and its varieties are the best 
— any time, early in spring, before the 
plant commences growing. Then cut 
ofF a small portion of the crown, and 
slit the tuber, from the top and down- 
wards, sufficiently deep to admit the 
scion of the moutan-paeony, which 
must be of the last season's wood, fit- 
ting the bark of both well together, as 
in the ordinary way of grafting; and 
bind them tightly with strong matting. 
Then pot them singly in pots deep 
enough to cover the graft about an inch 
with soil, and place them in a cold pit 
or frame kept close, and give them but 
little water at first. They may also be 
grafted about the end of July or begin- 
ning of August, using the young wood 
of the current year in the same way as 
the preceding ; but when they are 
grafted and potted they must be placed 
in a strong moist heat, and kept close 
with a bell-glass, as the wood, being 
rather soft, would soon perish if placed 
in a cold pit or frame. 

" Soil. — It requires a strong rich 
loamy soil, with plenty of moisture, 
during the growing season: in swampy 
situations they will soon perish if they 
are in one when in a dormant state. 
A deep loamy or strong soil, with a dry 
subsoil, should be selected, and a light 
dry sandy or poor soil avoided; for in this 



they never flower well, as they always 
suffer from drought. But even in such 
a situation they may be made to flower 
by adding a quantity of well-rotted 
dung, and a little fresh loam, to the 
soil. 

"Planting. — In planting them in the 
open border the best time is the end of 
October; but they may be removed at 
any time except when they are either 
in flower or showing flower; but they 
will be liable to lose their flower-buds 
if they are transplanted after they com- 
mence growing. 

" They seldom suffer much from 
moving if it is carefully performed in 
the autumn ; for they may then be taken 
up from the open border, and potted 
for forcing them. Forcing requires 
great caution as regards the heat ap- 
plied : if not done gently, and the 
plants allowed to make fresh roots be- 
fore they are subjected to much heat, 
they will invariably lose their flower- 
buds "during the time of forcing ; and 
they must only be subjected to a mo- 
derate heat at any time — sixty degrees 
— as they are very apt to get drawn up 
weakly. 

" When the forced plants have done 
flowering they should be again planted 
in the open border, cutting the principal 
shoots back at the same time : they 
will then be ready by autumn for repot- 
ting, and fit for forcing again the follow- 
ing spring. When potted they must be 
well protected, in a cool pit, from the 
frost. 

"Culture. — When planted perma- 
nently in the border they should have 
an open situation which is not in the 
least shaded by other plants, and they 
will require a little more trouble except 
shortening some of the longest of the 
shoots before- the spring, when they 
must be slightly protected to preserve 
the young shoots from injury by the frost, 
which is easily done by placing a single 
mat, or canvass covering, over them, at 
a sufficient distance from the plant, so 
as not to hurt the young shoots by pres- 
sure. 

" The covering should be removed on 
all fine days, but replaced during the 
night. If the plants are small they may 
be covered with a hand-glass during the 
night ; they will then flower freely 
during the early part of May, and the 
colours will be more brilliant." — Gard. 
Chron. 



PAL 



416 

— • — 



PALAFOXIA linearis. Green-house 
herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
mon soil. 

PALICOUREA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PALIURUS. Two species. Hardy 
deciduous shrubs. Seed, root cuttings, 
and layers. Common soil. 

PAN^ETIA fulva. Green-house an- 
nual. Seed. Sandy loam. 

PANCRATIUM. Twenty-nine spe- 
cies and many varieties. Chiefly stove 
and green-house bulbs,butP.i%Hcum, 
and P. maritimum are hardy. They 
are propagated by offsets, and new 
varieties raised from seed. They thrive 
best in a compost of three-fourths sandy 
loam and one-fourth leaf mould. Take 
up the hardy species in autumn, sepa- 
rate the offsets, and replant immediately 
about four inches deep in a light, well 
drained sheltered border, putting some 
mulch or six inches of coal ashes over 
them during the winter. 

PANDAMUS. Twenty species. 
Stove palms. Seed or suckers. Rich 
light loam. 

PANNING is forming a pan or basin 
in the soil round the stem of a tree or 
shrub in which to pour water. 

PANSY or HEART'S EASE. Viola 
tricolor. 

" This is one of the English florist's 
flowers, and spirited contests for prizes 
are yearly witnessed — in this country 
but little attention has been paid it; 
though its increasing beauty by the 
production of new varieties is claiming 
our regard. Those of us whose idea of 
a Heart's Ease is confined to the pretty 
little flower of former days, have but an 
imperfect conception of the size, figure 
and brilliancy to which the Viola tri- 
color has attained. For an interesting 
article on its culture see the " London 
Horticultural Magazine." 

Varieties. — These are increased in 
number annually, but the following are 
established in public favour. 
Brown's Attila. 
Countess of Orkney. 

■ Curion. 
Cook's Attila. 

Alicia. 

Black Bess. 

Mulberry Sup*rb. 

■ Prince Albert. 
Ringleader. 

• Triumph. 



PAN 

Davies' Miss Nugent. 
Foster's Man of Kent. 
King's Exquisite. 

Princess Royal. 

Sulphura Elegans. 

Kitley's Bathonia. 
Lane's Sir John Sebright. 
Lidgard's Jewess. 
Major's Bridegroom. 

Beauty of Knosthorpe. 

Princess Royal. 

Maule's Princess Royal. 
Pearson's Agnes. 

Black Prince. 

De Buch. 

Magraith. 

Milton. 

Sobieski. 

Scholfield's Surprise. 
Silverlock's Prince Albert. 

Prince of Wales. 

Thompson's Attila. 

Beauty of Bucks. 

Coronna. 

Cream. 

Cyclops. 

— — ■ Desirable. 

Duchess of Richmond. 

Hamlet. 

Jewess Superb. 

Launcelot. 

— Miss Stainforth. 

Nymph. 

Prince Albert. 

Princess Royal. 

Regulator. 

Raphael. 

Rufus. 

Ultraflora. 

Venus. 

Warrior. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — " The 
first and most essential quality is its 
form, which will be found in the greatest 
perfection in that flower round which if 
a circle be drawn each petal will exactly 
touch the circle, not projecting beyond 
it, nor stopping short of it. The petals 
should be large and broad, because in 
that case the indentations must be shal- 
low where the outline ofone petal meets 
another. Of a firm texture, flat, even 
at the edge, and free from notches. 
The eye must be clean and well defined, 
the colours should be rich and vivid, 
and the markings must have a clear 
edge. A uniform tint as a ground 
colour is much esteemed ; but the varia- 
tions and combination of colour are so 
numerous and beautiful, that no precise 



PAN 



417 



PAP 



rules can be formed to govern this 
point." — Gard. Chron. 

Soil used by the best Pansey growers 
round Manchester, is the surface soil of 
an old pasture and partially decomposed 
cow-dung, about one part of the latter 
to two of the former. 

Bed. — This should have a southeast 
aspect, unshaded by trees, but very 
sheltered from wind, be three feet wide, 
with a path all round, and then, having 
dug out the soil, be made eight inches 
deep of the above compost. The edges 
supported with slate. 

Propagation. — By Seed. — Sow, as 
soon as it is ripe, or any time in spring 
or summer will do, in pans of the same 
compost plunged in an open border. 
In six weeks the seedlings appear. 
Save seed from the best shaped flowers, 
impregnating these mother plants with 
pollen from bright-eyed flowers. Gather 
the seed pods as they ripen. 

By Cuttings. — The best season is mid 
August. Take short jointed cuttings 
from the approved plants, and insert 
their stems about two inches deep in 
some of the compost in a north border, 
covering with a hand-glass. They will 
have rooted in a month, then pot them, 
and keep in a dry situation until frost 
arrives, then put them in a cold frame 
plunged in coal ashes, covering the 
frame with a mat when frost is severe, 
and never letting the sunshine come 
upon them during frosty weather, but 
admit air freely. 

Planting in Bed. — Do this early in 
April, in dry weather, placing the plants 
in rows twelve inches apart each way. 
Shade for a few days; and if night frosts 
occur shade them from the sun during 
the day after. They require no after- 
culture but frequent hoeing ; never give 
water even in the driest summers, but 
at such seasons cover the surface of the 
bed with fresh cow-dung, sprinkled 
over with earth, to keep it from being 
unsightly. 

Winter Protection. — Mr. Mearns, of 
the Manchester Zoological Gardens, 
recommends the Pansey grower, (< in- 
stead of using frames and glasses, which 
are not always at hand, to trim and 
clean the ground, and loosen the sur- 
face carefully, and then to cover the 
whole of the plants about half an inch 
deep with a good rich compost. In the 
spring the plants will be found perfectly 
protected, and every extremity spring- 
27 



ing up in all directions, and they will 
blossom beautifully, if the subsoil be 
congenial to them. If laid in the soil, 
cuttings of the choicest pansies may be 
taken off at any season, even in the 
depth of winter. If it is convenient for 
the amateur to procure them at that sea- 
son, he may lay the whole cutting be- 
neath the surface, either in coil or 
longitudinally, so that it is not buried 
above half an inch or a little more. It 
will spring up at most of the joints in 
due season vigorous and healthy." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Box for exhibiting Blooms. — Dr. 
Lindley says, that — " the best construct- 
ed box for exhibiting twenty-four Hearts- 
ease is made of deal, of the following 
dimensions, viz., twenty inches long, 
one wide, and five inches deep ; the 
lid was made to unhinge ; a sheet of 
zinc was fitted inside, resting upon a 
rim ; four rows of six holes each were 
cut in the zinc at three inches apart, 
under each hole was a zinc tube sol- 
dered to the plate, and intended to 
contain the water. The apertures to 
admit the flower should be made in the 
form of a keyhole, as it will admit part 
of the calyx and keep the flower in a 
flat position, the outside may be paint- 
ed green, but the zinc plate should be 
painted of a dead white." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Insects. — The worst animal foes of 
the Pansey are the slug and the snail. 
To destroy and keep away these ver- 
min, water the bed late of an evening 
in moist weather with lime water, and 
sprinkle the surface pretty thickly with 
fresh wood ashes. See Agromyza. 

Disease. — The Pansey is liable to 
root-rot, if the soil is not well drained. 
If grown in light, fresh earth, in an 
open border, it is never subject to the 
disease. If a plant, which shows by 
its yellow hue that infection has oc- 
curred, be taken up, the decayed roots 
removed, and it be transplanted into a 
soil and situation such as I have de- 
scribed, it will speedily send forth fresh 
radicles, and recover its vigour. 

PANSEY FLY. Agromyza. 

PANTILES. See Bricks. 

PAPAVER. Poppy. Twenty-six 
species and many varieties. Hardy 
herbaceous and annuals. The former 
are increased by division, the latter by 
seed ; light rich loam. 

PAPER LIGHTS were never much 



PAP 



418 



PAR 



employed, and, since the introduction j good crop immediately afterwards, never 



of Whitney's and other compositions 
for rendering cloth semi-transparent, 
are still less likely to be employed. 
Cartridge paper is the best for the pur- 
pose. It should be damped before it 
is nailed upon the frame, because when 
dried it becomes taut. It may then be 
painted over with boiled linseed oil, in 
which a little white lead has been in- 
corporated. In nailing on the paper, 
a strip of tape should be placed between 
the heads of the tacks and the paper, 
to check the tearing to which the paper 
is so subject. 

PAPER-MULBERRY. Broussone- 
tia papyracea. 

PAPYRUS. Four species. Stove 
perennial aquatics. Seed and division. 
Rich loam in water. 

PARAGUAY TEA. Ilex paraguen- 
sis. 

PARASITIC PLANTS are such as 
derive their nourishment from other 
living plants by rooting into their sap 
vessels. Examples are the Mistletoe 
and Dodder, which attach themselves 
to the stems and branches of some 
plants; the Hypocistus, and the Oro- 
banche or Broom rape, affix themselves 
to the roots of others. The minute 
fungi which constitute the mildew are 
also parasites. There is some doubt 
whether the ivy is at all parasitical ; 
but whether it derives nourishment or 
not from trees, it certainly checks the 
respiration, and prevents the free ac- 
cess of light and air to those upon 
which it attaches. The orchidaceous 
plants, which grow upon dead wood 
as readily as upon living timber, are 
not parasites. 

PARASTRANTHUS. Three spe- 
cies. Hardy herbaceous. Division. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PARDANTHUS. Two species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
Light rich sheltered border. 

PARINARIUM. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

PARING and BURNING is never to 
be practised by the gardener, except 
for the purpose of charring the turf and 
rendering porous the soil cut from the 
banks of clayey ditches. When this is 
carefully done, a serviceable dressing 
is obtained. But paring and burning, 
as a general practice, is extremely 
wasteful; and though it may give a 



fails, by speedy exhaustion, to demon- 
strate how great has been the disper- 
sion of carbonaceous matter. 

PARIVOA grandiflora. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam. 

PARK, in the modern acceptation of 
the word, is an extensive adorned in- 
closure surrounding the house and gar- 
dens, and affording pasturage either 
to deer or cattle.. In Great Britain, a 
park, strictly and legally, is a large ex- 
tent of a man's own ground inclosed 
and privileged for wild beasts of chase 
by prescription or by royal grant. 
(Coke's Litt. 233. a. Blackstone, 2. 38.) 
The beasts of park, or chase, according 
to the definition of ancient sportsmen, 
were the buck, doe, fox, marten, and 
roe ; but in a common and legal sense, 
Coke says, beasts of park were all the 
beasts of the forest. It has been de- 
cided by the superior courts of law, 
that to constitute a park these circum- 
stances are essential : — 1. A grant from 
the king, or prescription. 2. That it 
be inclosed by a wall, pale, or hedge. 
3. That it contain beasts of park, and 
if it fail in any one of these, it is a total 
disparking. (Croke Car. 59.) Of such 
parks there are said to be 781 in Eng- 
land. (Brooks Abr. Action sur Stat. 
48.) 

P A R K I A . Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

PARKINSONIA aculeata. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Imported seed and 
cuttings. Peat and loam. 

PARNASSIA. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division and seed. Shaded 
moist peat. 

PAROCHETUS communis. Half- 
hardy evergreen creeper. Division. 
Light rich loam. 

PARONYCHIA. Fourteen species. 
Chiefly hardy perennials and annuals. 
P. canariensis is a green-house her- 
baceous, and a few others are half- 
hardy. Seed and division. Sandy 
loam. 

PARRYA arctica, a hardy annual. 
P. integerrima, a hardy perennial 
trailer. The first increased by seed, 
the latter by cuttings. Loam and peat. 

PARSLEY. Petroselinum sativum. 

Varieties. — There are two varieties, 
the common plain leaved and the curly 
leaved. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — It is 



PAR 



419 



PAR 



sown annually, but if it is never per- 
mitted to run to seed, the stalks being 
cut down as often as they rise, it will 
last for several years. It may be sown 
from the close of February until the 
middle of June, and this is repeated 
about the middle of September, for 
the supply of winter and spring ; but 
this is unnecessary if the plants are 
not allowed to seed. The seed is to 
be inserted moderately thick, in narrow 
drills barely an inch deep, twelve inches 
apart if in a bed by itself, or in a single 
one round the edge of a bed ; the mould 
being raked level, and the stones im- 
mediately over the seed gathered off. 
The plants make their appearance in 
from two to six weeks. When two or 
three inches high, they may be gathered 
from as required. In early June, when 
they make a show for seed, the stems 
should be cut down close to the bottom, 
and again in September, if they have 
acquired a straggling rank growth ; this 
will cause them to shoot afresh, and 
acquire a strong growth before the 
arrival of severe weather. On the ap- 
proach of frost, if protection is afforded 
to the plants by means of haulm or reed 
panels, so supported as not to touch 
them ; it will preserve them in a much 
better state for use in winter and spring. 
But a still more effectual plan is to take 
up some of the strongest and best curled 
plants in September, and to plant them 
in pots, two or three plants in each, 
using a rich soil. If these be placed in 
a forcing house and abundance of liquid 
manure given, they will be very supe- 
riorly productive throughout the winter. 

To obtain Seed. — Nothing more is 
necessary than to allow some of the 
plants to run up in June ; they should 
not, however, be allowed to stand 
nearer than eighteen inches to each 
other. The seed ripens in early autumn, 
and when perfectly dry, may be beaten 
out and stored. Soot is an excellent 
manure for parsley, and preserves it 
from root-canker, the only disease af- 
fecting it. 

PARSLEY (Hamburgh). Petroseli- 
num sativum, var. latifolium. 

Use. — This esculent is known by the 
name broad-leaved and large-rooted 
Parsley. It is cultivated for its root, 
which attains the size of a middling 
parsnip, boiling exceedingly tender and 
palatable. It is eaten both as a sauce 
to flesh meat, and in soups, &c. 



Time and Mode of Sowing. — Sow at 
monthly intervals from February until 
the middle of June. Sow thinly in drills 
nine inches apart. The plants appear 
in about a month after sowing, and 
when of tolerable growth, require to be 
thinned to nine inches asunder, and 
cleared from weeds, either by hand or 
the hoe ; which latter operation, being 
performed as often as weeds appear, is 
the only cultivation required. By the 
end of July, or during August, the 
earliest sowings will have acquired a 
sufficient size for occasional use ; but 
the roots seldom attain their full growth 
until Michaelmas; and the latest crops 
not until the following year. On the 
arrival of frost, some of them must be 
taken up ; and after the removal of the 
superfluous fibres, decayed leaves, &c, 
buried in sand, in a dry situation under 
cover. 

To save Seed. — Some plants must be 
left where grown, and allowed to run 
in May. Their produce will ripen in 
July or August, when it must be cut, 
dried, beat out, and stored. 

PARSLEY-PIERT. Erica aphanes. 

PARSNIP. Pastinaca sativa. 

Soil and Situation. — The soil in 
which the parsnip succeeds best, is a 
rich dry sandy loam, and the deeper 
the better. The most inimical to it is 
gravel or clay. It is always beneficial 
to trench the ground two spades deep, 
a little manure being turned in with the 
bottom spit. 

In the isle of Guernsey, which has 
long been celebrated for the fineness of 
its parsnips, sea-weed is the manure 
chiefly employed. 

Of excrementitious manure that of 
pigeons is the best. Decayed leaves 
are also very favourable to its growth. 
The situation cannot be too open. 

Time and Mode of Sowing. — The 
usual time for sowing is from the end 
of February to the beginning of April, 
but the earlier the better. It has been 
recommended in field cultivation to 
sow them in September ; in the garden, 
when sown at this season, they also 
attain a finer size, but many of them 
run to seed. In the isle of Guernsey 
they regulate their time of sowing, ac- 
cording to the soil ; in the most favour- 
able soils they sow in January, or if the 
soil is wet or stiff, they do not insert 
the seed until the latter end of March. 

Sow in drills ten inches apart, and 



PAR 



PAS 



one inch deep ; the compartment being 
laid out in beds not more than four feet 
wide, for the convenience of weeding, 
&c. When the seedlings are two or 
three inches high, remove to ten inches 
apart, and the weeds both by hand and 
small hoeing. The beds require to be 
frequently looked over, to remove all 
seedlings that may spring up afresh, as 
well as to be frequently hoed until the 
plants so cover the ground as to render 
it impracticable. 

The roots may be taken up as wanted 
in September, but they do not attain 
maturity till October, which is intimated 
by the decay of the leaves. 

In November, part of the crop may 
be taken up, and the tops being cut 
close off, laved in alternate layer* with 
sand, for use in frosty weather. The 
remainder may be left in the ground, 
and taken up as required, as they are 
never injured by the most intense frost, 
but, on the contrary, are rendered 
sweeter. In February or March, how- 
ever, any remaining must be extracted, 
otherwise they will vegetate. Being 
preserved in sand, they continue good 
until the end of April or May. 

To obtain Seed. — Some of the finest 
roots are best allowed to remain where 
grown ; or else, being taken up early 
in spring, planted in a situation open, 
but sheltered from violent winds. If of 
necessity some of those are employed 
which have been preserved in sand, 
such should be selected as have not had 
their tops cut off very close. 

They must be kept clear of weeds, 
and in dry weather watered plentifully 
twice a week. At midsummer the seed 
is usually ripe ; the umbels may then be 
cut, and when thoroughly dried on 
cloths, the seed beaten out and stored. 

Seed should never be employed that 
is more than a twelvemonth old, as it 
has generally lost its vegetative power 
when of a greater age. 

PARSONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

PARTERRE, a French word pro- 
nounced with the final e silent, is syno- 
nymous with our English name Flower 
Garden. 

PARTING the roots is a mode of 
propagation available with some plants, 
and where a large increase of an indi- 
vidual specimen by this mode is desired, 
its flower stems should be removed as 



fast as they are produced. This makes 
the plant stool, for whatever prevents 
the formation of seed, promotes the 
development of root. 

PASC ALI A glauca. Half-hardy herb- 
aceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

PASQUE-FLOWER. Anemone Pul- 
satilla. 

PASSIFLORA. Passion Flower. 
Eighty-five species, all evergreen climb- 
ers. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

Select Species and Varieties : — 

HARDY OR HALF-HARDY, ACCORDING TO 
LATITUDE AND SOIL. 

P. carulea. Common Blue Passiflora. 
Five slightly differing varieties, the best 
of which are P. Colvillii and P. glauco- 
phylla. All require the protection of a 
wall. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

P. incarnata. Flesh-coloured Passi- 
flora. This, in well drained borders, 
will endure our winters against a south 
wall. P. Fieldii is a variety of this. 

P. chinensis. Chinese Passiflora. 

STOVE. 

P. alata. Winged Passiflora. Pur- 
ple, white, and crimson. 

P. alata-ccerulea, Hybrid-winged Pas- 
siflora. Black, blue, and white. 

P. actinia. Sea Anemone Passiflora. 
White, fragrant. 

P. kermesina. Crimson Passiflora. 

P. Loudoni. Loudon's Passiflora, 
purple. 

P. Middletonia. Middleton's Passi- 
flora. Green and pink, fragrant. Some- 
times called P. fragrans. 

P. Phamicea. Phoenician Passiflora. 
Crimson, purple, and white. P. elegans 
is a variety of this. 

EDIBLE FRUITED PASSIFLORAS. 

P. edulis. Purple-fruited Granadilla. 
White. Green-house. 

P. laurifolia. Laurel-leafed Grana- 
dilla, or Water Lemon. Red and violet 
flowers. Fruit, yellow. Stove. 

P.maliformis. Apple-fruited Grana- 
dilla, or Sweet Calabash. Flowers 
white, blue, and red. Fruit, dull yel- 
low. 

P. quadrangular is. Common Grana- 
dilla. Flowers, red, white, and violet. 
Fruit, greenish yellow. P. Buonapartea 
I is a variety of this. 

EDIBLE FRUITED. 

All the stove passion flowers thrive 
i in a day temperature of 70°, with a 



PAS 



421 

— ♦— 



P AU 



night temperature of 50°. Mr. Jones, 
of the Kew Gardens, has given the fol- 
lowing directions, especially, for the 
cultivation of P. quadrangularis ; but 
they apply equally well to the other 
species. 

" It may be grown in the stove, or 
better perhaps in an intermediate 
house, between the stove and green- 
house. It is necessary to the perfect 
cultivation of the plant that it should 
grow in a border in the inside of the 
house, rather than in pots, however 
large. If no other situation presents 
itself, a border may be made beneath 
the path, taking care to leave a space 
of three or four inches between the 
surface of the soil and the stones, so 
that there may be a free access of air, 
and that water may spread equally 
over the surface of the soil, and moist- 
en it thoroughly. Whatever may be 
the situation of the plant, let the drain- 
age be as efficient as possible. 

" As the plant may have to remain 
some years in one situation, five or six 
barrowfuls, or even more, of good soil, 
composed of three-fourths rich loam, 
and the rest leaf mould, should be pre- 
pared in a very rough state, and in this 
plant it. A spare rafter, or any such 
place near the glass, will do exceed- 
ingly well for the plants to be attached 
to. If young when turned out, they 
should not be allowed to bear flowers or 
fruit the first year. 

" One or at most two branches should 
be allowed to grow, and after they have 
extended ten or fifteen feet, they should 
be stopped, and should not be allowed 
to put forth any laterals. 

" During winter no water to be given 
unless the plants droop. Some time in 
February the branches must be well cut 
back : and if necessary to leave any 
length of stem between the ground and 
the glass, all the buds, excepting three 
or four at the top of each branch, must 
be rubbed off. 

u The number of branches allowed 
to grow in the second year, must be 
determined by the strength of the 
plant, from two to six being the usual 
number. 

" Advantage should be taken of the 
first flowers that open to fertilize the 
stigma, for fructification will not always 
take place naturally. From one to 
three fruit are sufficient on each 
branch ; if a greater number are al- 



lowed to remain they will be small and 
of little value. 

" The fruit-bearing branches may be 
stopped at the distance of five or six 
feet above the fruit. 

" Treated in this way P. quadrangu- 
laris will frequently produce fruit 4 lbs. 
in weight; and though not ranking as 
j a first-class fruit, it makes a rather 
novel as well as a useful addition to 
the desert, at which the pulp is eaten 
with sugar and wine. None of the 
other species of Passiflora bear such 
large fruit as quadrangularis. Of 
others, edulis and laurifolia are 
amongst the best. Unlike quadrangu- 
laris, the branches of these smaller- 
fruited species must not be stopped, 
and they will continue to flower and 
fruit for several months in a stove. 
The fruit is eaten with the same ingre- 
dients as the largest kind, and has a 
flavour agreeable to most palates." — 
Gard. Chron. 

PASSION-FLOWER. Passiflora. 

PASTINACA. The only cultivated 
species is the Parsnip, which see. 

PATAGONULA Americana. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

PATERSONIA. Nine species.— 
Green-house herbaceous. Division and 
seed. Sand and peat. 

PATRINIA. Four species. Hardy 
biennials. Seed. Light rich loam. 

PAULLINIA. Sixteen species. — 
Stove evergreen twiners. Ripe cut- 
tings. Light rich loam. 

PAULOUNIA imperialis, is a hardy 
tree, though, until its habits are better 
tested, it is advisable to plant it in a 
sheltered situation. Mr. G. Bishop, 
gardener at the Chiswick Gardens, 
states that — " It may be propagated by 
cuttings, particularly if the young 
shoots are selected when they have 
advanced to about three or four inches 
in length; also by eyes, in the same 
manner as the vine; as well as by di- 
visions of the roots, the smallest par- 
ticle of them generating adventitious 
buds. The best time to propagate it is 
when the plants commence their spring 
growth. Both eyes and roots should 
be potted in soil consisting of leaf 
mould, peat, and sand, in equal pro- 
portions, and the pots containing them 
plunged in a dung-bed. Any other 
fermenting material would answer the 
same purpose, where the atmospheric 



P AV 



422 

— ♦ — 



PEA 



temperature averages from 75° to 80°. 
Divisions of the root in particular will 
emit shoots at the expiration of three 
weeks at the farthest.'-* — Gard. Chron. 

For a drawing and interesting article 
on this recently introduced tree, see 
the " Horticulturist." 

PAVETTA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PAVIA. Seven species. Hardy 
deciduous trees and shrubs. Layers 
and grafting on horse-chestnut. Com- 
mon soil. 

PAXTONIA rosea. Stove orchid. 
Division. Very turfy loam, leaf-mould, 
and sand. 

PEA. Pisum sativum. 

" The Pea is a hardy annual, a 
native of the south of Europe, and cul- 
tivated from time immemorial. 

" There is an immense variety, from 
which the following have been selected 
as among the best, and more than suf- 
ficient for any garden ; some inferior 
kinds are still cultivated, apparently 
from want of knowledge. 

" Landreth's Extra Early ; this has 
been introduced more than twenty 
years, and to the present maintains its 
superiority over all others, as an early 
variety ; it is unquestionably the ear- 
liest, and a general favourite. 

" The Early Frame succeeds Lan- 
dreth's Extra Early, and is followed by 
the Early Charlton, or Golden Hotspur, 
as it is likewise called. 

" The Large White Marrow, Peru- 
vian Black Eye do., Royal Dwarf do., 
and Blue Imperial, ripen nearly to- 
gether; each has its admirers. The 



thoroughly decomposed, excluding all 
that possesses the least fermentation. 

" It has been found that frequent 
sowings of peas in the same ground is 
injurious; the plants not unusually 
turn yellow, and partially die before 
perfecting fruit. This remark is par- 
ticularly applicable to'the early kinds. 

" The first crops should be sown in 
the spring, so soon as the ground will 
admit of being worked, choosing the 
driest soil, and such as lays well ex- 
posed to the sun. 

" To have a constant succession, a 
few should be planted every fortnight 
or oftener. At the time the last sowing 
of early ones is made, sow also some 
of the later varieties, which will come 
in as the early ones go out of bearing. 

" The usual method of cultivation, is 
to sow the seed in drills, as directed 
for the Kidney Beans, only thicker in 
the drills. As the plants rise from half 
an inch high to two or three inches, 
begin to draw earth to the stems, doing 
this when the ground is in a dry state, 
and earthing gradually higher, as the 
stems ascend; at the same time loosen 
the ground between the young plants, 
and cut down rising weeds. Stick the 
plants when six to twelve inches high, 
as soon as they begin to vine. The 
early varieties require sticks or rods 
two to three feet high ; the Imperial 
and Royal Dwarf Marrowfat two feet, 
Large Marrowfat five feet.'" — Rur. Reg. 

To force Peas : — Forcing commences 
in December, in the early part of which 
month they may be sown in a hot-bed 
to remain, or thick to transplant, during 
the succeeding month, into others for 



imperial is quite dwarf and may do with- j production. These may be repeated in 
out rods ; many prefer it to all others, i January, and the transplanting takes 

"The Blue Prussian is an old sort, ; place in February. It is also a common 
generally liked, and a good bearer. i practice to sow in a warm border dur- 

" Bishop's Early Dwarf continues \ ing October, and the plants being cul- 
longer than most others in bearing, J tivated as a natural ground crop, are 
and its habit being so dwarf, as not to j removed into a hot-bed in a succeeding 
require rods, is well suited to many j month, 
gardens. The hot-bed must be moderate, and 

" Sugar or Eat Pods, generally boiled earthed equally over to a depth of sjx 
both pod and peas, and eaten in the or eight inches, with light fresh mould 
manner of Kidney Beans. not particularly rich. The seed must 

« The Pea thrives best in a rich be buried one inch and a half deep, 
loamy soil, but will, with proper care, The frame, which is required to be two 



produce tolerable crops in almost any. 
The early varieties require stronger 
ground than the Marrowfats and Im- 
perial, but in manuring for them, ob- 
serve to use none but such as is 



feet and a half high behind, and one 
and a half in front, ought to be put on 
three or four days before the crop is 
inserted, that the steam and heat may 
abate. Seed may likewise be sown at 



PEA 



423 

— ♦ — 



PEA 



the above times in pots or pans, and 
placed round the bins of the stove. At 
the close of September also, some peas 
may be sown in pots and sunk in the 
earth of any open compartment ; when 
the frost commences, to be removed 
into the green-house. A border of fresh 
earth being made in the front of it early 
in December, the plants are removed 
into it, in rows two feet asunder, or still 
better in pairs, with ten inches interval, 
and two feet and a half between each 
pair. These will come into production 
about the middle of March. 

In every instance, as stated above, 
the rows should be two feet, the seed 
or plants being set an inch asunder. 
The plants are ready for moving when 
an inch or two high. They must be 
shaded and gently watered until they 
have taken root. As much earth should 
be preserved about their roots at the 
time of removal as possible. 

Transplanted peas are most produc- 
tive, and run the least to straw in the 
forcing frames. Air must be admitted 
as freely as possible under contingent 
circumstances, the same precautions 
being necessary as for cucumbers. 
Water must be given at first sparingly, 
otherwise decay or super-luxuriance 
will be occasioned; but when they are 
in blossom, and during the succeeding 
stages of growth, it may be applied of- 
tener and more abundantly, as it is ne- 
cessary for the setting and swelling of 
the fruit. 

The shading during hot days, and 
covering at night, must also be particu- 
larly attended to. From three to five 
months elapse between the times of 
sowing and production, according to the 
fineness of the season, length of the 
days, &c. 

The temperature may be uniformly 
kept up throughout their growth, hav- 
ing 50° for the minimum, and 70° for 
the maximum. 



In Pots. — Mr. N. Wilson, gardener, 
of Gopsall, cultivates them in this man- 
ner : — 

" The peas are to be ready for trans- 
planting by the 1st of February, so that 
the same sowing does for the first out 
of doors, as well as for those. The 
seedlings are removed from the boxes 
or pots, where they have been thickly 
sown, when about four inches in height, 
and are planted thinly into large pots 
(twelves) which have been filled with 
good soil, not too rich. They are 
staked with moderately strong willows, 
and run round at distances of six inches 
with small twine, which has a neater 
appearance and does not shade so much 
as common pea sticks. The situation 
quite suitable is the back walls of the 
late vineries. 

" The pots so filled and staked, are 
placed on the top of the back flues, ele- 
vated to the glass as near as the stakes 
will permit, where they are to remain 
till the crop is gathered, which will be 
from the 1st to the 15th of May. The 
peas are kept from the frost and severe 
weather, and have always plenty of air, 
when the weather is fine. 

" They are watered rather sparingly 
at first, but plentifully as they advance 
into bloom. Peas in pits and frames 
will not bear forcing till they are out of 
bloom, and the pod set, then they will 
bear it, and be forwarded admirably. 
They cannot be had in the autumn on 
the same principle after the 20th of 
November." — Gard. Chron. 

PEACH. Persica vulgaris. 

Varieties. — D. Landreth and Fulton 
offer the following among others as de- 
sirable varieties. The vicinity of Phi- 
ladelphia is famous for the extent of its 
Peach orchards, and the abundance and 
excellence of the fruit. What is there 
considered worthy of culture may be 
safely, relied upon. 



PEA 



424 

— • — 



PEA 



Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — y yellow ; r red ; w white. Size 
-l large; m medium. s 



Those marked * 


are clingstones. 


NAME. 


COLOUR. 


N 

CO 


>< 


SEASON. 


♦Algiers Winter .... 


y 


L 


2 


October 


Alberge — Yellow Rare Ripe 






y r 


L 


1 


August 


*Blood Peach 






r 


L 


2 


September 


Columbia 






y 


L 


1 


September 


Darby Belle . 






y 


L 


1 


September 


Early York . 






r 


M 


1 


August 


Early Red, Cole's . 






r y 


L 


1 


August 


Eastburn's Choice . 






r 


L 


1 


September 


Freestone Heath . 






y 


L 


1 


September 


Early Malacoton, Crawford's 






y r 


L 


1 


September 


Grosse Mignonne . 






y r 


L 


I 


August 


♦Lemon Clingstone 






y * 


L 


1 


September 


*Late Heath . 






w 


L 


1 


September 


Late Yellow, Pool's 






y r 


L 


1 


September 


Large Early Rare Ripe 






y r 


L 


1 


August 


Morris' Red . 






r 


M 


1 


September 


Morris' White 






w 


M 


1 


September 


Nutmeg, White . 






w 


M 


1 


August 


Oldmixon Freestone 






y 


L 


1 


September 


*01dmixon Clingstone . 






r 


L 


1 


September 


President . . 






y r 


L 


2 


September 


Red Rare Ripe 






r 


L 


1 


September 


Red Cheek Malacoton . 






y r 


L 


1 


September 


♦Rodman's Cling . 






w 


L 


1 


September 


Smock's Freestone 






y r 


L 


1 


September 


*Smock's Cling 






y 


L 


1 


September 


♦Tippecanoe . 






y r 


L 


1 


September 


Washington . 






w 


L 


1 


September 


Ward's Late . 






w 


L 


1 


September 



The culture of the Peach is in this 
country so simple, and generally un- 
derstood, that it would seem scarcely 
necessary to occupy space with direc- 
tions on that subject. 

The following remarks are from a 
paper by Dr. Thompson of Wilmington, 
Delaware, published in the Farmer's 
Cabinet of Philadelphia, and may excite 
surprise in some quarters by its details 
of the extent to which the Peach trade 
has arrived. 

"To Mr. Isaac Reeves, a native of 
New Jersey, is the whole credit due of 
first introducing on a large scale the 
culture of the inoculated peach tree 
into Delaware. The late Mr. Jacob 
Ridgway, of Philadelphia, owning a 
farm near Delaware City, on the Chesa- 
peake and Delaware canal, was induced 
by Mr. Reeves to become his partner, 
and upon this property, in the spring of 



1832, they set out the first twenty acres 
of inoculated peach trees ever planted 
in this State, with the view of supplying 
the Philadelphia market. They rapidly 
extended their plantation to about one 
hundred and twenty acres, were emi- 
nently successful, and one year — the 
very best season they ever had — their 
gross income from the sales of fruit was 
some sixteen thousand dollars. Peaches 
then commanded from one dollar twen- 
ty-five cents to three dollars per basket, 
containing about three pecks. In the 
spring of 1836, the late Mr. Manuel 
Eyre and myself followed suit upon our 
' Union Farm,' midway between Wil- 
mington and Newcastle on the Delaware 
river, to about the extent of one hun- 
dred and forty acres. In a year or two 
afterwards, Mr. Philip Reybold & Sons 
went into the business — then a host of 
others, until now, from twenty-five 



PEA 



425 

— ♦— 



PEA 



hundred to three thousand acres of 
land, in Newcastle county, are planted 
with, and successfully cultivated in 
peaches, making Delaware, though the 
smallest of the States, the largest pro- 
ducer of this fruit. The result has been 
a proportionate diminution of price, the 
average, per basket, one season with 
another, not exceeding from thirty to 
sixty cents. In this way Delaware has 
become the principal supplier of the 
Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, and 
North River markets, and many of our 
fine peaches now reach even Boston. 
The whole annual income from this 
branch of business to the farmers of this 
county may be estimated from one to 
two hundred thousand dollars. For so 
handsome an additional product, the 
agriculturists of Delaware, as well as 
the consumers of peaches in our vicini- 
ty, owe a debt of gratitude to the ori- 
ginator of the culture, whom as one, I 
should gladly unite in presenting with 
some valued and lasting memento in 
recognition of his merit for giving a new 
staple to a State ; for who is a greater 
benefactor to mankind and the age he 
lives in, than he who brings into opera- 
tion a new branch of business, giving 
by his enterprise and perseverance an 
impetus to agriculture ; causing the 
earth to give forth its increase, and so 
multiplies its fruits as to bring them 
within the reach and enjoyment of all ? 
The great improvement made in peach- 
es within the last few years in New 
Jersey and Delaware, consists in propa- 
gating none but the finest kinds, by 
budding and grafting, so as to have the 
fruit as early and as late as our latitude 
will admit ; the earliest ripening with us 
from the first week in August, such as 
Troth's Early, Early York and Early 
Ann, and ending in the latter part of 
October with Ward's Late Free, the 
Heath, Algiers' Winter, &c. I need 
not enumerate all the different varieties 
used and planted out to keep up this 
succession — some of the principal are 
in the order of enumeration, Troth's 
Early, Early York, Early Ann, Yellow 
Rareripe, Red Rareripe, Malacatoon, 
Morris' White, Old Mixon, Rodman, 
Ward's Late Free, Maiden, Free 
Smock, Late Rareripe, Heath, Algiers' 
Winter, &c. These trees are generally 
obtained for about six dollars per hun- 
dred, from approved nurserymen in 
Delaware and New Jersey, and the 



rearing of them constitutes a distinct 
business of itself. They are produced 
by planting out the peach stones, or 
pits, in the spring, which have been 
slightly covered with earth in the fall, 
so as to be exposed to the action of the 
winter's frost. The sooner the pits are 
put in the sand or earth after the fruit 
is matured, the better — they should 
never become dry. The shoots from 
these stones are budded in August of 
the same year, from four to six inches 
from the ground. The ensuing spring 
all the first year's growth is cut off 
above where the scion has taken — not, 
however, until it is well developed — 
when, in the fall and following spring, 
they are ready for transplanting or sale. 
The mode of preparing the ground for 
them is precisely that with us of the 
Indian corn crop — the earth is well 
ploughed, and from thirty to forty 
bushels of lime are spread upon it to 
the acre. The trees of like kinds, for 
the convenience of picking, are then 
set out in rows at distances varying from 
twenty to thirty feet apart, according to 
the strength of the soil ; a crop of corn 
is then put in and cultivated in the usual 
way, and this is done successively for 
three years ; by this time the trees be- 
gin to bear. The cultivation of the corn 
being the proper tillage for the trees, 
and this crop amply paying for all in- 
vestment in trees, &c. After the trees 
commence bearing, no other crop ot 
any kind should ever be grown among 
them, as I have known two rows of 
potatoes between a row of peach trees 
not only to affect the fruit, but seriously 
to injure the trees ; but they should be 
regularly ploughed some three or four 
times in the season, just as if the corn 
crop was continued. So obnoxious in 
our country is the peach tree to the 
worm, or borer — the ageria exitiosa — 
that each tree in the orchard should be 
examined twice a year, summer and 
fall — say in June and October — by re- 
moving the earth down to the roots, and 
killing with a pruning-knife every in- 
truder — then scraping the injured bark 
and removing the glue. Thus exposed, 
they should be left for a few days, when 
the earth should again be replaced with 
a hoe. The limbs should be only mo- 
derately pruned or thinned out, so as to 
admit the sun and air, avoiding in the 
operation leaving forks, which incline 
them to split when burthened with fruit. 



PEA 



426 



PEA 



When the peaches ripen, they should 
be carefully picked from step-ladders, 
seven to eight feet high, into small hand- 
baskets, holding one peck each. Our 
operators for this purpose are both men 
and women, who earn from fifty to 
seventy-five cents a day, besides being 
found. These baskets are gently emp- 
tied into the regular market baskets, 
which are all marked with the owner's 
name and strewed along the whole line 
of orchard to be picked. As these are 
filled they are put into spring wagons, 
holding from thirty to sixty baskets, and 
taken to the wharf, or landing, where 
there is a house, shed or awning, for 
the purpose of assorting them, each 
kind by itself, which is into prime and 
cullings — the prime being distinguished 
not only by their size and selection, 
but also by a handful of peach leaves 
scattered through the top. They are 
then put on board the boats in tiers, 
separated by boards between, to keep 
them from injury, and so reach their 
destined market. We consider a water 
communication from the orchards, or 
as near as may be, most essential, as all 
land carriage more or less bruises or 
destroys the fruit. Our roads through 
the orchards and to the landings are 
all kept ploughed and harrowed down 
smooth and even. The baskets for 
marketing the peaches are generally 
obtained in New Jersey at twenty-five 
to thirty-seven dollars and fifty cents 
per hundred. With trifling modifica- 
tions our culture and practice may be 
made to suit not only the Southern but 
the South-Western States. I may here, 
perhaps, properly remark, that the ave- 
rage life of our trees is from nine to 
twelve years, when properly cared for 
and protected as I have described ; that 
the two great and devastating enemies 
the trees have to contend against are 
the peach worm and the yellows ; the 
first readily yielding to the knife and 
the treatment of semi-annual examina- 
tion ; the latter being a constitutional, 
consumptive, or marasmatic disease, for 
which no other remedy is as yet known 
or to be practiced but extirpation and 
destruction. There are many theories 
and some practice recorded on this, by 
far the most destructive enemy of the 
peach tree. I may hereafter give my 
own views on this particular and ob- 
scure disease. I concur, however, with 
Mr. Downing, of Newburg, that the 



great and prevailing disposition of the 
peach tree in our climate is to over pro- 
duction of fruit in favourable seasons. 
Our remedy for this is carefully to thin 
it off by plucking all those that touch, 
or are within two or three inches of 
each other, when the size of hickory 
nuts, which are thrown into some run- 
ning stream or into the hog-pens to be 
devoured. This mode < of heading in, ? 
or pruning one half of the producing 
buds, is new to me, but which I have 
just tried upon my garden trees in the 
city, and will be able to speak of expe- 
rimentally, hereafter. With us in Dela- 
ware, as everywhere else, the peach 
tree succeeds best in a good soil. That 
preferred is a rich sandy loam, with 
clay. Many of my finest trees and 
choicest fruits are grown in a loose and 
stony soil. The trees should never be 
set out in wet, low, or springy situa- 
tions, and for the same reasons, high 
and rolling ground should be selected 
for your plantations, and for the addi- 
tional circumstance that they are less 
obnoxious to early frosts." 

Wall- Culture. English Method. — 
Borders should never be deeper than 
eighteen or twenty inches for the peach, 
and six feet wide. Soil chopped turfy 
loam from a rich pasture, rather more 
clayey than light — beneath a good 
drainage, at least one foot deep, made 
of broken bricks and stones, with an 
outfall into a neighbouring ditch. 

Planting. — Two year old plants are 
to be preferred, and planted as soon as 
the leaves begin to fall at the end of 
October. The best aspects are south 
and south-east. Plant, at the least, six- 
teen feet apart ; the stem three inches 
from the wall, inclining towards it. 
Nail the branches to the wall, but do 
not prune them. 

Summer Pruning is of far more im- 
portance than that of the winter. 

" In May and June, and occasionally 
in the succeeding months, it is necessa- 
ry to regulate the shoots of the same 
year, and to prevent improper growths 
by disbudding. Pinch off fore right 
buds or shoots; and pinch off or cut 
out ill-placed, very weakly, spongy, and 
deformed shoots, retaining a plentiful 
supply of good lateral shoots in all parts 
of the tree, and leaving a leader to each 
branch. 

" Let them mostly be trained in at 
full length, all summer, about three 



PEA 



427 



PEA 



inches asunder, for next year's bearers ; 
and divest them of any lateral twigs to 
prevent a thicket-like intricacy, and to 
promote a healthy fruitful growth in 
the shoots themselves. In the course 
of the summer regulation, if any partial 
vacancy occurs, or should a young tree 
under training want an additional sup- 
ply of wood, shorten some convenient- 
ly placed strong shoot, in June, to a 
few eyes to furnish a supply of laterals 
the same season." — Abercrombie. 

This disbudding and regulation should 
be done by degrees. If many shoots 
and leaves are removed suddenly, it 
occasions gumming, and over-luxuri- 
ance in the shoots that remain. If 
shoots are very strong, train them as 
nearly perpendicular as is admissible, 
that there may be no check to the sap's 
return. Shoots less robust train hori- 
zontally. 

Protect from frosts whilst in blos- 
som ; and, when the fruit is well set, 
syringe three times a week with water 
to which half a pint of ammoniacal li- 
quor, from gas-works, has been added 
to each gallon. This will destroy all 
insects, and especially the aphis, and 
prevent the occurrence of mildew. 

" Winter Pruning may be performed 
at the fall of the leaf, and thence, ac- 
cording to some professional writers, 
at any time in mild weather until spring. 
It should be completed in February or 
early in March, before the blossom- 
buds are considerably advanced, which 
are distinguishable by being round, 
plump, and prominent, while the leaf 
and shoot-buds are oblong and narrow. 
Retain, in all parts of the tree, a com- 
petent supply of such regular grown 
shoots of last year as are apparently 
fruitful in blossom-buds. Most part 
of these should be shortened, not in- 
discriminately, but according to their 
strength and situation ; the very strong 
shoots should be left longer, being 
topped about one-fourth or one-third. 
Shoots of middling vigour reduce one- 
third or one-half; and prune the very 
weak to two or three buds. Always 
cut at a shoot-bud to advance for a 
leader. Sometimes a shoot-bud lies 
between a twin blossom-bud ; cut half 
an inch above the bud. As many new 
shoots as will lie from three to six 
inches asunder may be deemed a com- 
petent supply : remove or reduce some 
part of ihe former bearers. 



quite close the redundant, irregular, 
and other improper shoots: remove or 
reduce some parts of the former bearers 
of the two preceding years, cutting the 
most naked quite away, and others 
down to the most eligible young branch 
or well-placed shoot. Also take out 
all diseased and dead wood, retaining 
young where necessary to fill a vacui- 
ty." — Abercrombie. 

The most systematic mode of pre- 
serving a constant supply of young 
wood is that proposed by Mr. Seymour, 
and described as follows in the Gar- 
dener's Magazine : — 

"A maiden plant must be cut down 
to three eyes, a, and three shoots being 
produced, the two lower ones are left 
at full length, and the succeeding spring 
the centre shoot is again cut down to 
three eyes. At the time of disbudding 
the trees all the buds on the lower side 
of the two horizontal branches are rub- 
bed off, and buds are left on the upper 
side of the branches at a distance of 
from nine to twelve inches from each 
other. These are suffered to grow five 
or six inches, and are then stopped ; 
but still suffering the leading shoot to 
extend itself. At the second spring 
pruning, the centre shoot is again cut 
to three eyes ; or, if the tree be v.ery 
vigorous, five eyes may be left, two for 
each side, and a centre one for again 
furnishing leading shoots. The leading 
shoots are laid in the fan form, nine 
or ten inches from each other. The 
shoots on the leading branch are nailed 
to the wall in summer; but after the 
winter's pruning they are tied to the 
leading shoots to be nailed in, where 
they get well ripened, and mature their 
buds for another crop. At the winter's 
pruning they are cut to three or four 
inches, according to their strength. 
The maiden plant, being headed down 
the first winter, will present two late- 
rals, b. The second year, at the end of 

Fig. 106. 




summer, there will be four side-shoots, 
Cut out ' and six or more laterals, c. In the fol- 



PEA 



428 



PEA 



lowing spring pruning, the laterals, d, 
which had been nailed to the wall, are 
loosened and tied to their main shoot, 
e, and the upright shoot shortened to 
three buds, as before. 

" At the end of the third summer the 
laterals will be doubled on the old wood 



each side shoot; the first about three 
inches from the stem, as the bud may 
suit, and the other at the end of the 
shortened shoots, so as to double the 
leading shoots. The upright shoot is 
always cut at three of the lowest and 
most suitable buds, so that the stem may 



by one having sprung from the base of j be kept as short as possible ; for, unless 
the shoot tied in, g, and another from | the side shoots are multiplied, the stem 



its extremity, h. 



Fig. 107 



In the pruning of the j gets too high. If the side shoots are 
strong the year after cutting down, they 
may be laid in their whole length; but 
if weak, they must be cut short to give 
them strength. Continue in this way to 
double the side shoots for two or three 
years) by which the tree will get 
strength, and then it will admit of the 
side shoot being shortened to about 
fourteen inches. Cut for two or three 
years, so as to produce three shoots 
upon each side shoot, and so continue 
until there is a sufficient number of 
leading shoots to furnish the wall. 

" After the tree has got into a bear- 
ing: state, cut the lateral shoots to about 




following spring the laterals of two 
years' growth, which had borne fruit, 
are cut off close, and the young laterals 
which had sprung from their base, i, 



eight or nine inches, taking care to cut 




are loosened from the wall, and tied ™»— ™ Tu a a' *7u*- f X 
' at a wood-bud ; and at the time ot dis 

Fie. 108. budding leave the best situated buds, 

and those nearest the base, for the 

future year's bearing." — Gard. Mag. 

Thinning. — Let there be a space of 
nine inches between every brace of 
fruit upon the weaker shoots, and six 
inches on the stronger. See Thinning. 

Blistering of the Leaf. — This disease, 
which is called by some gardeners the 
Bladder Blight, and by the French la 
cloque, is occasioned by more moisture 
being forced into the leaves from the 
roots than they can evacuate by expira- 
tion. Some gardeners, annotating upon 
this opinion, expressed by the present 
writer in the Gardener's Chronicle in 
June, 1845, have concluded, because 
the blistering appears more abundantly 
when cold nights succeed to hot days, 
that they occasion the disorder ; but 
they are only the proximate cause ; 
those cold nights reduce the expiratory 
power of the leaves, whilst the roots in 
a soil of unreduced temperature con- 
tinue to imbibe moisture, and to propel 
it to the leaves with undiminished force. 
The blistering is, consequently, more 
extensive. That the force with which 
the sap is propelled, is quite sufficient 
to rupture the vessels in the parenchyma 
of the leaf, is evident from Dr. Hale's 
experiment. He found the vine pro- 
pelled its sap with a force equal to a 



down to succeed them ; the other late- 
rals, k, are tied in, and the upright shoot 
shortened, I, as before. 

" Now, or before, the side shoots will 
have to be headed down once or even 
twice, so as to increase their number, 
and regularly cover the wall. The ex- 
tent to which this practice is carried 
will depend on the height of the wall, 
and the distance of the trees from each 
other ; the ultimate object being to pro- 
duce a fan form, as regular as possible, 
of permanent wood, with no young 
wood thereon, besides what is produced 
along the spokes of the fan, on their 
upper side, at about twelve inches 
apart, and the prolongation of the 
shoots. 

" In the course of the winter or spring 
of the third year, I shorten the side 
6hoots to about ten or twelve inches, as 
may be most convenient for wood-buds, 
to get two principal leading shoots from 



PEA 



PEA 



column of mercury fifteen inches high. 
There is no doubt upon my mind, that 
if the soil be well drained, and not too 
fertile, blistering will never occur. The 
remedy, therefore, is obvious in either 
case. 

Diseases. — See Aphis, Chermes, Honey 
Dew, Mildew, Extravasated Sap. 

Forcing. Any of the early varieties 
are suitable for this purpose ; success 
does not depend so much on the kind, 
as on the management. 

Form of House. — The best form for a 
Peach-house, is that thus described by 
the late T. E. Knight, Esq. 

Fig. 109. 











f 












2> 




— * 






r 








F 


g 


1 ! 


— n 


I i - 


=~^ 


JJ 


l- 


lh^tt"./'...' 1 ,.",' 





As the lights to be moved to the re- 
quired extent with facility must neces- 
sarily be short, the back wall of the 
house must scarcely extend nine feet 
in height, and this height raises the 
rafters sufficiently high to permit the 
tallest person to walk with perfect con- 
venience under them. The lights are 
divided in the middle at the point A, 
and the lower are made to slide down 
to the d, and the upper to the point A. 
The flue, or hot-water pipe enters on 
the east or west end, as most conveni- 
ent, and passes within six inches of the 
east and west wall, but not within less 
than two feet of the low front wall, 
and it returns in a horizontal direction 
through the middle. The trees must 
be planted between the flue and the 
front wall, and the other row near the 
back wall, against which they are to be 
trained. 

If early varieties be planted in the 
front, and the earliest where the flue 
first enters, these being trained imme- 
diately over the flue, and at a small dis- 
tance above it, will ripen first; and if 
the lower lights be drawn down in fine 
weather to the point b, every part of 
the fruit on the trees which are trained 
nearly horizontally along the dotted 



line c, will receive the full influence of 
the sun. The upper lights must be 
moved as usual by cords and pulleys, 
and if these be let down to the point A, 
after the fruit in the front tree is gather- 
ed, every part of the trees on the back 
wall will be fully exposed to the sun, at 
any period of the spring and summer 
after the middle of April, without the 
intervention of the glass. A single fire- 
place will be sufficient for a house fifty 
feet long, and I believe the foregoing 
plan and dimensions will be found to 
combine more advantage than can ever 
be obtained in a higher or wider house. 
Both the walls and flue must stand on 
arches, to permit the roots of the trees 
to extend themselves in every direction 
beyond the limits of the walls, for what- 
ever be the more remote causes of mil- 
dew, the immediate cause generally 
appears to be want of moisture or 
dampness above it. A bar of wood 
must extend from d to b, opposite the 
middle of each lower light, to support 
it when drawn down. — Knight's Select 
Papers. 

The soil, culture, and pruning are 
the same as required for those trees 
grown on walls. 

Forcing in Pots is a very excellent 
mode, and enables the Peach to be 
thus grown in establishments where 
there is no regular Peach-house. Pot a 
three year old tree in a twelve inch pot, 
cutting it back to four buds ; and shift 
every year until it has attained an 
eighteen inch pot, a size which need 
never be exceeded. Let the soil be 
turfy, and mixed with decaying wood 
from the bottom of an old wood 
stock. 

Commencing forcing and temperature. 
The best and most successful directions 
on these points are the following, given 
by Mr. W. Hutchinson, gardener at 
Eatington Park. He says : — " Bring the 
trees into the house in mild weather 
during November, a little earlier or 
later according to the slate of the 
weather ; do not start them all, how- 
ever, at once ; the last lot are not put 
in until the first of January. Any later 
than this would not answer, as the 
weather, if clear, is then hot through 
the day. Commence forcing them at 
55o at night, allowing the thermometer 
to fall to 50® in the morning, if cold, 
but if the weather is mild, never to fall 
below 55° ; and from that to 60° is the 



PEA 



430 

— ♦ — 



PEA 



usual temperature kept up throughout 
the period of forcing during the night ; 
during the day, I make up for low night 
temperature, when I have the chance, 
by sun heat. Do not be fastidious about 
a few degrees : to get it high enough is 
the main point, say from 70 Q to 85° and 
90 Q , until the fruit is stoned, then keep 
them very hot during the day, viz. from 
95 Q to 105°, and sometimes even as 
high as 1 10°. Of course a great deal of 
moisture is required with this high tem- 
perature : syringe over head twice a 
day, and sometimes oftener when the 
air is dry, and you will scarcely ever be 
troubled with either green fly or red 
spider. Watering at the root must be 
carefully attended to ; very little is 
wanted until the trees get covered with 
leaves; but after the fruit is stoned they 
should be watered plentifully. Of course 
the watering must be gradually with- 
drawn as the fruit approaches maturity, 
in order to increase their flavour." — 
Gard. Chron. 

When the blossoms are well open, 
impregnation should be assisted by the 
aid of a camel's hair pencil. 

One essential for securing vigorous 
production in the Peach-house is to 
have the roots of the trees well nour- 
ished. If these are not duly supplied 
with moisture and food during the time 
the fruit is setting and swelling, a fail- 



ure of the crop is inevitable. To secure 
such a supply, it is a most effectual 
treatment to give the border a top-dress- 
ing, at the close of February, of charred 
turf. Liquid manure and water, of 
course, must be given also, as the dry- 
ness of the soil and appearance of the 
trees indicate are necessary. 

Standards. — In Essex, I have grown 
the peach successfully, both as a stand- 
ard and as an espalier, in a garden 
sloping to the south, and well pro- 
tected from the east and strong wester- 
ly winds. 

PEAR. Pyrus communis. Of this 
fruit four hundred and forty-two varie- 
ties are at present cultivated in the 
Chiswick Gardens, and these with ma- 
ny more are described in the Horticul- 
tural Society's Fruit Catalogue. 

The subjoined list, taken from the 
catalogue of D. Landreth and Fulton at 
the old Landreth nurseries comprises a 
selection of choice and approved varie- 
ties, abstracted from the mass in cultiva- 
tion, the larger number of which are 
only calculated to disappoint those who 
rely on them — either by reason of the 
inferiority of the fruit, or want of adap- 
tation to our climate — the latter to a 
very considerable extent; how else can 
we account for the quality of their pro- 
duct here, compared with their trans- 
atlantic character ? 



Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour- 
r red ; b brown. Size — l large ; m medium ; 
pyr pyramidal. 



-g green ; y yellow ; rus russet; 
s small. Form — obov obovate ; 



Those marked * are of American origin. 





CO- 




w 








NAME. 


LOUR. 


FORM. 


N 

03 


►J 
& 


SEASON. 


Althorpe Crassanne .... 


g 


obov 


M 


1 


Oct. to 


Nov. 


Bartlett . 








gy 


pyr 


L 


1 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Bell Pear 








g 


py 


L 


2 


Sept. 


Mar. 


Bergamot, Hampden's 








rus 


round 


M 


2 


Aug. 


Sept. 


*Bergamot, Autumn 








rus 


round 


M 


1 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Bergamotte, Suisse 








yr 


pyr 


M 


2 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Bergamotte, Easter . 








g 


obov 


M 


1 


Mar. 


Apt. 


Bezi de Lamotte 








y 


round 


M 


1 


Oct. 


Nov. 


*Bleeker's Meadow 








gy 


round 


M 


1 


Oct. 


Dec. 


*Bloodgood 








y rus 


obov 


M 


1 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Beurre de Roi 








y 


pyr 


L 


1 


Sept. 


Oct. 


" Diel 








y 


obov 


L 


1 


Sept. 


Dec. 


" de Capiaumont 








b 


obov 


M 


1 


Sept. 


Oct. 


" d'Amalis 








b 


obov 


L 


1 


Sept. 


Oct. 



PEA 



431 



PEA 



Beurre Bosc 

11 Summer 

" d'Aremberg 

" Easter 

" de Ranz 
Buffum 

*Chapman, Carres 
Chaumontelle . 
Columbia . 
Compte de Lamay . 
Dearborn's Seedling 
Dix ... 

Doyenne Gris . 
Duchess d'Angouleme 
Early Catharine 
Flemish Beauty 
Fondante d'Automne 
Forelle . 

Frederick of Wirtemberg 
Gloux Morceau 
Green Chisel 

* Haddington, Smith's 

* Harvard 
*Heathcote 
Holland Green 
La Bon Cure 
L'Echasserie . 
*Lewis 

Leon Le Clerc — Van Mons 
*Lodge 

Long Green Mouthwater 
Louise Bonne de Jersey 
Madeline 
Marie Louise 
Muscat Allemande 
Passe Colmar . 

*Pennsylvania 

*Petre 

Rousselet de Rheims 

*Rushmore 

*Seckel 

Stephen's Genessee 

St. Germaine, Uvedale's 

*St. Germaine, Prince's 

St. Ghislan 

Sugar 

Surpass Virgalieu 

Swan's Egg 

Urbaniste 

*Washington . 

Winter Nelis 

The annexed outlines and descrip- 
tions of a few prominent varieties will 
doubtless interest those who may 
not have access to a work especially 
devoted to fruits. The descriptions 



b 


py r 


L 


1 


Sept. 


y 


obov 


M 


1 


July 


y 


obov 


L 


1 


Dec. 


g 


obov 


L 


1 


Oct. 


g 


pyr 


L 


1 


Feb. 


y 


obov 


M 


1 


Sept. 


gy 


obov 


M 


1 


Sept. 


y 


py r 


L 


1 


Nov. 


y 


obov 


L 


!< 


|Nov. 


y 


obov 


M 


'Sept. 


y 


obov 


M 


l 


Aug. 


y 


py r 


L 


l 


Oct. 


rus 


pyr 


M 


l 


Sept. 


y 


obov 


L 


l 


Oct. 


y 


py. 


S 


2 


July 


y 


obov 


L 


1 


Sept. 


y 


obov 


M 


1 


' Sept. 


y 


py r 


L 


1 


Nov. 


y 


py r 


L 


1 


Sept. 


g 


p"y 


L 


1 


Nov. 


g 


obov 


L 


2 


Aug. 


gy 


obov 


L 


1 


Sept. 


rus 


obov 


M 


1 


Sept. 


y 


obov 


M 


1 


Sept. 


g 


obov 


L 


1 


Oct. 


y 


py 


L 


1 


Sept. 


g 


round 


M 


1 


Nov. 


g 


obov 


M 


1 


Oct. 


y 


pyr 


L 


1 


Oct. 


rus 


pyr 


S 


1 


Oct. 


g 


pyr 


L 


1 


Aug. 


g 


pyr 


L 


1 


Sept. 


g 


obov 


M 


1 


July 


y 


pyr 


L 


1 


Sept. 


g 


obov 


L 


1 


Nov. 


y 


py r 


L 


1 


Nov. 


g 


obov 


L 


1 


Sept. 


y 


pyr 


L 


1 


Sept. 


rus 


pyr 


L 


1 


Oct. 


y 


obov 


M 


1 


Sept. 


rus 


obov 


S 


1 


Sept. 


y 


obov 


M 


1 


Oct. 


rus 


pyr 


L 


1 


Nov. 


rus 


obov 


L 


1 


Nov. 


y 


pyr 


M 


1 


Oct. 


y 


pyr 


L 


1 


Aug. 


y 
g 
g 


obov 


L 


1 


Oct. 


obov 


M 


1 


Oct. 


obov 


M 


1 


Oct. 


y 
g 


obov 


M 


1 


Aug. 


1 obov 


1 M 


1 


Dec. 



have been made as concise as practica- 
ble, consistent with perspicuity. For 
further information, see Cox, Kenrick, 
Downing — American pomologists. 



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432 

— ♦ — 



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Fig. 110. 




Haddington. (Smith's.) (Fig. 110.) 
We have by the merest chance this ex- 
cellent addition to our stock of winter 
pears. Mr. J. B. Smith, when on his 
farm near Haddington, Philadelphia 
County, in 1828, reared from the seed 
of the pound pear, a number of young 
plants for stocks. This one accident- 
ally remained unworked, and on Mr. 
Smith's removal to the city, was brought 
by him and planted in his garden, where 
it now stands, singularly erect, and with 
few horizontal branches. It comes into 
use in December, and keeps through 
winter; the skin is green, when ripe 
slightly yellow on the sunny side, and 
marked by minute russet dots or specks. 
The texture of the fruit varies; some 
are quite melting, others incline to 
break — it never cracks, bears abund- 
antly, and we conceive it quite an ac- 
quisition to our winter pears. 



Pennsylvania. (Smith's.) (Fig. 111.) 
This, so named by the Pennsylvania Hor- 
ticultural Society, is a seedling on the 
grounds of Mr. J. B. Smith, Philadel- 
phia. The original tree is 35 to 40 feet 
high, pyramidal in form, of robust habit, 
retaining its foliage unusually late. Its 
origin and age are unknown, but this 
and the Moyamensing (subsequently 
described) standing in the same gar- 
den, have recently been recognized 
by an aged lady, who knew these iden- 
tical trees when a child. The fruit in 
outline and general appearance some- 
what resembles the old Beurre — pre- 
vailing colour, brownish yellow, occa- 
sionally speckled and burnished with 
brighter yellow on the upper portion, 
the lower or blossom end presenting 
a uniform dull brown or russet hue, the 
sunny side dotted with red. Stem deep 
brown an inch and a quarter long, 



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433 



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Fig. 111.— (P. 432.) 




standing nearly erect, planted on a full 
crown ; in some specimens one shoulder 
more elevated than the other. Calyx 
small, in a shallow basin. Flesh yel- 
lowish white, rather coarse grained, 
and somewhat gritty ; flavour notunlike 
the butter. Ripe, 10th August to mid- 
dle September. It is a fine bearer, never 
cracks, and may be classed among the 
good American pears. 

Moyamensing. (Smith's Early But- 
ter.) (Fig. 112.) This is supposed to 
be a native. It stands in the garden 
of Mr. J. B. Smith, Philadelphia, is 
28 



thirty feet high, open in growth, and 
uniformly sheds its leaves early in 
August. The fruit vary in shape — some 
are roundish, others obovate : colour, a 
uniform light yellow. Stem an inch 
long, in some specimens set in a shal- 
low basin, in others rising from the 
crown with a fleshy and enlarged base. 
Calyx rather prominent, in a shallow 
plaited cup. Ripe from middle July to 
close of August. The texture is but- 
tery, so much like a Beurre as to have 
received the above synonym. It is a 
desirable variety. 



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434 

— ♦ — 



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Fig. 112.— (P. 433.) 




Columbia. (Bloodgood. Downing.) 
(Fig. 113.) An American, as its name 
implies, produced in West Chester 
County, New York, where the original 
tree still exists. This is truly a valuable 
variety, in season when most needed — 
from November to January. Stem an 
inch long, curved. Calyx comparatively 
small. Skin, when fully ripe, of a rich 
golden hue. Flesh whitish, rich and 
aromatic — worthy of general culture. 

St. Germain of French and English 
Authors. (Fig. 114.) There are but few 
winter pears of finer quality than this 
old favourite ; and were it not particu- 
larly liable to fire-blight, none would 
be more cultivated. The outline is fre- 
quently quite irregular, but in all speci- 
mens full at the blossom end, narrow- 



ing towards the stem. The skin is 
thick, and green even when fully ripe. 
Stem short and obliquelyplanted. Calyx 
set in a shallow basin. Flesh white, 
and when in perfection, abounding in 
juice of exquisite flavour. Ripe from 
December to March. 

Lewis. (Fig. 115.) This variety de- 
rives its name from Mr. John Lewis of 
Massachusetts, on whose farm it origi- 
nated thirty years ago. It is in season 
from November to February, and may be 
enumerated among our valuable winter 
fruits. It bears most profusely and, 
though not externally attractive, the skin 
being rough, would doubtless be highly 
profitable if cultivated for city sale. Out- 
line nearly round, a little flattened at the 
crown. Skin green. Stalk an inch and a 



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435 



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Fig. 113.— (P. 434.) 




half long, calyx large and open, basin 
very slightly furrowed. The quality of 
the fruit, though not " first rate," is such 
as with its constitution and productive 
habit must insure this variety extensive 
cultivation. 

Beurre De Ranz, of Thompson. 
Beukre Rance, of Lindley. (Fig. 116.) 
This is a Flemish pear, and obtains its 
name of Ranz from the district in which 
it originated. It is one of the longest 
keepers, not being in perfection until 
spring. Few pears have received more 
unqualified praise both here and in Eu- 
rope. The outline is pyriform or pear- 
shaped. Skin coarse and always green, 
with brownish dots. Stem upwards of an 
inch long. Eye quite minute and but 



little depressed. Flesh melting, abound- 
ing in rich and highly flavoured juce. 

Beurre Diel, of Thompson, 
Lindley, and others. (Fig. 117.) "This 
variety, known by a dozen different 
names, of which that above is most 
generally used, and should be alone, 
is one of the many excellent seed- 
lings of Van Mons, and named by 
him after Doctor Diel, a conspicuous 
amateur fruit cultivator. It has few 
superiors in its season, September to 
November (or even December in some 
climes). We sometimes see specimens 
much larger than our drawing, and with 
less elevation of shoulder, but the 
sketch affords a fair idea of its average 
size and appearance. Its habit is ro- 



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436 

— • — 



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Fig. 114.— (P. 434.) 




bust, and rather peculiar, from the turn- 
ing or twisting of its branches. Color 
yarying from light to dark yellow, 
blended and dotted with brown. Skin 
thick. Stalk an inch or more in length, 
bold and curved. Eye set in a shallow 
basin. Flesh yellowish white, rich and 
buttery. On trees in vigorous growth 
and heavy land the fruit is sometimes 
rather coarse-grained, and slightly as- 
tringent."— Rural Reg. 

Bartlett Pear, of the Americans.— 
William's Bonchretien, of the Eng- 
lish. (Fig. US.) "This truly admir- 
able variety is of British . origin, first 



brought into notice by one Williams, 
whose name it bears. Many years ago, 
(1799, according to Downing,) it was 
imported into Massachusetts by Mr. 
Enoch Bartlett, from whose grounds, 
near Boston, it was widely dissemi- 
nated ; hence the name by which it is 
known among us. The habit of the 
tree is thrifty and erect, the shoots 
strong and vigorous. The fruit is large, 
quite irregular in outline, and varying 
considerably in different specimens. 
Skin smooth, yellow, with a slight 
blush on those which have ripened in 
the sun, on others entirely destitute of 



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437 
Fig. 115.— (P. 434.) 



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red. Stalk about an inch in length, 
one shoulder more prominent than the 
other ; calyx placed in a slightly form- 
ed cavity. The flesh is white, and 
combines with a delightful aroma, all 
the good qualities of the old well- 
known Beurre or Butter Pear. 

" Ripe middle of August to close of 
September." — Rural Reg. 

Bezi de la Motte. (Fig. 119.) 
" This is a pretty widely known French 
Pear, and is well worthy of perpetuity, 
even though not decidedly in the first 
class. Its habit is robust, yields fruit 
freely, which keeps well ; the flavour 
is aromatic, texture buttery. Its out- 
line is roundish — flattened ; the stem 
under an inch in length. Calyx va- 



riously placed, in some specimens the 
basin is shallow and the curvature regu- 
lar, in others quite irregular. Skin, 
green, in well-ripened specimens yel- 
lowish, and spotted with brown dots. 
Ripe in October. — Rural Reg. 

Washington. (Fig. 120.) " We 
have elsewhere expressed our regret 
that foreign fruits of doubtful worth, 
should have been cherished and dis- 
seminated, to the neglect of unques- 
tionably fine varieties of native origin. 
The Washington Pear is a seedling, 
discovered in a hedge-row on the es- 
tate of the late Col. Robinson, near 
Naaman's Creek, Delaware, some 
forty-eight or fifty years ago. We 
are informed by our friend Dr. Thomp- 



PEA 



438 

— • — 



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Fig. 11 6.— (P. 435.) 




son of Wilmington, that the tree still 
stands vigorous and healthy, producing 
from fourteen to sixteen bushels of 
fruit annually. Doct. T. says, ( so far 
as my recollection of it goes, it has 
never suffered from disease or been 
attacked by blight, and I have never 
known the fruit of the original tree, or 
one of its descendants by budding or 
grafting to crack, as does the fruit of the 
old Beurre or Butter.' Doct. T. adds, 
' Delaware has some state pride in this 
pear, quite as much as Pennsylvania 
has in her fine Seckel, than both of 
which I have yet to see their superiors 
among the autumn pears.' In the 



opinion of some competent judges he 
might have gone a little further and 
said, their equals ; and yet from some 
unaccountable cause, the Washington 
is comparatively unknown. Coxe does 
not even name it in his e view of the 
cultivation of fruits' published in 1817, 
and Kenrick from the notice of it in his 
' Orchardist' had evidently never seen 
it. Downing has several typographical 
errors in his description ; that portion 
destined to be history, should be 
amended in his next edition. 

"The outline is not unlike that of the 
old Butter, Virgalieu or St. Michael, 
as it is indifferently called, but rather 



PEA 



439 



PEA 



Fig. 117.— (P. 435.) 




narrower, and in several particulars 
very closely resembles that famous 
pear; alas! now in its decadence. It 
is of medium size, uniformly oval. Skin 
smooth, yellow, and not unfrequently 
with a ruddy cheek. Stalk an inch or 
more in length, usually placed on a 
full crown. Eye, quite small, seated 
in a slight indentation ; texture that of 
the Beurre, and exquisitely delicious. 
Ripe in August (or two or three weeks 
before the Butter), and continues in 
season until September." — Rural Reg. 
Compte De Lamy — (Fig. 121) — Is a 
Flemish Seedling of late introduction, 
and thus far promises to be entitled to our 
regard ; much more so than a majority of 
recent importations. There appears to 
be an unusual diversity in the form or 



outline of this fruit. Some specimens 
are roundish, with the stem inserted, 
obliquely; in others, as in the drawing, 
on an elevated, irregularly tapering 
crown. We have seen them so diverse 
in appearance, as to be scarcely recog- 
nized as the same variety. Skin yellow, 
marked on the sunny side by brownish 
or russet specks. Stalk an inch or 
more in length, in some nearly straight, 
in others curved. Eye of medium size, 
very slightly indented. Flesh white, 
buttery, sweet and aromatic. In season 
September and October. 

Beurre d'Aremeerg, of French and 
English works. (Fig. 122.)— This Pear, 
though comparatively little known 
in the United States, has reached us 
with a high European reputation, and 



PEA 




as both the English and French concur in 
its praise, it may be safely assumed to be 
worthy of culture. It was raised by the 
Abbe Deschamps, in the garden of the 
Hospice des Orphelius, and has been 
distributed under several names, as 
Beurre Deschamps, Due D'Aremburg, 
&c. The fruit is large, narrowing to- 
wards the crown. Skin pale, or yellow- 
ish green, dotted with russet, which 



grows brighter at maturity. Calyx com- 
paratively small, deeply planted. Flesh 
white, very juicy, and unusually high 
flavoured. In season from mid-winter 

t0 SI.' (Fig. 123.) "One of the many 
eood fruits of American origin, compa- 
ratively unknown ; whilst foreign varie- 
ties of less worth have been lauded and 
disseminated. The parent still exists, in 



PEA 



441 
Fig. 119.— (P. 437.) 



PEA 




" green old age," at the Bartram Gar- 
den, on the Schuylkill, three miles from 
Philadelphia. It is the product of seed 
contributed by Lord Petre to the vene- 
rable Bartram in 1735. We have fre- 
quently heard Mr. Carr, a connection of 
the Bartram family, and present owner 
of the grounds, relate its history ; a 
pleasing incident in which, was the pre- 
sentation to Lord P. after the lapse of a 
quarter of a century, of fruit, the pro- 
duct of the identical seed he had con- 
tributed. We do not think this pear 
should be placed in the first class, yet 
award it high praise, and advise its 
extensive culture. The flesh is buttery, 
aromatic, and closely resembles its pa- 
rent the Beurre, or Butter. Fruit of 
medium size, yellow, occasionally slight- 
ly marked by russet dots. Stem an 



inch long, planted in some specimens 
between elevated shoulders. Eye set 
in a shallow basin. Ripe close of Sep- 
tember, and admits of being kept seve- 
ral weeks." — Rural Reg. 

Passe Colmar. hind. : Thorny. : and 
others. (Fig. 125.) For this, as well as 
some other important varieties, we are 
indebted to Hardenpont of Belgium. 
It is in eating during winter, and as 
our resources at that season are limit- 
ed, is additionally valuable. There is 
considerable variation in its outline. 
The skin coarse, yellowish when ripe, 
marked by minute russet dots. Stem 
prominent, an inch or more in length, 
inserted between elevated shoulders in 
many specimens, in others with little or 
no peculiarity of that kind. The flesh 
is melting, abounding with rich aro- 



PEA 



442 

Fig. 120.— (P. 437.) 



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matic juice. On the whole this pear 
has few superiors in its season, and is 
deservedly a favourite. 

Propagation. — By Seed, to obtain 
varieties, is best practised by following 
the directions for raising seedling Ap- 
ples. For raising grafting stocks, the 
seeds of the wild pear should be em- 
ployed, the produce being hardy. 

Grafting and Budding. — Mr. Loudon 
has collected together the following 
good directions upon these subjects: — 

" The most common stocks for graft- 
ing the pear, are the common pear and 
the wilding ; but as the apple, is dwarfed 
and brought more early into a bearing 
state by grafting on the pawell, on the 
white beam, medlar, service, or apple ; 
but the wilding and quince are in most 
general use. Pears, on free stocks, 



grow luxuriantly in good soil on a dry 
bottom ; those on wildings grow less 
rapidly, but are deemed more durable, 
and they will thrive on the poorest soil, 
if a hardy variety and not over pruned." 
" On the quince," Miller observes, 
" breaking pears are rendered gritty 
and stony ; but the melting sorts are 
much improved ; trees on these stocks 
may be planted in a moist soil with 
more success than those on wildings 
or thorns." On the thorn, pears come 
very early into bearing, continue pro- 
lific, and, in respect to soil will thrive 
well on a strong clay, which is unsuita- 
ble both to those on quinces and wild- 
ings; and the grafts or buds require to 
be inserted very low that the moisture 
of the earth may tend to favour the 
swelling or enlargement of the diame- 



PEA 



443 

— ♦ — 



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Fig. 121.— (P. 439.) 




ter of the stock, which does not increase 
proportionally to, nor ever attains the 
same size as the stem of the pear. Du- 
breuil, a French gardener, recommends 
the quince stock for clayey and light 
soils, and the free stock for chalky and 
siliceous soils. — Enc. Gard. 

The suggestion of Mr. D. Mont- 
gomery, gardener to the duke of Mont- 
rose, is also worthy of adoption, viz., 
that by grafting the alternate branches 
of late pear-trees with early sorts, and 
early trees with late sorts, there are two 
chances of success, the early sort being 
very early in blossom; if that fails in 
consequence of unfavourable weather, 
the late sort, flowering at another time, 
may succeed. Farther, the early sort 
ripens off before much effort is required 
from the tree to support the late sort ; 



hence, each sort in its season is brought 
to greater maturity. — Hort. Trans. 

Soil. — A dry loam, when the pear is 
grafted upon a pear stock ; but moister, 
if grafted upon the quince, is suitable. 
Two feet depth of soil is required, and 
tiles should be placed beneath the 
young trees to prevent their rooting 
deeper. If this be attended to, and the 
soil be thoroughly underdrained, the 
subsoil is not of much consequence. A 
gravelly subsoil is to be preferred. 

Pruning Standards is not often re- 
quired, and when necessary it is only to 
remove crowded, diseased, and cross- 
growing branches. This may be done 
at any season, unless the branch to be 
removed is large, in which case it had 
better be amputated early in the spring, 
before the sap is in motion. Their 



PEA 



444 

♦ 

Fig. 122.— (P. 439.) 



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fruitfulness is increased if the branches 
are fastened down, so that their points 
are below the level of their bases. 

The shoots of the current year are 
bent down when fully grown, about the 
end of July, and fixed in a pendent 
position by shreds of bass ; in the course 
of the winter, these shreds are removed 
to admit of pruning, when the shoots 
are found to have taken a set ; in the 
course of the summer, such as grow 
vigorously are again tied, the object 
being to check the vigour of the young 
shoots, and by impeding the return of 
the sap, to cause it to expend itself in 
these young shoots in the formation of 
blossom buds. — Gard. Mag. See 
Quenouille. 

Culture of Wall Trees.— The follow- 
ing are the best directions that have 



been given on this subject: — "Plant 
the trees against the wall, fifteen feet 
from each other. If they have three 
shoots properly placed, they may all be 
retained. If only one strong healthy 
shoot, in the spring the first tree is to 
be headed down within nine inches 
high, the next to that one foot nine 
inches, and so on alternately, till you 
get to the other end of the wall. 

" In the summer, train three shoots 
from the three uppermost eyes of each 
tree, rubbing off all the rest. Nail in 
one to the right, one to the left, and the 
other perpendicularly. The two side 
branches should not be trained in a 
horizontal position till the second year. 
In the following winter, the centre 
shoot of each is to be cut off two feet 
above the first pair of lateral branches. 






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445 

— ♦ — 



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Fig. 123.— (P. 440.) 




W€" — 



" In the next summer, the three top 
buds are to be trained one on each 
side, perfectly horizontal, and the mid- 
dle one upright ; should the centre this 
season grow vigorously, and advance 
two feet before, the end of June, top it 
at that height with the thumb and finger. 
Three shoots may probably start from 
the three upper eyes ; if so, nail them 
in an easy position, and bring them to 
their proper places in the winter prun- 
ing; but most probably only two will 
break. In this case, as soon as they are 
six inches long, train them both on the 
opposite side from which you wish a 
third shoot, and rather lower than the 
horizontal line ; this will cause the next 
bud below the two shoots already ob- 
tained to start. As soon as this advances 
a few inches, restore the shoots from 
the top bud to an erect position, and 
the other about half the way between 
the horizontal and perpendicular line ; 
observing, if one of the side shoots gets 



! the advantage of the other, to depress 
' the strong or elevate the weak as oc- 
casion may require; by which means 
both will be kept of an equal length. 

Fig. 124. 




" If by the autumn the centre shoot 
has not advanced two feet, or if it does 
not appear to have ripened, cut the 
three summer shoots off within half an 
inch of the place from whence they 
sprang; there will then be an upright 
centre two feet above the second pair 
of horizontal branches, which will not 
fail to push vigorously the next spring, 
and although in this case only one pair 
of branches will be produced this sea- 



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446 



PEA 



Fig. 125.— (P. 441.) 




son, the tree will be much benefited 
from having the upright shoot topped, 
as the sap by this check will be forced 
into the horizontal branches below, 
which are often starved by the prodi- 
gious and in a great measure useless 
growth of the centre. All superfluous 
shoots are to be pinched off within an 
inch or two as they appear, and, as far 
as may be, without leaving the branch 
absolutely bare, and entirely cut out in 
the winter pruning. 

" This treatment is to be repeated till 



those trees which have their first pair 
of horizontal branches within nine inches 
of the ground, arrive within two feet or 
eighteen inches of the top of the wall. 
These trees are to be considered per- 
manent; those which have no branch 
till they are one foot nine inches high, 
are for a temporary purpose only, and 
they may have a pair of branches within 
four inches of the top of the wall. 

" In ten years, we will suppose, on a 
twelve feet wall, most of the branches 
will reach twelve or thirteen feet from 



PEA 



447 



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the stem. The wall, therefore, presents 
somewhat the appearance of the follow- 
ing figure. 

Fig. 126. 




" Hitherto it is obvioue, that as we 
have doubled the number of trees, and 
each tree has produced as many, or 
perhaps more branches than are capable 
of bearing fruit, and those owing to 
stopping the leader longer than usual ; 
so we must up to this time have double, 
or more than double, the usual quantity 
of fruit. 

" After the temporary trees are re- 
moved, the crops will be still larger. 
Riders would not have answered the 
same purpose, as they would have al- 
ready interfered for the last two or three 
years with the principals, that is, on a 
wall not exceeding twelve feet; and on 
this plan the temporary trees are to be 
trained three or four years longer, during 
which time they may be expected to pro- 
duce considerable crops. The extremi- 
ties of the horizontal branch being now 
within a foot or two of the stem of the next 
tree, the management of the permanent 
trees is to be altered. Instead of pinch- 
ing off all shoots as they appear, at 
every fifteen or eighteen inches all 
along the horizontal branches, retain a 
well-placed shoot in an easy slanting 
position upwards, towards the branches 
of the temporary trees. Next year 
continue to train them in the same di- 
rection ; and, in order to give them 
more room, elevate the branches of the 
temporary trees six inches above the 
place they have hitherto occupied. 

" The third year the shoots will most 
likely show blossom; the free bearing 
sorts will do so in two years; but it 
must be recollected, we are speaking 
exclusively of the shy bearers. If 
plenty of blossom appears, the tempo- 
rary trees may now be taken up and 
planted in, otherwise they may remain 
another year. After the temporary 
trees are removed, the young shoots, 
which we will suppose are now fully 
furnished with blossom buds, may be 
trained in a direction sufficiently sloping 



upwards for the terminal bud of each 
to be within four or five inches of the 
horizontal branch above. 

" If they show a disposition to grow 
too strong, they may be deeply notched, 
or a ring may be made round such as 
require it, about the eighth of an inch 
wide. In either case, let it be close to 
the branch from which the shoots spring. 
As they become diseased or worn out, 
or have produced long spurs, train in a 
young shoot by the side of any it may 
be proper to displace, and after the se- 
cond year cut the old one out. In case 
a tree, after it has filled the space 
allowed, continues very luxuriant in 
growth, recourse may be had to the 
usual methods of checking it, either by 
cutting the roots or sawing the stem 
half or two-thirds through, just below 
the surface of the ground, or deep 
notches may be made on each side with 
the chisel . A single tree may of course 
be treated according to this plan. 

" The temporary trees, if taken up 
with care, will certainly grow, and be 
found very valuable ; they may be either 
planted against another wall, or if of 
sufficiently hardy kinds, treated as espa- 
liers, cutting off the two or three upper 
pairs of branches ; in either case, young 
shoots are to be trained in between the 
old ones, as already directed for the 
permanent trees. Should you have a 
wall with an aspect not sufficiently 
good to ripen the fruit of these removed 
trees, or should they be of those kinds 
which will not come to perfection as 
espaliers, they will nevertheless still 
be valuable in this case. After they 
have been removed a twelvemonth, 
treat them according to Mr. Knight's 
mode of changing the sort ; that is, 
leave the horizontals at very nearly the 
full length, but cut off all the spurs, 
leaving only bare poles at every twelve, 
fifteen, or eighteen inches, according to 
the growth of the sort you intend to in- 
troduce. 

Fig. 127. 




On the upper side, all along the 



PEA 



448 

— ♦— 



PEL 



branches, make a notch a little deeper 
than the bark ; it may be done by two 
cuts with a sharp knife, the side nearest 
the trunk being perpendicular, the other 
sloping ; the graft may then be intro- 
duced by the common mode of crown- 
grafting. Train the shoots from the 
grafts as before directed. In two years 
and a half most kinds will produce an 
abundant crop, and the trees will be 
very nearly as large as those on the 
wall from whence they were taken; 
thus having an advantage over young 
trees of at least ten years." — Gard. 



In pruning pear trees, never cut off 
a shoot which can be laid to the wall ; 
for by cutting off the foreright shoots 
you produce a succession of the same 
without a chance of producing fruit. 
By laying in these shoots, less wood is 
produced; and those buds either on 
the old wood, or any short spurs which 
otherwise would have produced only 
wood shoots, bear a succession of blos- 
som. — Gard. Chron. 

Impregnating the Blossom of Wall 
Trees. — Mr. Harrison truly observes, 
that " it is very usual to see healthy 
pear trees produce an abundance of 
bloom, but set a very small proportion 
of fruit : this is particularly the case 
with the tenderest kinds. The reason 
is in some cases from the stamina being 
destitute of farina ; and in others, from 
the farina having been dispersed before 
the pistils had arrived at a proper state 
for its reception. To remedy this, as 
soon as the first blossoms have ex- 
panded, and the pistillum is in a proper 
state of maturity, impregnate six upon 
each corymb of blossom. The florets 
to choose for this operation are those 
situated nearest the origin of the spur ; 
for when pears set naturally, it is very 
generally such florets. The time for 
this operation is calm, dry days, and, if 
possible, when the sun is not very hot 
upon the trees. Immediately after- 
wards give each tree about eighteen 
gallons of manure water, or soft pond 
water, at the roots. The trees should 
never be washed over the tops for a 
considerable time after this impregna- 
tion has been effected." — Treat, on 
Fruit Trees. 

PEAT-EARTH. See Bog Earth. 

PEAT-EARTH PLANTS. See Ame- 
rican Plants. 

PECTINARIA articulata. Stove 



evergreen shrub. Cuttings in spring. 
Sandy loam and lime rubbish. 

PEDICULARIS. Twenty-one spe- 
cies, chiefly, if not all, hardy herba- 
ceous. Sandy light loam and peat. 

PEGGING-DOWN is a process which 
has to be pursued annually, in arrang- 
ing the lower branches of shrubs, &c, 
on flower borders. It is usually done 
with little hooked sticks ; but Mr. Bea- 
ton, the scientific gardener at Shrubland 
Park, says, — " We take a handfull of 
matting, and cut it into four-inch 
lengths; then divide each piece into 
three or four pieces ; we double these 
pieces round the shoots, and fasten the 
ends of the matting in the soil with a 
small dibber, or with the fore finger. 
In this way a boy may train and tie 
down all the plants in a flower garden 
in less time than it would take to pro- 
cure pegs for two or three beds, and the 
work is much neater than when done 
with the best pegs." — Gard. Chron. 

PELARGONIUM. Two hundred and 
fifty species. Chiefly green-house ever- 
greens ; but a few are herbaceous, and 
a still smaller number tuberous-rooted. 
The shrubby evergreens are increased 
by cuttings : new varieties from seed ; 
and the ,tuberaus-rooted from seed ; 
and all will thrive in a mixture of light 
loam and leaf-mould. It is to the 
shrubby evergreens that we shall con- 
fine our attention, these being the most 
beautiful and most generally cultivated. 
They form a portion of that large family 
formerly known collectively as "Gera- 
niums;" but modern botanists have 
divided these into three genera : Pelar- 
goniums, having usually seven stamens, 
and unequal-sized petals; Geraniums, 
having ten stamens, and equal-sized 
petals ; and Er odiums, having five sta- 
mens. 

Characteristics of Excellence in the 
Pelargonium. — "The flower should be 
large, composed of broad rose-leaf pe- 
tals, free from crumple or unevenness 
of any kind ; smooth on their edges, 
and forming a compact surface ; round 
which, if a circle be drawn, the perfect 
symmetry of the flower would appear 
by the extremity of each petal touching 
the circle, without extending beyond 
it. It is indispensable that the flower 
should be of a stout firm texture, with 
sufficient liberty at the bottom of the 
cup to prevent its being in the least 
cramped ; but allowing it to retain, 



PEL 



449 

— ♦— 



PEL 



when fully expanded, a fine cupped 
form, and preventing the falling back 
or reflexing of the petals. Its colour, 
whether rich or pale, should possess 
great clearness : the under petals must 
be free from veins, and the upper petals 
should have a large dark spot running 
to the bottom of them, as destitute as 
possible of a small white feather, which 
is usually present, and which greatly 
impairs the richness of this important 
part. The beauty of the flower is 
greatly enhanced by having this spot 
clearly defined ; and if it is surrounded 
by a dash of crimson, that should have 
a distinct termination also. The petals 
ought to be quite free from the least 
appearance of a watery edge. Finally, 
it is essential that the leaves should be 
large, delicate, and have a healthy ap- 
pearance ; and that the truss should be 
composed of several flowers, supported 
by a firm foot-stalk standing quite clear 
of the foliage." — Gard. Chron. 

Varieties. — These are so numerous, 
fresh varieties appearing annually, that 
it is useless to attempt to enumerate 
them ; and the attempt is less needed, 
because each has passed its period of 
excellence after four or five years. 
The following are the best that have 
been introduced during the last two 
seasons : 
Alba Perfecta (Thurtell's), white and 

purple. 
Arabella (Beck's), white and rose. 
Aurora (Beck's). 
Bellona (Beck's), rosy, purple and 

crimson. 
Chastity (Beck's). 

Desdemona (Beck's), maroon and pink. 
Desdemona (Thurtell's), claret and 

white. 
Defiance (Thurtell's), purplish crimson 

and white. 
Dr. Lindley (Foster's). 
Duchess of Leinster (Gaine's), orange 

pink, scarlet spot. 
Emperor Nicholas (Silverlock's). 
Exactum (Foster's). 
Favourite (Beck's), like, but not so 

good as, Foster's. 
Gulnare (M'Cormack's), pink and white. 
Hector (Cock's), rose and white. 
Isabella (Beck's), pink and maroon. 
Juno (Beck's), carmine and scarlet. 
La Polka (Staine's). 
Lurida (Beck's). 

Mark Antony (Beck's), rose and purple. 
Margaret (Beck's), maroon and pink. 
29 



Master Peel (Beck's). 

Mustee (Beck's), pink, purple spot. 

Orion (Foster's), scarlet and maroon. 

Othello (Beck's), purple and rose. 

Othello (Thurtell's), mulberry and lilac. 

Pearl (Catleugh's), white and crimson. 

Queen Philippa, rose. 

Rainbow (Thurtell's), mulberry and 

white. 
Regulator (Thurtell's), violet, purple 

and white. 
Rosy Circle (Beck's), dark rose. 
Satellite (Thurtell's), puce and white. 
Sir J. Broughton (Foster's). 
Stromboli (Thurtell's), salmon and pur- 
ple. 
Sultana (Foster's), orange and scarlet. 
Sunset (Beck's), maroon and pink. 
Superb (Thurtell's), purple and lilac. 
Titus (Hoyle's), rose and carmine. 
Trafalgar (Thurtell's), crimson and 

purple. 
Unique (Thurtell's), mulberry and 

white. 
Zanzummim (Beck's), crimson and flesh. 
Zenobia (Beck's), rose and mulberry. 

Varieties for Forcing. — Admiral Na- 
pier; Albamultiflora; and Washington, 
for earliest; Bella; Gauntlet; Grand 
Duke ; Commodore ; Lord Mayor; King 
Rufus; and Madeline, for succession. • 

liaising Varieties. — Captain Thurtell, 
one of the most successful improvers of 
this flower, gives these directions : — 

" First. Destroy every bad shaped 
(or elongated) under petalled flower in 
your possession. 

"Secondly. Impregnate (if possible) 
every flower yourself, the moment it is 
ready to receive the farina, and thus 
effectually prevent the effects of the 
bee. But so long as you allow bad 
shaped flowers to remain in your house, 
you can never calculate On impreg- 
nating with any certainty; and those 
who attend to colour in preference to 
shape, will have to retrace their steps. 
Captain Thurtell never raised a good 
flower until he attended rigidly to the 
above rules." See Hybridizing. 

Sow in July. The seedlings soon 
appear; when with four leaves, besides 
the seed leaves, pot into 60's ; keep 
in warm green-house. In April, shift 
into 32's. In June, plunge the pots 
in a warm border. At the close of 
September, return to the green-house. 
They will bloom in the winter or spring. 

Soil. — The best compost for growing 
Pelargoniums is half sandy loam and 



PEL 



450 



PEL 



half leaf-mould. The best manure is 
liquid, made of sheep's dung. See 
Liquid Manure. 

Propagation. — By Cuttings. — Take 
the cuttings in mid-July, and plant 
these in an open border exposed to the 
sun. 

" In about six weeks," says Mr. Cat- 
leugh, the florist, of Hans Place, Chel- 
sea, " the cuttings will be sufficiently 
rooted to remove, and I pot them into 
sixty-sized pots. To prevent the worms 
getting into the pots, they are placed 
upon a temporary stage, and allowed 
to remain in a shady situation about 
three weeks, by which time the plants 
will be well established, and bear re- 
moving to a more exposed spot, where, 
under the influence of the sun and air, 
the wood will attain a necessary degree 
of hardness. Here they remain until 
taken into the house for the winter, 
which is generally done about the end 
of September, before danger arises 
from frost. To make them compact 
and bushy, stop them at the third or 
fourth joint, and shift them into forty- 
eight sized pots, mixing a little turfy 
loam and sand with the compost, to 
allow the water to pass freely through 
the soil ; give but little air during eight 
or ten days, the plants will be then re- 
established, and afterwards as much air 
may be given as the state of the atmo- 
sphere will permit, until the beginning 
of December. The side lights must be 
kept closed during the prevalence of 
cold winds. The pots by this time will 
be well filled with roots, and the plants 
will require shifting into thirty-two 
sized pots. The bone dust which is 
now added must be used with caution ; 
being of a drying nature, it is not used 
near the surface of the soil ; the shoots 
are again stopped at the third joint, the 
house is kept at a temperature of 45° 
Fahrenheit for about ten days, and then 
allowed to fall to 40° or 42°, at which 
it is kept. The flues are damped two 
or three times every night to prevent 
the air from becoming too dry, and 
a little top air is admitted whenever 
the weather is sufficiently favourable. 
About the middle of February those 
plants, which are intended to be large 
specimen plants are shifted again into 
twenty-four sized pots; those of vigor- 
ous growth will require a size larger. 
A small stick is now put to each stem 
to train them into uniform and well- 



shaped plants. In the beginning of 
April, when fires are discontinued, the 
plants are syringed over the top three 
times a week ; this is done about four 
o'clock, at the time the house is closed, 
and continued during three or four 
weeks. The house is well damped 
every evening at the bottom, and 
the top sashes opened the first, thing 
in the morning, to allow the damp 
air to escape, and during the day all 
the air is admitted that can be given 
with safety. The plants when begin- 
ning to bloom are freely watered, and 
protected from the scorching rays of 
the sun during the middle of the day 
by means of canvas, and are thus re- 
tained in blossom a much longer time 
than would be possible if this precau- 
tion were omitted. When the plants 
are housed the decayed leaves are re- 
moved, and whenever the green fly 
makes its appearance, the house is 
well fumigated : to do this effectually, 
it must be performed when the plants 
are in a dry state, and they must be 
well watered the day following. When 
the flowering is over, the plants are 
exposed for about a fortnight to the sun 
and air, to harden the wood before be- 
ing cut down. Those plants which are 
intended as specimen plants the second 
season after heading down, are placed 
in a sheltered situation, when little 
water is given, and as soon as the new 
shoots are an inch long are repotted 
into pots from one to two sizes smaller, 
the old soil is shaken from the roots, 
and good drainage given. The plants 
thus treated are kept in better health 
during the winter, from having less soil 
about their roots. When repotted they 
are placed upon a stage in a shady situ- 
ation, removed into the house at the 
proper time, and undergo the same 
treatment the second winter as de- 
scribed for the first. When those plants 
which are intended for exhibition begin 
to show their bloom they receive addi- 
tional attention, a little liquid manure 
is occasionally given, they are no longer 
syringed over the top, bees are kept 
out of the house by means of gauze 
blinds, every precaution is taken to 
preserve their beauty, and they are 
never allowed to flag from exposure to 
the sun or want of water. Every grow- 
er should begin early to train his plants 
for exhibition ; when the shoots are 
young and tractable any direction may 



PEL 



451 



PEL 



be given to the stems ; a uniform and 
handsome appearance will arise from 
the practice, and the plants will require 
fewer supports and less pulling about 
at the time they receive their final 
dressing. The flowers should be so 
arranged as to present' an equal dis- 
tribution of bloom over the leaf of the 
plant, to effect which the stems must 
be secured to small willow twigs." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Grafting. — Mr. J. Alexander, of 
Heath Farm, Atley, has grafted the 
Pelargonium very successfully, and his 
method is as follows : — 

" Graft in August or September, 
using pretty well ripened wood of the 
same year's growth ; cut back the stock 
to about three inches long, and in ten 
days afterwards graft in the manner of 
whip-grafting, and tie with bast and 
clay, over which put a little moss to 
keep the clay from cracking, and to 
preserve the whole in a moist state, 
being occasionally sprinkled with wa- 
ter in a shadowy part of a vinery, and 
in a month the grafts begin to grow ; 
put into a cold frame for a few days, 
then take out of the pot, and all the 
earth being shaken from the roots, re- 
pot in fresh soil, and treat as the other 
Pelargoniums. Weak growing sorts 
grow stronger when grafted on robust 
kinds than on their own roots." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Where the saving of space in the 
green-house is desirable, two or more 
Pelargoniums may be grafted upon the 
same stock. As many as ten have 
been thus united. Pelargonium ele- 
gans and Beauty of Ware have been 
employed successfully as stocks. Cleft- 
grafting succeds as well as whip-graft- 
ing. Worsted may be employed in- 
stead of bast ; and inarching is even a 
better mode of propagating than graft- 
ing. 

Growing in Open Ground. — Mr. J. 
Murdoch has given us the following 
directions on this head : — 

" Put the cuttings into small pots at 
once, which obviates any check they 
would receive when removing them, 
either from cutting-pots or the open 
ground ; make beds of mixed varieties, 
chiefly the Old Graveolens, Fair Helen, 
Lady Essex, Emily, and Moore's Vic- 
tory, which flower freely all the sum- 
mer, and though not so gaudy as some, 
have a more delightful fragrance. — 



About the end of July, having removed 
all Pelargoniums to the back of a north 
wall, commence cutting them down, 
arranging the prunings as cut off alpha- 
betically for the convenience of finding 
the sorts. When cut remove them into 
a shed; on the following morning com- 
mence planting the cuttings. The 
scarlet ones put into sixty or small 
forty-eight pots, and place on a flue, 
within a green-house, where they re- 
quire very little water until they are 
struck, when remove them to a cold 
frame ; give them plenty of air, and 
keep them there till the beginning of 
November, when stow them away in a 
vinery intended to be forced about the 
beginning of February. At that time, 
or earlier, repot them and place them 
in another vinery to be forced. By 
turning-out in time they are nice plants. 
The cuttings of other sorts put in smaller 
pots, and plunge in saw-dust on a gen* 
tie hot-bed made of leaves covered by 
a frame; give a litle water to settle 
the mould about the cuttings. They 
require very little after, as the greatest 
enemy is damp ; frequently give a little 
air. They require scarcely any shad- 
ing, unless the sun is very hot. After 
they are struck they receive the same 
treatment as the scarlet ones." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Growing for Exhibition. — Mr. Cock, 
the florist, of Chiswick, one of the most 
successful cultivators of this flower, has 
published the following directions : — 

" Strike the cuttings the beginning of 
June, or sooner if the plants are suffi- 
ciently strong to allow taking two or 
three shoots off without injury. As 
soon as they are rooted, pot them in 
sixty-sized pots, and remove them to a 
shady situation, or place them in a cool 
frame, shading them constantly when 
the sun is out, until they have taken 
fresh roots. Next transfer to an open 
situation, and place on slates or boards. 
As soon as the plants will bear the sun 
without flagging, stop them. In Sep- 
tember repot them into forty- eight sized 
pots, and at that period commence 
training them into the forms you intend 
them to have. In December or Jan- 
uary, those which are sufficiently strong 
are shifted into sixteen-sized pots, al- 
lowing plenty of potsherds for drain- 
age ; the others do not shift till March. 
In these pots they remain to flower. 
About the middle of July, or the begin- 



PEL 



452 

— ♦ — 



PEN 



ning of August, cut them down and 
place them in a shady situation, to 
keep the sun from drying the soil too 
fast; water is now applied very spar- 
ingly. As soon as the plants have 
thrown out shoots an inch long, the 
soil to be nearly all shaken off, and 
repotted into the same sized pots. 

" When they have taken fresh root, 
the superfluous shoots are thinned out; 
in this state they remain until they are 
removed into the green-house. 

" 2d. Treatment in the Green-house. 
— The plants for exhibition are placed 
on the stage at least four feet apart; 
air liberally supplied where the situa- 
tion will allow it; the front sashes 
should be left open all night, while the 
weather will permit. In November the 
plants are stopped, a stick put to each 
shoot to make the plants uniform, and 
the leaves thinned out to allow the air 
to pass freely through the plants. 

" In December or January the strong- 
est plants are again selected, and re- 
potted into No. 8 sized pots ; additional 
heat should then be applied to enable 
the plants to root quickly. In Feb- 
ruary commence syringing them ; this 
is done early in the afternoon, so that 
the leaves may dry before night. 
. <c In March again repot into No. 2 
sized pots, allowing a larger quantity 
than before of potsherds for drainage ; 
water is now very liberally supplied. 

<l When the flowers begin to expand, 
they are shaded on the outside of the 
house with cheese-cloth, which is bet- 
ter than canvas, as it admits more 
light, and the temperature will not be 
higher. Ai 

before the sun has mucn powe 
glass ; this precaution in a great mea- 
sure prevents the appearance of the 
green-fly. 

" 3d. In applying fire heat the great- 
est care is required, for on this success 
will in a great measure depend. Light 
the fires at three or four o'clock in the 
afternoon, as circumstances may dic- 
tate; the fires to go out at eight or nine 
o'clock, by which time the temperature 
ought to be 40° or 42° Fahrenheit, 
which is amply sufficient; relight them 
at three or four o'clock in the morning, 
-by which means the plants are never 
overheated, as is frequently the case 
when the fires are continued until a 
later period in the evening. 

" 4th. Preparing the Soil. — Chop up 



loam with the turf and place in a deep 
pit ; shake up lightly into a heap in the 
form of a mushroom bed. If the wea- 
ther is hot and dry at the time, well 
water with strong manure water, and 
cover over with slates as closely as 
possible to keep the ammonia, &c, 
from disengaging. In this state let it 
remain for fifteen or sixteen days, then 
put to every barrowful of loam one of 
dung, covering the heap slightly over 
at last with loam ; let this heap remain 
for a month or five week?, then to be 
turned over three or four times, that 
the loam and dung may be well mixed 
together; in twelve months it will be 
fit for use. To two barrowfuls of this 
compost add one of leaf-mould and a 
peck and a half of silver-sand." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Manures. — As already stated liquid 
manure made from sheep's dung is the 
best application, but a little rubbly char- 
coal, about the size of nuts, and a small 
quantity of bone-dust, promote the lux- 
uriance and beauty of these flowers. 

Disease. See Spot. 

PELLITORY OF SPAIN. Anthemis 
Pyrethrum. 

PELTARIA alliacea, herbaceous, and 
P.glastifolia, annual, are hardy plants. 
Seed. Light loam. 

PEN^EA. Eight species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

PENNYROYAL. See Mentha 
pulegium. 

PENTAPELES. Two species. Stove 
herbaceous. Cuttings. Light rich loam. 

PENTARAPHIA longijlora. Stove 
r should always be admrtted | evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich light 
sun has much power on the i r 



oam. 

PENTAS carnea. Stove shrub. Cut- 
tings. Light rich loam. 

PENTLANDIA miniata. Hardy 
herbaceous twiner. Probably by divi- 
sion. Rich light loam. 

PENTSTEMON. Of this hardy herb- 
aceous flower there are forty-one spe- 
cies, but the following is a good selec- 
tion : — 

P. argutus, purple. 
P. atropurpureus, brownish purple. 
P. campanulatus, rosy red. 
P. crassifolius, deep lilac. 
P. diffusus, deep blue. 
P. gentianoides, brownish purple. 
P. gent, coccineus, scarlet. 
P. glandulosus, deep blue. 



PEN 



453 

— ♦— 



PET 



P. latifolius, white, slightly stained with 

purple. 
P. Mackayanus, purple and white. 
P. Murrayanus, bright scarlet. 
P. ovatus, bright blue. 
P. procerus, bright blue. 
P. pulchellus, light blue. 
P. Scouleri, lilac. 
P. speciosus, bright blue. 
P. venustus, light purple. 

Soil. — A light rich loam, mixed with 
peat. They may be increased by divi- 
sion, but the strongest plants are raised 
from seed. 

Propagation. — Sow in October, or 
until January, in a cool frame. Keep 
the plants near the glass until strong 
enough for planting out in late spring. 
Always save seed when you can, and 
keep a stock of young plants to supply 
vacancies. 

P E N T Z I A flabelliformis. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

PEPPERMINT. Mentha piperita. 

PEPPER VINE. Ampelopsis bipin- 
nata. 

PERENNIAL. A plant that lives 
for more than two years. 

PERESKIA. Five species. Stove 
cactaceous plants. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

PERGULARIA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
Rich loam. 

PERICALLIS tmsilaginis. Green- 
house herbaceous. Seed and cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

PERILOMIA ocymoides. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

PERIPLOCA. Four species. Hardy 
twiners, except the stove climber, P. 
mauritiana. Layers and cuttings. Com- 
mon soil. 

PERIPTERA punicea. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Seed and cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

PERISTERIA. Dove Flower. Six 
species. Stove orchids. Division of the 
bulbs. Turfy loam and sandy peat, with 
a little leaf-mould. P. Barkeri is one 
of the most beautiful of this genus, and 
for its cultivation Mr. Insleay, of Spring- 
field, near Birmingham, gives the follow- 
ing directions : — 

" On either a square twig or a conical 
wire basket, with the bottom and sides 
covered with moss, put pieces of pot- 
sherds, afterwards that of the pseudo- 



bulbs, and lastly fill up the basket with 
peat in pieces about the size of walnuts; 
place the plant near the glass. 

"When the plant begins to grow, 
supply it moderately with water; but 
as its growth increases a larger quantity 
must be given, and when in full flower, 
water freely. Some of this elegant tribe 
of plants are injured if syringed over 
head ; such, however, is not the case 
with this plant. 

" The plant having flowered, and the 
pseudo-bulbs being matured, (but in a 
dormant state,) they should not be re- 
moved from the same temperature they 
were in, when in flowering condition, 
which ranged from 70° to 80°, but 
especial care should be taken to keep 
them dry until the period of rest is 
over." — Gard. Chron. 

PERITOMA serrulata. Hardy an- 
nual. Seed. Sheltered border. 

PERIWINKLE. Vinca. 

PERNETTIA. Arbutus. 

PERSEA gratissima. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Layers and ripe cuttings. 
Turfy loam aud peat. 

PERSIAN SUN'S-EYE. Tulipa ocu- 
lus solis. 

PERSICA. Two species and many 
varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. P. 
vulgaris the Peach, and P. Icevis the 
Nectarine, which see. 

PESOMERIA tetragona. Stove 
epiphyte. Division of bulbs. Wood 
covered with moss. 

PERSOONIA. Eighteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

PETALIDIUM barlerioides. Stove 
shrub. Cuttings. Rich light loam. 

PETIVERIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

PETREA. Four species. Stove 
evergreens. P. stapelia as a climber, 
and P. volubilis as a twiner, are among 
our handsomest plants. Cuttings. Rich 
loam. 

PETROBIUM arboreum. Stove ever^ 
green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 

PETROCALLIS pyrenaica. Green- 
house herbaceous. Seed or division. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PETROMARULA pinnata. Half- 
hardy herbaceous. Division. Sheltered 
light rich loam, and winter protection. 

PETROPHILA. Ten species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Turfy sandy loam. 



PET 



454 



PHA 



PETR.OSELINUM. Two species. 
Hardy biennials. Seed. Common soil. 
See Parsley. 

PETTY- WHIN. Genista anglica. 

PETUNIA. Five species. Tender 
or half-hardy herbaceous. Seed and 
cuttings. Sandy loam and leaf-mould. 
From P. nyctaginiflora, which is white, 
and P. violacea, purple, are raised the 
numerous varieties adorning our gar- 
dens. 

Select Varieties: 
Alice Gray. 
Arethusa. 
Beauty. 

superb. 

Bicolor. 

Bumons de Willi 

(Van Houte's). 
Caryophylloides. 
Constance. 
Delicata. 
Dwarf-pencilled. 
Enchantress. 
Exactum. 
Gem. 
Gigantea. 
Grand is. 
Highclare. 
Hildida. 
Hope (Smith's). 
Illuminata. 
Kentish Beauty. 

Bride. 

Lady Sale. 

Magician. 

Magna Charta. Variegata. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — Flow- 
ers flat, circular, free from indenta- 
tions, and firm of texture. Colour, 
bright and well-determined. Flowers 
numerous. 

Propagation by Seed. — Sow in March 
in a gentle hot-bed, and plant out at the 
end of May, like the half-hardy annuals; 
or sow on an open compartment, when 
the spring is farther advanced. 

By Cuttings. — May be struck almost 
at any time, but a good time is " early 
in September. The cuttings should be 
put into sixties, and placed in the front 
of a hot-bed until they have struck root, 
which will be in about three or four 
weeks, at which time they may be re- 
moved to a cold pit, or to the front of a 
green-house. 

" Early in February they should be 
shifted into forty-eights, in a mixture of 
sandy peat, leaf-mould, and loam, and 
repotted as fast as the pots become full 



Magna rosea. 

Magnet. 

Massengii. 

Medora. 

Ne plus ultra 
(Pearson's). 

Nixenii (Harri- 
son's). 

Ornatissima. 

Othello. 

Ovid. 

Pet (Ivery's). 

Picta. 

Prince Albert. 

Psyche. 

Punctata (Mil- 
ler's). 

Reliance. 

Rook's Nest. 

Rosea alba. 

Splutherii. 

Striata superb. 

Unique. 

superb. 



of roots, using an inch and a half of 
rubbly charcoal, to act as drainage, at 
the bottom of each pot. During the 
time they are growing in pots they 
should be watered two or three times a 
week with liquid manure ; and the latter 
end of May they may be turned out into 
the flower garden." — Gard. Chron. 

Winter Protection is best afforded 
them in a cold pit, frame, or green- 
house. By a little attention, and judi- 
cious watering, &c, they will begin to 
bloom early in the spring. 

PEYROUSIA. Eight species. Green- 
house and half-hardy bulbs. Offsets. 
Sandy loam and leaf-mould. Like Ixia, 
they will usually thrive in a light-soiled, 
sheltered, south border. 

PHACA. Fourteen species. Hardy 
herbaceous, except P. canescens, re- 
quiring a green-house. P. glabra is a 
hardy deciduous trailer. Seed. Com- 
mon soil. 

PHACELIA. Six species. Hardy 
herbaceous or annuals. Division or 
seed. Common soil. 

PHACOSPERMA peruviana. Stove 
herbaceous. Seed. Peat and loam. 

PHAIUS. Five species. Stove 
epiphytes and orchids. Of the former 
P. albus is most desirable. It is propa- 
gated from young shoots. Peat and 
potsherds. The other species are in- 
creased by division of the roots. Peat 
and sandy loam. 

PHAL^NA vanaria. A moth, 
abounding usually in June and July, is 
thus described by Mr. Curtis : — 

" The horns of the male are pecti- 
nated ; the wings are of an ash colour 
and freckled ; the upper have four 
brown marks on the superior margin, 
the second crossing the centre of the 
wing. 

" The larva is a looper, having only 
ten legs. It infects the red currant and 
gooseberry bushes, feeding upon the 
leaves, and is found in May. It is about 
an inch long, bluish green, with two 
white dorsal and two yellow lateral 
lines. It is dotted with little black 
tubercles, which produce short black 
hairs. It changes late in May to a 
chestnut-coloured chrysalis, in a slight 
web, on the surface of the earth." — 
Gard. Chron. 

PHALJEONOPSIS amabilis. Stove 
epiphyte. Side shoots. Wood and 
moss. 

PHALANGIUM. Five species. All 



PH A 



455 

— ♦ — 



PHY 



herbaceous ; P. long? folium, green- 
house ; P. glaucum, and P. repalense, 
half-hardy; the others hardy. Division 
and seed. Sandy loam and peat. 

PHALEROCARPUS serphyllifolia. 
Hardy evergreen creeper. Cuttings. 
Moist bog. 

VHALOC A.LLIS plumbea. Half-hardy 
bulb. Seed. Probably in a light soil, 
under a south wall. 

PHARBITIS. Twelve species. 
Twiners, chiefly annual. P. casrulescens 
is a hardy evergreen ; and P. varla, a 
stove evergreen twiner. The others 
are hardy and green-house, except P. 
lispida, requiring a stove. Seed. Sandy 
loam and leaf-mould. 

PHASEOLUS. Thirty species. An- 
nual twiners, chiefly hardy ; a few are 
deciduous perennials. Seed. Light 
rich loam. See Kidney Bean. 

PHEASANT'S-EYE. Adonis au- 
tumnalis. 

PHEBALIUM. Six species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Peat, sand, and loam. 

PHILADELPHUS. Fourteen spe- 
cies. Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers 
and suckers. Common soil. 

PHlLIBEPvTI A. grandiflora. Green- 
house evergreen twiner. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PHILLYREA. Ten species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings and 
layers. Common soil. 

PHILOTHECA australis. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy peat and sandy loom. 

PHILYDRUM lanuginosum. Green- 
house biennial. Seed. Loam and peat. 
PH LOGO CAN THUS curvifio- 
rus. Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Light rich loam. 

PHLOGOPHORA. meticulosa. Angle 
shades moth. This is a night moth, 
appearing from May to October. The 
caterpillar is green, spotted with white. 
Upper wings of the moth, rosy white. 
The caterpillar feeds upon the Erassica 
tribe. 

PHLOMIS. Twenty-four species. 
Hardy and half-hardy evergreens and 
herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Light 
rich loam. 

PHLOX. Forty-eight species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division and cuttings. 
Rich loam. P. Drummondi is one of 
the prettiest of the genus, and its cul^ 
ture is thus detailed by Dr. Lindley :— 
" The seeds should be sown about 



the end of March, in pots filled withi 
light sandy soil, and placed on a mo- 
derate hot-bed, or in a cucumber or a 
melon frame. In this situation they 
will soon germinate ; and before the 
first rough leaf appears they should be 
potted off, three or four together in a 
large sixty pot, placing the plants at 
equal distances round the side. When 
potted, they should be returned to the 
frame, and kept close for a few days, 
to recover from the effects of their re- 
moval ; after which they should be 
gradually hardened off", by giving them 
plenty of air during the day in fine 
weather. Finally, about the beginning 
of May, they should be removed to a 
cold pit or frame, where they can be 
fully exposed during the day, covering 
them with the lights only at night, and 
in bad or cold weather. About the end 
of May, when all danger of late spring 
frost is over, they may be planted in 
the open border. The soil into which 
they are transferred should be either 
a light rich sandy soil or peat, with 
which a little well-rotted dung has 
been mixed. The plants will require 
to have a little water once or twice 
after they are planted, especially if the 
weather is dry at the time ; but it is 
advisable not to water them after they 
are once well established. The chief 
causes of failure are, sowing the seeds 
too soon, or allowing the plants to get 
very dry, or pot-bound, before they are 
planted out. If once they become 
stunted, they will never make good 
plants; and the same may be said of 
those which have been kept in too 
warm a place." — Gard. Chron. It may 
be had in perfection from seed sown on 
a rich border, latter end of spring, and 
cultivated without transplanting. 

PHOENIX. Date Palm. Eight spe- 
cies. Stove palms. Seed. Rich clayey 
loam. 

PHCENOCOMA prolifera. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
sandy loam. 

PHOLIDOTA. Four species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division of bulbs. Wood 
and moss. 

PHOTINIA. Four species. Half 
hardy evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat, and on a south wall. 

PHYCELLA. Eight species. Green- 
house bulbs; but they will grow in a 
warm border if protected. Seed and 
offsets. Loam, sand, and peat. 



PHY 



PIN 



PHYLICA. Thirty species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. 

PHYLLIS nobla. Green-house ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Rich clayey 
loam. 

PHYLLOCLADUS rhomboida- 
lis. Green-house evergreen tree. Ripe 
cuttings. Loam and peat. 

PHYLLOMA. Four species, all ever- 
greens. P. aloiflorum is a stove tree ; 
the others, green-house shrubs. Suck- 
ers. Sandy loam. 

PHYLLOPERTHA horticola. The 
garden beetle. It is thus described by 
Mr. Curtis : — " It is about four lines 
and a half long, and three broad. Its 
elytra, or wing cases, are reddish- 
brown, shining, and do not reach quite 
to the extremity of the body ; the head 
and thorax are dark green. It appears 
on the leaves of the apple and pear in 
June, feeding on the very young fruit. 
When alarmed it feigns death, by fall- 
ing on its back, and extending its legs 
in a stiffened manner, and in different 
directions. The female deposits her 
eggs in the earth, and the larvae feed 
on the roots of plants. 

The only method we are acquainted 
with of lessening the numbers of these 
beetles, is to collect and destroy them 
early in the morning, or late in the 
evening, when they may be found stick- 
ing to the plants, and they can readily 
be seen from their colour and size. 
During the day, and particularly if the 
weather is hot, they fly about with great 
swiftness, and are not easily caught." — 
Gard. Chron. 

PHYSEMATIUM. Two species. 
Stove herbaceous. Division. Peat and 
loam. 

PHYSIANTHUS albens. Stove 
evergreen climber. Seed and cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

PHYSOCLAINA. Two species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
Common soil. 

PHYSOPIPHON. Four species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division of bulbs. 
Wood and moss. 

PHYSOSTEGIA. Seven species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division. Rich light 
loam. 

PHYSURUS pictus. Stove shrub. 
Cuttings. Light rich loam. 

PHYTELEPHAS macrocarpa. 
Stove evergreen shrub. Seed. Peat 
and loam. 

PHYTEUMA. Twenty-three spe- 



cies. Hardy herbaceous. Seed and 
division. Common soil. 

PHYTOLACCA. Nine species. 
Chiefly stove herbaceous. P. decandra 
is hardy and wide spreading. Seed and 
cuttings. Rich light soil. 

PIARANTHUS. Seven spe- 
cies. Stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings in the spring. Sandy loam and 
lime rubbish. 

PICK-AXE, should have a handle 
three feet and a half long, made of 
ash; and the points or edges of the 
head should be of well-steeled iron. 
There are three varieties : — 1. The pick 
with two points, for loosening hard sur- 
faces. 2. The pick-axe, for cutting 
through roots of trees when felling. 
3. The mattock, with one pointed and 
one flat edge, for loosening surfaces, 
and grubbing up roots. 

PICOTEE. See Carnation. 

PICRIDIUM. Four species. Hardy 
herbaceous and annuals. Division or 
seed. Common soil. 

PICTETIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

PIERARDIA dulcis. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

PIERIS Cratagi. Hawthorn, or 
Black-veined Butterfly. Is white, with 
black ribs or veins on the wings. It is 
very much like Pontia Brassicce. The 
caterpillar is dirty yellow, hairy, black- 
headed, and a brown stripe down its 
sides. The caterpillars mould several 
times, and they are usually found on 
the apple-tree, where both the yellow 
eggs and caterpillars may be found in 
June. The caterpillars draw two or 
three leaves together with a web. 
These should be sedulously sought for 
and destroyed. 

PILEA muscosa. Stove evergreen 
trailer. Cuttings. Common soil. 

PIMELEA. Twenty-eight species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy peat and loam. 

PIMPERNEL. Anagallis. 

PINCKNEYA pubens; a beautiful or 
rather curious southern shrub, scarcely 
sufficiently hardy to support the winters 
of Pennsylvania. Cuttings. Sandy peat, 
beneath a south wall. 

PINE-APPLE. Ananassa. The 
pine-apple is but little cultivated in the 
United States, though it is probable the 



PIN 



457 
— ♦ — 



PIN 



increase of wealth and luxury among 
us, may ere long induce its culture un- 
der glass, in common with the grape, 
peach, &c, though the same necessity 
as in England does not exist — our 
proximity to the tropics enabling us, at 
least on the seaboard, to obtain the pine 
in tolerable perfection, and at a tithe of 
the cost of producing it ourselves; we, 
however, insert the article on this fruit 
as it stood in the original edition of this 
work. 

I believe the most successful cultiva- 
tor of this fruit is Mr. Barnes, gardener 
to Lady Rolle,at Bicton,near Sidmouth, 
and to that excellent horticulturist I am 
indebted for the following detail of his 
latest system of culture : — 

Varieties: — We cultivate the Queen 
principally for fruiting at all seasons. 
We also grow a few of the large black 
kinds, which are all of easy culture, 
and may be grown to a very large size 
indeed. We have of late grown the 
Queen Pine from six to nearly eight 
pounds in weight, and those have been 
produced from plants of only a few 
months' growth. The other varieties 
we cultivate are — the Russian Globe, 
English Globe, Enville, Green Olive or 
St. Vincent, Montserrat, Black Ja- 
maica, Otaheite, Brown-leaved Sugar 
Loaf, and Black Antigua, only two or 
three plants of each, and those we are 
about reducing. All these varieties are 
of easy culture, and free swellers, ca- 
pable of being grown to a great weight. 
To equal a Queen of six pounds weight 
they ought to be from ten to fourteen 
pounds weight each fruit, but we only 
average them from six to ten pounds 
weight. 

" Propagation. — I have practised in 
my time various methods, but my pre- 
sent mode is only by suckers. These 
are pulled off immediately the fruit is 
cut, and at once potted, no matter what 
season of the year it may be. Thus, as 
soon as a fruit is ripened, the plant is 
lifted out, and another at once planted 
in its place. One sucker, or, perhaps, 
two, are occasionally left, but not often. 
Those taken off are at once potted. By 
this practice a constant succession of 
plants is kept up, and fruit of various 
ag€s. I never care for the crowns, 
though, if taken off in due time, and 
potted at once, in well sweetened dry 
pulverized earth, they will make equal- 
ly good plants. Of course the suckers 



should be placed in the same kind of 
earth, not damp, or they will be liable 
to be affected at the base with rot or 
mildew. 

" Soil. — The pine will grow well in 
any kind of turfy, rooty, well-sweetened 
pulverized soil, from heath soil to a 
heavy clayey loam. I make choice of 
a heathy turf when obtainable, with the 
roots and its natural vegetation all with 
it ; never breaking it until at the pot- 
ting bench, as the process of potting is 
going on. Then we break the sods, 
which are mostly chosen about two or 
three inches in thickness, in such kind 
of pieces as we can thrust into the pots, 
putting in, as we proceed, some pieces 
of charcoal, always taking care to drain 
the pots carefully, which is one of the 
chief* essentials. Our drainage is prin- 
cipally coarse charcoal, averaging one- 
fourth of broken rubbly potsherds, 
which are placed first round about the 
bottom ; then, if it is a seven-inch pot, 
for a sucker, the drainage averages two 
inches at least ; and if fifteen or eight- 
een-inch pots, which are the largest 
fruiting pots I make use of, the drain- 
age is employed in a coarser state, and 
about two inches more of it, and the 
soil too is thrust into the pots rougher — 
brambles, furze, bushes, heath, and 
grass altogether — with no other kind of 
manure, besides an occasional lump or 
handful of rubbly charcoal, merely to 
fill up some of the crevices. It is not 
rammed, that is to say, not pounded, or 
jammed together in the same way pot- 
ting is too often done, but pushed down 
as we proceed, quietly. Thus the soil 
is really a whole body of drainage — 
there is no obstruction either to the 
atmosphere or the water. I have no 
particular time or season for shifting, 
potting, or repotting — we do all these 
at any season of the year, whenever we 
fancy the plants seem to require it. 
Never shift a plant, or repot, but twice 
at the most. If it is a strong spring 
sucker, it gets with me but one potting 
from the sucker pot to the fruiting pot. 
I have left off altogether making use of 
any kind of manure with the earth be- 
sides charcoal ; excepting to free-grow- 
ing plants occasionally we apply weak 
liquid manure — as clear as wine — al- 
ways applying it in a tepid state, and in 
the growing, warm part of the season. 
To the succession plants we apply it 
with the syringe or engine over the 



PIN 



458 

— • — 



PIN 



whole of the foliage and surface of the 
plunging materials. 

" The Bottom Heat is at all times 
kept very moderate, the surface loosen- 
ed often with a pointed stick, or two- 
pronged fork, so that there is no ob- 
struction to prevent the free circulation 
of the atmosphere. As to stating the 
exact temperature in our variable dark 
climate, it is impossible — but the right 
side is to aim at a too low, instead of 
overdoing it ; the former is the easiest 
to be got over. A small portion of 
fermenting or plunging materials, kept 
in a kindly condition, is always quite 
sufficient to command bottom heat 
enough. My fruiting plants have about 
one foot eight or nine inches of plung- 
ing materials, and stand on loose bricks 
in it; of course, as the season and tem- 
perature of the interior atmosphere 
alter, so does the bottom heat, under 
this system ; I look to nature for the 
example. I cannot inform you how 
strong, or to what extent, the manure 
water ought to be applied to plants of 
such or such an age, or size, or va- 
riety — so much depends on a variety of 
circumstances ; all I know is, what to 
apply to those I have under my own 
charge. A pot or two of good ale, or 
a slice of beef or bacon will do won- 
ders with a hard-working, strong, 
healthy-constituted man — which would 
not be likely in the least to agree with 
another person, afflicted with disease 
or weakness. 

" The Temperature of the Air. — I at 
all seasons regulate according to the 
light we receive, never tying it down to 
a certain degree. Some light, still, 
mild days, even in late autumn or 
winter, five degrees more can be well 
afforded, with air, than in a dark, cold, 
gloomy, windy, or stormy day, could 
safely be applied in summer. Suffice 
it to say, I regulate the atmospheric 
interior air from about 55 Q to 75°, the 
former the minimum in short dark days, 
and the latter the maximum in long 
light days ; for heat without light is 
sure to cause, in time, immaturity, dis- 
ease, and vermin. 

" Diseases and Vermin. — By follow- 
ing the above directions, no such thing 
will be seen or known, and those that 
are already troubled with either, will, 
by following the above directions, get 
very soon clear of either." 

To this mode of Pine-growing made 



easy, but little need be added. Those 
who are not so successful in keeping 
their pine-apples free from Scale, and 
other diseases, will find some informa- 
tion on those points under their respect- 
ive titles in other pages of this volume. 
I will only venture to add, that I think 
growing the pine-apple in beds is pre- 
ferable to growing it in pots ; all Mr. 
Barnes's directions being adapted to 
*hat. I also think Mr. Barnes's maxi- 
mum temperature rather too low, and 
that during bright sunny weather, and 
the long days of summer, 80° may be 
used with advantage. In Bengal, pine- 
apples grow in the open air with very 
little cultivation, and attain a weight of 
seven pounds, in a temperature rang- 
ing between the extremes 120o and 53°. 

PINE-TREE. Pinus. 

PINEASTER BEETLE. See Bos- 
trychis. 

PINGUICULA. Six species. Hardy 
and half-hardy herbaceous. Division. 
Shaded, boggy soil. 

PINK. Dianthus. 

Varieties.— -These are added to an- 
nually ; but the following are first-rate 
flowers, sufficient for any amateur: — 

Acme (Brown's). 

Alpha (Garrat's). 

Achates (Neville's). 

Alfred (Wallace's). 

Beauty (Fairbairn's). 

Beauty (Turner's). 

Conqueror (Barrett's). 

Defiance (Norman's). 

Dr. Edwards (Ottey's). 

Duke of Northumberland (Head- 
ley's). 

Duke of Wellington (Norman's). 

Eclipse (Brown's). 

Eclipse (Bankell's). 

Enchantress (Neville's). 

Garland (Brown's). 

Gauntlet (Dawson's). 

Gem (Hodge's). 

Great Britain (Ward's). 

Henry (Norman's). 

Henry (Wallace's). 

Lord Brougham (Acres). 

Mary Anne (Jelf's). 

Masterpiece (Turner's). 

Miss Kate (Fairbairn's). 

Monitor (Nevilles). 

Ne plus Ultra (Kean's). 

Omega (Unworth's). 

One Hundred and Thirty-four 
(Brown's). 

One Hundred and Sixty-six (Hodge's). 



PIN 



459 



PIN 



President (Creed's.) 

Prince Albert (Legg's). 

Prince of Wales (Wilmer's). 

Queen of England (Hale's). 

Itoseana (Church's). 

Triumphant (Ibbet's). 

Warden (White's). 

Characteristics of Excellence. — Flow- 
er circular when viewed in front ; semi- 
globular in profile, and uniform in size 
on the same plant. Petals stout, smooth- 
edged, each row smaller than those be- 
low it. Colour, ground white ; lacing, 
whatever its tint, should have a border 
of white beyond it; colour of the lower 
limb of the petal extending so as to be 
seen above the while edge of the petals 
above. Lacing unbroken. 

Raising Varieties. — M. Fries Movel, 
gives these directions: — 

" Just before sunrise open carefully 
the flower to be operated on, and ab- 
stract the anthers with small pincers. 
About eight or nine o'clock place the 
ripe pollen from another flower upon its 
stigma, and repeat this two or three 
times in the course of the same day. If 
the act of impregnation has taken place, 
the flower will fade in twenty-four or 
thirty-six hours; but if not, the flower 
will remain in full beauty, in which 
case, the attempt must be repeated. 
This should always be done in fine 
serene weather, and care should be 
taken to defend this impregnated flower 
from rain and mists. Plants raised from 
seeds which have been crossed always 
bear the form of the mother, but take 
the colours of the male parent. Fewer 
seeds are produced by art than by na- 
ture alone ; and the impregnated flow- 
ers are less visited by bees than others." 
— Gard. Mag. 

Layering. — Mr. J. Mearns, of the 
Manchester Zoological Gardens, says 
that he thus conducts this operation : — 

" I do not use a dibber to plant with, 
but my forefinger ; I lay the lower end 
of my slip horizontally upon the surface 
of the soil, and so press it down into 
it; when from the firmness of the soil, 
the slip is compelled to clip round the 
end of the finger. With the other hand 
I turn up the top to its perpendicular, 
and press the lower end down till the 
tail is about half an inch beneath the 
soil ; I then make the soil firm, and the 
operation is complete. The pipings 
are best left with no other attention 
after planting, besides occasional water- 



ing in dry weather, and keeping them 
free from weeds till the time for plant- 
ing out, which may be done at any time 
after the plants are perfectly rooted ; 
the usual season, however, to plant 
out for the flowering in the highest per- 
fection is September, and for propaga- 
tion all the month of June, even to the 
middle of July." — Gard. Chron. 

By Pipings. — In selecting the grass 
(stems) for pipings, strong and short 
jointed shoots should be chosen. The 
piping should be cut off with a sharp 
knife immediately below the second or 
third joint from the top of the shoot, and 
it may then be readily disengaged from 
the two leaves which surround its base, 
and which are commonly termed a 
sheath. The tips of the leaves should 
be shortened for the sake of conve- 
nience, otherwise when planted it will 
be difficult to prevent the hand glass 
from resting upon them, or from dis- 
turbing them whenever it is removed. 
As the pipings are prepared, they should 
be put into a basin or pan filled with 
water to prevent them from flagging be- 
fore they are planted. For this and 
similar delicate operations the cool 
hours of the evening are most suitable. 
In planting the pipings they should be 
pressed firmly into the soil to the depth 
of about half an inch, leaving them 
an inch and a half apart every way; 
and after being properly secured, they 
should be gently watered through a fine 
rose to settle the mould closely round 
the stems, and as soon as the leaves 
become thoroughly dry, a bell glass 
should be placed over them. The glass 
should be pressed lightly into the mould, 
to prevent as much as possible the in- 
gress of air. In sunny days, the bed 
should be shaded from seven to eight 
o'clock in the morning until five or six 
in the evening ; and if there is any ap- 
pearance of damp amongst the pipings, 
the glasses should be occasionally taken 
off to allow them to dry, and all plants 
so attacked should be immediately re- 
moved. It is very probable that the 
pipings will not require to be watered 
until the greater part of them have taken 
root; should watering, however, be ne- 
cessary, the leaves must be allowed to 
become dry before the glasses are re- 
placed. As soon as roots are formed 
the hand glasses should be slightly 
raised on one side, and may be gradu- 
ally withdrawn. The young plants, 



PIN 



460 



PIP 



after being by degrees inured to the 
sun, may be transplanted six inches 
apart in an open bed previously pre- 
pared for the purpose, in which situa- 
tion they may remain until required for 
planting finally in the beds, where they 
are to bloom. — Gard. Chron. 

Soil and Manure. — Sandy turfy loam, 
such as the top spit of an old pasture, 
mixed with one-fourth its bulk of old 
cow-dung, makes a soil very beneficial 
to this flower. Woollen rags mixed 
with the soil are also strongly recom- 
mended. 

Bed. — Raise the bed six inches above 
the soil around, and formed like a 
pitched roof, thus : The compost should 

Fig. 128. 



be at least a foot deep. Plant in rows, 
and twelve inches apart each way. 

After Culture. — " The first thing to 
be attended to will be to thin out the 
flower-stems, in order to throw more 
strength into those which are left. 
When the plants are weak all the 
stems should be removed but one, and 
on a plant of moderate size not more 
than three should be retained. These 
again should be looked over, and the 
lateral flower-buds removed from them, 
leaving only the terminal bud and the 
next but one below it; provided these 
are perfect in form, all the rest may be 
pinched off. In tying up the stems of 
pinks and other plants of this class 
great judgment is required ; in fact, de- 
lay is better in this instance than too 
much haste. If tied too high at first, 
the stems, as they lengthen, are pre- 
vented by the ligature from growing 
erect, and become crooked, or perhaps 
snap off" at the joints. They should, 
therefore, be looked to every day 
where practicable; and if there is the 
least appearance of any flower-stem 
having become cramped the tie should 
immediately be cut loose. The safest 
way is to secure the bush to the flower 
stick, to which the stem should be 
loosely tied so as to allow it perfect 
liberty to slide through as it increases 
in height. These ligatures, when the 
plants have acquired their full growth, 
can be easily removed, and the plants 



tied close withoutfurther hazard. When 
the forwardest blooms begin to expand, 
hoops should be fixed across the bed, to 
support mats or any other lighter mate- 
rial that will serve to protect the flow- 
ers either from the rain or from the rays 
of the sun. They need not, however, 
be shaded earlier than nine o'clock in 
the morning, or later than five or six in 
the evening ; but if there is the least 
appearance of a wet night, they had 
better be covered before leaving them. 
Should the season be dry, they will re- 
quire regular watering between the 
rows ; rain or pond water, where pro- 
curable, is always to be preferred. A 
little clay or stir? loam placed in the 
form of a margin round the edge of the 
bed would serve as a basin, and prevent 
the water from escaping into the path 
or alley." — Gard. Chron. 

PIN- PILLAR. Opuntia curassavica. 

PINUS. Fir Tree. Sixty-eight spe- 
cies and many varieties. Seed, layers, 
inarching or grafting. Sandy loam on 
a dry subsoil. See Coniferce. 

PIP, in floriculture, is a single corolla 
or flower, where several grow upon a 
common stem, as in the Polyanthus and 
Auricula. The pips thus growing to- 
gether are described as a Truss. 

PIPER. Pepper. Twenty-seven 
species. Stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings and suckers; loam and peat. On 
the culture of the Black Pepper, (P. 
nigrum,) Dr. Lindley observes, that 
"it grows luxuriantly in many stoves, 
but is shy in ripening its fruit. This is 
probably owing to the uniform moisture 
which is kept in these places. It should 
be planted in a large tub or box well 
drained, all the strong flower-bearing 
shoots should be supported with strong 
stakes, and the small useless ones cut 
away. When not growing much, keep 
it rather dry, and give it a slight check, 
and be careful not to give it too much 
water after flowering. Bottom heat, 
particularly when growing, is indispen- 
sable." — Gard. Chron. 

PIPERIDGE, the Barberry. 

PIPES for heating horticultural struc- 
tures are preferably made of cast iron, 
painted black. Earthenware has been 
recommended for the purpose, but they 
are so much more liable to breakage 
and leakage, as to outweigh any original 
saving in the cost. For draining, earthen 
pipes with a bore an inch in diameter 
are the best. 



PIP 



461 
— ♦— 



PIT 



Table of the quantity of pipe, four inches diameter, which will heat one 
thousand cubic feet of air per minute, any required number of degrees ; the 
temperature of the pipe being 200° Fahrenheit. 



Temperature of 


Tempe 


rature at which the room is required to 


external air. 








be kept. 


Fahr. Scale. 


45° 


50° 


55° 


60° 


65° 


70° 


75° 


80° 


85° 


90° 


10° 


126 


150 


174 


200 


229 


259 


292 


328 


367 


409 


12 


119 


142 


166 


192 


220 


251 


283 


318 


357 


399 


14 


112 


135 


159 


184 


212 


242 


274 


309 


347 


388 


16 


105 


127 


151 


176 


204 


233 


265 


300 


337 


378 


18 


98 


120 


143 


168 


195 


225 


256 


290 


328 


368 


20 


91 


112 


135 


160 


187 


216 


247 


281 


318 


358 


22 


83 


105 


128 


152 


179 


207 


238 


271 


308 


347 


24 


76 


97 


120 


144 


170 


199 


229 


262 


298 


337 


26 


69 


90 


112 


136 162 


190 


220 


253 


288 


327 


28 


61 


82 


104 


128 


154 


181 


211 


243 


279 


317 


30 


54 


75 


97 


120 


145 


173 


202 


234 


269 


307 


Freezing point 32 


47 


67 


89 


112 


137 


164 


193 


225 


259 


296 


34 


40 


60 


81 


104 


129 


155 


184 


215 


249 


286 


36 


32 


52 


73 


96 


120 


147 


175 


206 


239 


276 


38 


25 


45 


66 


88 


112 


138 


166 


196 


230 


266 


40 


18 


37 


58 


80 


104 


129 


157 


187 


220 


255 


42 


10 


30 


50 


72 


95 


121 


148 


178 


210 


245 


44 


3 


22 


42 


64 


87 


112 


139 


168 


200 


235 


46 




15 


34 


56 


79 


103 


130 


159 


190 


225 


48 




7 


27 


48 


70 


95 


121 


150 


181 


214 


50 






19 


40 


62 


86 


112 


140 


171 


204 


52 






11 


32 


54 


77 


103 


131 


161 


194 



To ascertain by the above Table the quantity of pipe which will heat one 
thousand cubic feet of air per minute : — find, in the first column, the tempera- 
ture corresponding to that of the external air, and in one of the other columns 
find the temperature of the room; then in this latter column, and on the line 
which corresponds with the external temperature, the required number of feet 
of pipe will be found. See Hot water and Steam. 



PIPE-WORT. Eriocaulon. 

PIPING. See Pink and Carnation 
for this mode of propagation. 

PIPTANTHUS nepalensis. Hardy 
deciduous shrub. Layers and cuttings. 
Rich loam. 

PIPTOCLAINA supina. Hardy an- 
nual. Seed. Common soil. 

PIQUERIA trinervia. Hardy herb- 
aceous. Division. Light rich loam. 

PISCIDIA. Jamaica Dogwood. 
Two species. Stove evergreen trees. 
Cuttings. Light loam. 

P1SCINARY is another name for a 
fish pond, which in landscape garden- 
ing comes under the general terms 
Water and Pond, which see. 

PISTACHIA. Four species and 
more varieties. Hardy and half-hardy 
evergreen and deciduous trees. Lay- 



ers and ripe cuttings ; light rich loam. 
Even the hardy species of this genus 
do best against a wall. 

PISTORINIA hispanica. Hardy 
biennial. Seed. Light well-drained soil. 

PISUM. Pea. Seven species and 
many varieties. Hardy annual climbers, 
except the herbaceous perennials, P. 
americanum and P. maritimum. Seed. 
Rich dry soil. See Pea. 

PIT, in the Conservatory, is the body 
of soil in which the shrubs, &c, are 
planted ; in the Stove, it is the excava- 
tion in which is the tan, or other mate- 
rial for plunging the pots; and for 
Forcing, it is a structure having a glass 
roof, and differing from a forcing frame 
only in being larger, and with sides 
fixed to the soil. Pits for this purpose 
were usually sunk in the ground ; but 



PIT 



462 

— ♦ — 



PL A 



it has been justly observed, that " sunk- 
en pits are inconvenient to get at ; there 
is no pulling their sashes off and on 
with ease, and ventilation is trouble- 
some. Then, again, in spite of all that 
can be done, they will always be damp ; 
and although this is advantageous for 
some purposes, it is destructive to 
green-house plants in long winters. 
Upon the whole, the inconveniences 
are at least as considerable as the ad- 
vantages. We doubt whether sunken 
pits can often be recommended in gar- 
dens." — Gard. Chron. 

Under the various titles Melon, Cu- 
cumber, Pine Apple, fyc, descriptions of 
pits suitable for their cultivation will 
be found. The following outline is of 
one for various purposes, strongly re 
commended by Mr. R. Fortune, gar 
dener at the Chiswick Gardens : 

Fig. 129. 




a, stages and back and front shelf; 
5, passage along the middle; c, pro- 
posed tank ; d, proposed ventilators. 

The width of the pit is nine feet ; 
and, as the sketch is drawn from mea- 
surement, any one may easily ascertain 
the different proportions. 

The two stages are made of wood, 
having cross bars, as seen at a, and up- 
right bearers on each side of b. The 
small shelf in front is supported by a 
bracket, which also supports the hot 
water pipes ; and the back shelf might 
be supported in the same manner, al- 
though in this instance it is formed out 
of the thickness of the back wall. The 
only improvement in its construction, 
is to have a large tank in some conve- 
nient place in front, as at c, to receive 
the rain which falls on the roof; and also 
some wooden ventilators in the back and 
front wall at d, which could be opened 
at those times when it is not prudent to 
draw down the sashes. By having the 



door in the back wall, and the passage 
along the middle, a person can go in at 
any time without pushing down the 
sashes, and reaching from the back to 
the front, he can water or do anything 
else the plants may require. 

" This pit is extremely useful for 
raising seeds, or for growing small 
green-house plants, and keeping such 
things as verbeneas, petunias, and scar- 
let pelargoniums, for turning out into 
the flower garden during the summer 
months ; or by dividing it into two parts 
by a partition, having a door in it, one 
half may be used for striking cuttings, 
raising seeds, or keeping plants, which 
have been newly potted off, and the 
other filled with well established plants, 
requiring more light and air; so that, 
with a little contrivance, it is astonish- 
ing how many things the amateur may 
do in a small place like this." — Gard. 
Chron; 

PITCAIRNIA. Seventeen species. 
Stove herbaceous. Seed and suckers. 
Moss potsherds. They are really epi- 
phytal. 

PITCHER-LEAF. Nepenthes phyU 
lamphora. 

PITCHER-PLANT. Nepenthes dis- 
tillatoria. 

PITTOSPORUM. Eighteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs, except 
P. tobira, which, matted, will sustain 
the winter south of Virginia. Ripe cut- 
tings. Peat and loam. 

PLADERA. Two species. Green- 
house biennials. Seed, and cultivated 
like the Balsam. 

PLAGIOLOBIUM. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

PLASTER OF PARIS. See Gypsum. 
PLANERA. Two species. Hardy 
deciduous trees. Layers on grafts of 
the elm. Light loam, near water. 
PLANE TREE. Platanus. 
PLANK PLANT. Bossicea scolopen- 
dria. 

PLANTAIN TREE. Musa. 
PLANTATION. The ornamental 
distribution of trees is considered under 
the titles Clump, Wood, fyc. ; and here 
will be considered only a few practical 
details relative to the planting and ma- 
nagement of trees. 

Selection. — Our guide in this must be 
the nature of the soil. If chalk is a 
principal constituent of this, the beech, 
birch, and ash must be the trees chiefly 



PL A 



463 

— t — 



PL A 



adopted ; if clay, the oak ; if rich loam, 
the elm. In moist situations, the alder, 
sallow, and willow; and in mountain, 
and dry soiled districts, all the hardy 
conifers, the birch and the ash. Peat, 
if well drained, will bear the Scotch fir ; 
and the Spanish chestnut will flourish 
on light sheltered loam. On the poor- 
est and lightest soils, if well drained, 
the larch will establish itself. Similar 
attention must be paid to the soil in 
locating the shrubs. Rhododendrons 
delight in shade and leaf-mould ; and 
others have their particular soils, of 
which information will be found in other 
pages, under their appropriate titles. 

Manures. — Trees, like all other 
plants, are benefited by being appro- 
priately manured; their growth is thus 
accelerated, and contrary to old opin- 
ions, it is found that the wood of 
quickly-growing trees is more durable, 
and more tough than that of trees of 
the same species which have vegetated 
more tardily. Calcareous matter is al- 
ways required by trees; and my brother, 
Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, has truly stated 
that on the poor hungry heath lands, 
such as those of Norfolk, Surrey, and 
the north, which contain hardly a trace 
of carbonate of lime, they find that, by 
dressing with chalk or marl, land in- 
tended for planting, the growth of the 
trees is very materially increased ; and 
more recently, as in the forest of Dama- 
way in Scotland, the planters have 
found the greatest advantage from plac- 
ing only a handful of lime (about four 
bushels per acre is sufficient) in the soil 
under the plants. By this means the 
young trees, they say, are forced for- 
ward ; that is, they are supplied with 
the carbonate of lime at the very period 
of their growth, when their roots, from 
want of extent and vigour, are least 
able to absorb from the soil the portion 
of this earth so essential for their healthy 
growth. And it is precisely such heath 
soils as those to which I have alluded 
as being so materially benefited by the 
application of lime, chalk, or marl 
(which also contains chalk), that are 
found, when examined in their natural 
state, to be nearly destitute of carbon- 
ate of lime. 

It is for the same reasons that, in 
the early state of their growth, timber 
plantations are benefited so materially 
by being manured with organic mat- 
ters — a fact well known to those who 



plant for merely ornamental purposes; 
and it is because all timber trees con- 
tain phosphate of lime in very con- 
siderable proportions, that crushed 
bones are found to be so excellent a 
fertilizer for them ; and hence one rea- 
son, why it has long been a well-known 
fact, that by burying dead animals un- 
der trees nearly exhausted for want of 
nourishment, those trees will almost 
invariably be considerably revived, and 
send out their shoots with unusual vi- 
gour ; and how essential the presence 
of phosphate of lime is to their growth, 
may be judged of from the fact, that 
this salt constitutes 45 per cent, of the 
ashes of the oak ; 35 in those of the 
hazel; 16.75 of the poplar; 23 in the 
hornbeam ; 12 per cent, in those of the 
fir. 

These chemical examinations natu- 
rally support the conclusion to which I 
have long come in my own experiments, 
that in all plantations of timber trees, 
both on the score of profit and of orna- 
ment, it is in almost all situations de- 
sirable to assist the growth of the young 
trees by a small addition of manure. 
On a large scale this must be chiefly 
confined to the use of the earths, either 
lime, chalk, or marl, according to their 
respective local value ; and for this 
purpose a smaller proportion per acre 
of any kind of manure is of much great- 
er value than is commonly supposed. 
I have usually, under every plant, mere- 
ly applied a small shovelful of tolerably- 
rotted stable dung, stirring it up with 
the mould ; and, as these experiments 
were principally made on a poor hungry 
gravelly soil, nearly destitute of carbon- 
ate of lime, I have usually added to the 
beach plants, instead of the farm-yard 
manure, a small quantity of chalk. 

Trenching. — In preparing the land 
for plantations, the same chemical ex- 
amination of the composition well illus- 
trates the advantages derived by the 
plant, from merely previously stirring 
the soil ; since it is evident that when 
the constituents of the young trees are 
contained in it in only very limited pro- 
portions, in such case the more easily 
their roots are enabled to penetrate in 
search of that necessary nourishment, 
the more rapid will be their growth. 

Previous trenching of the soil also 
conduces to the healthy growth of trees 
in more ways than one. It renders 
them less subject to injury from want 



PL A 



464 

— ♦ — 



PL A 



of moisture in the heats of summer ; 
the atmosphere more freely finds access 
to their roots; and not only yields its 
watery vapour in the warmest weather 
for their service, but its gases, so es- 
sential to their very existence, are also 
in a similar manner more readily ab- 
sorbed. 

Draining. — The most neglected, yet 
most important, of all the branches of 
forest culture, is draining. This ought to 
be done thoroughly before planting ; but 
if it has been neglected, may be done 
at any time, the sooner the better, and 
the effects will surprise, in a year or 
two, even the most sanguine. I have 
seen larch plantations, by draining only, 
converted from sickly worthless trees 
to thriving valuable woodlands. 

Planting. — " Too little attention," 
Mr. C. Johnson justly observes, " is 
usually paid by planters in the choice 
of their plants, the manner in which 
they have been reared, and in the care 
of their removal. Instead of attending 
to the acquired habits of the tree, it is 
a very common practice for the plants 
to be bought of some nurseryman who 
has reared them in a warm rich bottom, 
and then, as a natural consequence, 
when the trees are transplanted to a 
cold, poor, hungry, exposed soil, a 
large proportion of them are sure to 
perish, or, if they live, many become 
stunted or stag-headed. 

" There are other very common er- 
rors, of which I have long noticed the 
ill effects ; for instance, the want of 
care with which the roots of the young 
trees are deposited in the earth, and 
the unnecessary length of time which 
is suffered to elapse between the period 
when the plant is taken from the nur- 
sery and replanted. I have always 
found the good effect of causing the 
roots of the young plant to be carefully 
arranged and spread out before the 
earth is thrown in upon them — the 
usually heedless way in which the roots 
are thrust into the hole, and perhaps 
broken or materially bruised in the act 
of treading in the earth upon them, is 
of necessity prejudicial to the young 
plant; and then, again, a still more 
negligent practice, that of ploughing 
in the young trees, is too often adopted 
on a large scale, by which the plants 
are still more hastily deposited in the 
soil, and are neither fixed with suffi- 
cient firmness in the ground, nor even 



placed in an upright position." — Farm. 
Enc. 

There is certainly no economy in this 
hasty mode of planting ; the trees perish 
in great numbers ; they linger for years 
without vigour ; have to be replaced at 
a considerable expense; and, in the 
mean time, the owners lose all the ad- 
vantage which might have been ensured 
from a more skilfully obtained rapidity 
of growth. In planting on a large 
scale, the same pains and care should 
be taken as in inserting a shrub in the 
parterre. 

Pruning. — If care be taken to rub 
off ill-placed shoots in the early stages 
of a tree's growth, no after-pruning — 
no extensive application of the knife 
and saw — will be required, except in 
case of casualties. When a large branch 
requires amputation, it is best to leave 
a stump projecting a full foot from the 
stem. The face of the wound should 
be towards the ground, and the edges 
trimmed smooth with a very sharp 
knife. 

PLASHING is " a mode of repairing 
or modifying a hedge by bending down 
a portion of the shoots, cutting them 
half through near the ground to render 
them more pliable, and twisting them 
among the upright stems, so as to render 
the whole more effective as a fence, 
and at the same time preserve all the 
branches alive. For this purpose the 
branches to be plashed, or bent down, 
must not be cut more than half through, 
in order that a sufficient portion of sap 
may rise up from the root to keep alive 
the upper part of the branches. 

" Where hedges are properly formed 
and kept, they can very seldom require 
to be plashed." — Farm. Enc. 

PLATANTHERA. Thirteen species. 
Hardy orchids, except the stove, P. 
susannce, and the green-house, P.flava. 
Seed. Loam, peat, and chalk. 

PLATANUS. Plane-Tree. Two spe- 
cies and three varieties. P. orientalis 
does not suffer from the disease which 
has of late years attacked one indige- 
nous species. Hardy deciduous trees. 
Layers, cuttings, and seed. Common 
light soil. 

PLATYCARPIUM orinocense. 
Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

PLATYCHILUM celsianum. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
lings. Sandy loam and peat. 



PL A 



465 



PLU 



PLATYLOBIUM. Six species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Seed. 
Sandy peat and a little loam. 

PLATYLOPHUS trifoliatus. White 
ash. Green-house evergreen tree. Ripe 
cuttings. Loam and peat. 

PLATYSTEMON. Two species. 
Hardy annuals. Seed. Sandy loam. 

PLATYSTIGMA linear e. Half-hardy 
herbaceous. Division. Sandy loam. 

PLATYSTYLIS. Three species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division and seed. 
Light loam. 

PLEASURE-GROUND is a collective 
name for that combination of parterres, 
lawns, shrubberies, waters, arbours, &c. 
which are noticed individually in these 
pages. One observation may be ap- 
plied to all — let congruity preside over 
the whole. It is a great fault to have 
any one of those portions of the plea- 
sure ground in excess ; and let the 
whole be proportioned to the residence. 
It is quite as objectionable to be over- 
gardened as to be over-housed. Above 
all things eschew what has aptly been 
termed gingerbread-work. Nothing of- 
fends a person of good taste so much 
as the divisions and sub-divisions we 
are sometimes compelled to gaze on 
" with an approving smile." 

PLECTRANTHUS. Six spe- 
cies. The annual and biennial species 
by seed; the shrubs and herbaceous by 
cuttings. All in rich light loam. They 
are all tenants of either the green-house 
or stove. 

PLECTRITIS congesta. Hardy an- 
nual. Seed. Common soil. 

PLECTRONIA corymbosa. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

PLEROMA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PLETHORA. See Extravasated Sap. 

PLEURANDRA. Seven species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

PLEUROTHALLIS. Twenty-three 
species. Stove epiphytes. Division. 
Wood and moss. 

PLOCAMA pendula. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

PLOUGHMAN'S SPIKENARD. 
Baccharis. 

PLUM. Prunus domestica. 

Varieties. — One hundred and twenty- 
seven are cultivated in the Gardens of 
30 



the London Horticultural Society at 
Chiswick. The following limited, 
though select number, we extract from 
the catalogue of the old Landreth Nur- 
series. (See p. 466.) 

The descriptions and cuts of a few 
choice kinds may aid those about to 
plant, in selecting with advantage. 

Fig. 130. 




Washington. (Bolmar's Washing- 
ton.) (Fig. 130.) " This is an Ameri- 
can seedling, accidentally produced in 
the city of New York. Its great size 
and beautiful appearance, at once intro- 
duced it into general culture ; it must 
be confessed, there are many of greater 
merit, though but few of more prepos- 
sessing aspect. 

" Skin yellow, or yellowish-green, 
when fully matured dotted with red. 
Flesh yellow, separating freely from 
the stone. The tree is of vigorous 
growth, hardy, and well suited to our 
climate." — Rural Reg. 

Columbia. (Fig. 131.) " An admi- 
rable plum, well worthy of its name ; 
raised by Mr. Lawrence, of Hudson, 
New York, who has doubly served us 
by producing another first rate plum, 
< Lawrence's Favorite.' The Columbia 
is a free bearer, fruit of the first class, 
both as regards size and quality. Skin 
purple, abounding in bloom. Flesh 
orange. Ripe at Philadelphia close of 
August." — Rural Reg. 



PLU 



466 



PLU 



Plums. — Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — y yellow; b blue ; r red ; 
p purple. Size. — l large ; m medium. 



* American Seedl 


Ings t 


rf acknowledged 


merit. 




NAME. 


COLOUR. 


FORM. 


N 

CO 


H SEASON. 

•J 


Apricot plum .... 


y 


round 


L 


2 


August 


*Bingham's Egg . 






y 


oval 


L 




August 


*Bolmar's Washington . 






y 


oval 


L 




September 


*Bleeker's Red . 






r 


round 


M 




August 


Blue Gage 






r 


round 


M 




August 


*Brevoort's Purple 






P 


oval 


L 




September 


*Bleeker's Gage . 






y 


round 


L 




August 


Coe's Golden Drop 






y 


oval 


L 




September 


*Cooper's Red American 






p 


oval 


M 




September 


*Columbia 






p 


round 


L 




August 


Damson, Yellow . 






y 


round 


M 


2 


September 


Gage, Yellow 






y 


round 


M 




September 


*Gage, Scarlet 






r 


oval 


M 




September 


*Gage, Schuyler's 






y 


round 


L 




August 


*Gage, Prince's Imperial 






s 


oval 


M 




August 


Goliah . • . " . 






p 


oval 


L 




August 


*Huling's Superb . 






y 


round 


L 




August 


*Jefferson . . 






y 


oval 


L 




September 


Red Magnum Bonum . 






r 


oval 


L 




August 


White Magnum Bonum 






w 


oval 


L 




August 


Morocco Plum 






P 


round 


M 




August 


Nectarine Plum . 






P 


round 


L 




August 


Orleans, Red 






r 


round 


L 




August 


Orleans, Early 






P 


round 


L 




August 


Prune, German 






P 


oval 


L 




September 


*Verplanck's Purple 






P 


round 


M 




August 



Fig. 131.— (P. 465. 





Coe's Golden Drop, of Hooker, Lind- 
lay, and others. — Coe's Imperial, Coe's 
Seedling, &c. (Fig. 132.) "Mr. Coe, 
a market gardener of Norfolk, England, 
who raised this plum, has perpetuated 
his name by association with it. Many 
varieties have been subsequently pro- 
duced, but few of them have as high 
claims to regard, as the Golden Drop — 
indeed it has been pronounced superior 
to any late plum cultivated in Britain. 

" The fruit is of extra large size, 
rich, and in the opinion of competent 
judges, not inferior to the celebrated 
Green Gage, to approach which in 
quality, is usually deemed high merit. 
Skin greenish yellow, spotted on the 
sunny side with violet and crimson. 
Flesh firm, adhering to the stone. The 
tree is of vigorous habit, and has proved 
well suited to the middle States." — 
Rural Reg. 

Imperial Gage, (Prince's Imperial.) 
(Fig. 133.) " This is a seedling from 
the Green Gage, raised by the late Mr. 
Prince, of Flushing, New York, and 
has received much praise. The tree is 
of robust habit; fruit larger than the 
Green Gage, and of good, quality. Ken- 




rick cites a single tree at Charlestown, 
Mass., the fruit of which, for several 
successive years, sold for $40 to $50. 
Downing says it is particularly fitted for 
light dry soils, and that on heavy lands 
it is often insipid. 

" Skin light green, when fully ma- 
tured inclining to yellow, with a profu- 
sion of bloom. Flesh green, and of a 
sprightly flavour. Ripens at Philadel- 
phia late in August. It is a liberal 
bearer, and may be safely recommended 
as a desirable variety." — Rural Reg. 

Fig. 134. 




Green Gage, of the English and 
American gardens. (Fig. 134.) There 
is no plum better known (and none 
more worthy of being known) than the 
Green Gage, which derived its name 



PLU 



PLU 



from a family of the name of Gage who 
obtained it in France, where it is popu- 
larly termed the Reine Claude, (or 
Queen Claude,) after the wife of Francis 
I. Those qualified to give an opinion 
on the subject, have declared it to be 



the best plum known in England. The 
size is below medium. Skin green, 
inclining to yellow when fully ripe, and 
occasionally marbled with red. Ripe 
middle of August. 



Fig. 136. 




Jefferson. (Fig. 135.) This excel- 
lent variety is the product of the late 
Judge Buel of Albany, so long and so 
favourably associated with the " Culti- 
vator." Mr. Downing, whose opinion 
has great weight with us, says, if he 
were asked which he thought the most 
desirable and the most beautiful of all 
dessert plums, he should undoubtedly 
give the name of this new variety. He 
thinks it, when fully ripe, nearly if not 
quite equal in flavour to the Green Gage 
—"it is as large as the Washington, 
more richly and deeply coloured, being 
dark yellow, uniformly and handsomely 
marked with a fine ruddy cheek. It is 
about ten days or a fortnight later than 
the Washington, ripening the last of Au- 
gust, when ithas the rare quality of hang- 
ing long on the tree, gradually improv- 
ing in flavour." — "Fruits of America." 

Magnum Bonum, {Yellow Egg.) (Fig. 



136.) These are the two popular names 
for a variety very generally cultivated 
in France and England, and known to 
a considerable extent in the gardens of 
our sea-board. It is an attractive variety, 
and though by no means equal in point 
of quality to many less prepossessing, 
is nevertheless in high repute. Skin 
yellow. Flesh closely united to the 
stone, sub-acid until dead ripe, when 
the flavour is highest. It is an excel- 
lent preserving plum — its large size 
adding to its merit in that particular. 

Propagation by Seed. — This mode is 
adopted for raising stocks and new 
varieties. For the latter purpose cross- 
impregnation has been successively 
pursued, attention being paid to the 
suggestions offered under the title Hy- 
bridizing. Sow in October, in rich 
light loam, in drills twelve inches apart 
and two inches deep, when two-year 



PLU 



469 



PLU 



old buds may be taken from them and 
inserted on older trees early, to ascer- 
tain the value of the fruit. At two years 
old they are also fit to be stocks for 
budding or grafting. 

Grafting and Budding. — The former 
is to be done in July or March, and the 
latter in July or August. 

Suckers. — Damsons and bullaces are 
usually raised in this mode, without 
grafting or budding. 

Layers of the young wood may be 
made at any time between November 
and March. In twelve months they are 
established, and may be separated from 
the parent. 

" Planting and Culture. — The season 
for planting all the sorts of plum-trees, 
is any time in open weather, from the 
fall of the leaf until the approach of 
vegetation in spring. 

" The trees of all the varieties will 
succeed in any common soil, and in any 
open exposure. Those for walls should 
generally have an east or southwest 
wall for some of the choicest sorts ; and 
some may also be planted against a 
north wall, to furnish some late fruit ; 
and those for espaliers may be planted 
around any of the open quarters, as 
may also the standards. 

" Plant the wall and espalier trees 
eighteen feet distance ; though if the 
walls, &c, are rather low, twenty feet 
distance will be requisite, that, in de- 
fault of a proper height of walling, there 
may be more scope to train the branches 
horizontally. If the trees thus planted 
are quite young, being only of one 
year's shoot from the grafting or bud- 
ding, they should, in March, be headed 
down to four or five eyes, to force out 
lower horizontals in the ensuing sum- 
mer, which, according as they advance 
in length, train them in horizontally at 
full length, unless you would forward a 
further supply of lower branches as fast 
as possible, when you may pinch the 
young shoot, in May, down to a few 
eyes. Each will throw out several late- 
rals the same year, which train also 
horizontally at full length during the 
summer's growth; and in winter pruning 
cut not only any fore-right and back 
shoots, but train in all the regular ones 
at full length; for the branches of these 
trees must be shortened only occasion- 
ally, to procure wood to fill vacancies; 
because the branches always form fruit 
spurs first towards their extreme parts. 



I which would be destroyed by shorten- 
ing. So that, after having shortened 
' the first and second year's shoots occa- 
sionally as above, and thereby procured 
a proper set of lower horizontals, to 
give the head its first form, let the 
whole then be trained in entire, about 
four, five, or six inches asunder; and, 
according as the trees shoot every sum- 
mer, train in a necessary supply of the 
regular shoots to fill the wall, &c. ; at 
the same time retrench superfluities and 
irregular wood — still at full length at 
the above distance. For all plums bear 
principally upon spurs half an inch or 
an inch long, arising from the sides of 
the branches, from one or two to many 
years old. When trained, always at 
full length; but, if shortened, they 
would throw out a multiplicity of use- 
less wood, and hardly any fruit-spurs. 

" The wall and espalier plum-trees 
should be pruned every summer and 
winter. 

" Standard plum-trees may be trained 
both as full standards and half-stand- 
ards, budding or grafting the former 
six feet high, and the latter only three 
or four; or both kinds may be worked 
low. in the stock, and the first shoot 
trained to those heights for a stem, 
then let them branch away and form a 
head. These standards may be planted 
both in the garden and orchard, at from 
about twenty to thirty feet distance." — ■ 
Abercrombie. 

Forcing. — To obtain an early crop, 
in March or April, trees planted in 
large tubs are to be preferred ; but for 
the general crop, in May or June, the 
trees are best planted in the borders of 
the stove. Mr. Loudon says that : — 

" For a crop to ripen in the second 
week in May, the house must be co- 
vered in early in January, commencing 
with a temperature of 42° of Fahrenheit 
for the first fortnight; after which the 
heat may be gradually raised to 52°, at 
which it may continue until the flowers 
make their appearance. During this 
time frequent changes of air must be 
admitted to strengthen the bloom ; and 
the crop will be rendered more certain 
by keeping the trees in blossom, as long 
as possible, by light shading where ne- 
cessary ; and when the petals begin to 
fall, gentle dews may be raised from the 
surface of the mould. As the fruit 
forms, the thermometer should be raised 
to 58°. This must be done gradually, 



PLU 



470 

— • — 



POI 



as the consequence of a rapid rise may 
be a casting of the fruit. During the 
progress of shooting great care must be 
taken against sudden variations of the 
temperature, water very sparingly used, 
and every check, by fumigation, be 
given to the various insects, which will 
be particularly active at this period. 

" When the fruit is safely stoned, a 
moderate dressing of rotten manure 
may be spread on the surface of the 
mould, the heat increased to 68°, and 
a more liberal supply of water given. 

" After the fruit has obtained a full 
size, and approaches maturity, air may 
be freely admitted, and water should 
be given in less quantities, and finally 
discontinued a few days before gather- 
ing." — Enc. Gard. 

PLUMBAGO. Eleven species. 
Some hardy herbaceous, others stove 
and green-house evergreen shrubs and 
climbers. P. capensis produces a good 
effect when plunged or planted out on 
a rich border during summer. P. rhom- 
bifolia is a stove annual ; this is propa- 
gated by seed, the others by cuttings, 
and all in common soil. 

PLUMIERIA. Twenty-two species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs and trees. 
Large cuttings, slightly dried. Sandy 
loam, and a little peat. 

POCOCKIA cretica. Hardy annual. 
Seed. Common soil. 

PODALYRIA. Thirteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

PODANTHE. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings in spring, 
slightly dried. Sandy loam and lime 
rubbish. 

PODANTHUS mitiqui. Hardy ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

POD-FERN. Ellobocarpus. 

PODOCARPUS. Eleven spe- 
cies. Green-house and stove evergreen 
trees. P. chinensis, P. macrophyllus, P. 
nur.ifer, and P. verticillatus, are quite 
hardy, if grown in a light-soiled border, 
sheltered from the north and east, and 
well drained. Cuttings. Light loam, 
and a little peat. 

PODOLEPJS. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Seed and division. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

PODOLOBIUM. Five species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. P. 
scandens is a climber. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PODOPTERUS mexicanus. Green- 



house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

PODOSPERMUM. Nine species. 
Hardy herbaceous, biennial, and an- 
nual. The first is increased by divi- 
sion, and all by seed. Common soil. 

PCECILOCAMPA populi. December 
Moth, is found in this month in orchards 
sticking against the trunks of trees. 
The wings are about an inch and a 
quarter broad, and of a chestnut brown 
in colour: on the upper pair there is a 
pair of incurved bands, and a wavy one 
near the centre ; the wings have also a 
grayish or brownish fringe. The lower 
pair are brown. The caterpillar is 
ashy gray at the sides, and rather dark- 
er on the back, and it has four red 
spots on each segment ; at first these 
caterpillars are gregarious, under a 
silken tent, from which they issue at 
night to feed, but after a little time they 
become solitary. They feed on various 
kinds of fruit trees in the early part of 
the summer, and when full grown, they 
spin a silken case in which they change 
the pupae. The December Moth is not 
one of the most injurious to fruit trees, 
but still, in localities where it is found 
in tolerable abundance, the caterpillars 
do considerable damage to the leaves. 
Hand picking when the caterpillars are 
living in society, is the best means of 
diminishing them. — Gard. Chron. 

POET'S CASSIA. Osyris. 

POGONIA. Three species. Hardy 
orchids. Offsets. Sandy peat. 

POGOSTEMON plectranthoides. 
Stove evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
tings. Rich sandy loam. 

POINCIANA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Seed and cuttings. 
Rich light soil. 

POINSETTIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings of previ- 
ous year's shoots, slightly dried. Rich 
sandy loam. Of these plants the most 
beautiful is P. pulclierrina. On the 
cultivation of this we have the follow- 
ing directions from Mr. W. Tillery, the 
gardener at Welbeck: — 

" Raise the plants from single eyes, 
(like vines,) from the hard ripened wood 
of last year, and re-pot them in sandy 
loam and leaf-mould ; keeping them in 
a cucumber-frame, and then in a low 
stove, as near the glass as possible. 
They do pretty near the glass and not 
drawn, and then put into the stove in 
September, watering freely when in 



POI 



471 



POI 



flower. Old plants that have been cut 
down, never have the floral leaves as 
large as a young plant raised from eyes 
or cuttings with one stem." 

The following additional instructions 
are given by Mr. D. Beaton, gardener 
to Sir W. Middleton, at Shrubland : — 

" As an additional means of improv- 
ing the size of the flowers, a strong 
healthy plant, not less than two years 
old, should be kept to propagate from 
by eyes. This plant should be kept in 
the stove all summer, encouraged dur- 
ing its growth by all safe stimuli, and 
have only two or three of its strongest 
shoots allowed to remain. When these 
shoots have nearly done growing, cut 
off their tops, that the plant may throw 
all the strength of its vital energies into 
those eyes destined for your next year's 
plants. 

" When the young wood ripens, al- 
low the plant to go gradually to rest, 
and when you cease watering it, place 
it in a dry part of the stove; should it 
offer to vegetate too soon in spring, 
remove it to a dry place in the green- 
house to keep it back. About the be- 
ginning or middle of April will be quite 
time enough to begin to propagate it. 
At that time take the most prominent 
eyes from the ripest portion of the 
branches. 

" Cut the old plant down to the form- 
er year's wood, shake off all the soil 
from its roots, cut away all decayed 
roots, and shorten the strongest ones; 
repot it in as small a pot as you can put 
its roots into, and place it in bottom 
heat; treat it with due care as in the 
former season, and for the same pur- 
pose." — Gard. Chron. 

Aphelandra cristata maybe managed 
the same way, and no plant will more 
amply repay the care and attention be- 
stowed on it. 

POIRETIA scandens. Stove ever- 
green climber. Young cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

POISON-BULB. Brunsvigia toxica- 
ria, and Crinurn asiaticum. 

POISON-NUT. Strychnos nux 
vomica. 

POISON-OAK. Rhus toxicodendron. 

POISONOUS PLANTS. Gardeners 
should be much more careful than they 
usually are in handling the plants they 
cultivate, for many of them have deadly 
qualities. M. Neumann, chief gardener 
of the Paris Jardin des Plantes, says 



that pruning knives and hands washed 
in a tank after they have been em- 
ployed upon some of the exotics, will 
destroy the fish it contains. Hippo- 
mane biglandulosa, the Manchineel, 
the Tanghin, Sapium laurocerasus, and 
Camocladia dentata, are equally dele- 
terious to man. Gardeners who have 
merely rubbed the leaves of the latter 
between their fingers, have had swol- 
len bodies and temporary blindness. 
Wounds from pruning knives smeared 
with the juices of such plants, are like 
those from poisoned arrows. 

POISONS. Soils containing obnox- 
ious ingredients are certain introducers 
of disease and premature death. An 
excess of oxide of iron, as when the 
roots of the apple and pear get into an 
irony red gravelly subsoil , always causes 
canker to supervene. In the neighbour- 
hood of copper-smelting furnaces, not 
only are cattle subjected to swollen 
joints and other unusual diseases, caus- 
ing decrepitude and death, but the 
plants also around are subject to sud- 
den visitations, to irregular growths, 
and to unwarned destruction; and a 
crop once vigorous will suddenly with- 
er as if swept over by a blast. There 
is no doubt of this arising from the salts 
of copper, which impregnate the soil 
irregularly, as the winds may have 
borne them sublimed from the furnaces, 
and the experiments of Sennebier have 
shown that of all salts those of copper 
are the most fatal to plants. That they 
can be poisoned, and by many of those 
substances, narcotic as well as corro- 
sive, which are fatal to animals, has 
been shown by the experiments of M. 
F. Marcet. 

The metallic poisons being absorbed, 
are conveyed to the different parts of 
the plant, and alter or destroy its tissue. 
The vegetable poisons, such as opium, 
strychnia, prussic acid, belladonna, al- 
cohol, and oxalic acid, which act fatally 
upon the nervous system of animals, 
also cause the death of plants. 

The poisonous substance is absorbed 
into the plant's system, and proves in- 
jurious when merely applied to its 
branches or stem, almost as much as 
if placed in contact with the roots. 
Ulcerations and canker are exasperated 
if lime be put upon the wounds, and 
when Dr. Hales made a golden rennet 
apple absorb a quart of camphorated 
spirits of wine through one of its 



POI 



472 



POL 



branches, one-half of the tree was de- 
stroyed. — Trine, of Gardening. 

POIVREA. Six species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

POLANISIA. Five species. Hardy 
annuals. Seed. Sheltered, light rich 
loam. 

POLEMONIUM. Twelve species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division. Light 
loam. 

POLIANTHES. Tuberose. Two 
species. Green-house bulbs. Bulbs 
imported. Sandy loam and leaf-mould. 

POLYANTHUS. Primula vulgaris, 
var. polyantha. A florist's flower much 
esteemed in England ; in the United 
States but little attention has been paid 
to it. 

Varieties. — Mr. Slater, florist, of 
Manchester, gives the following lists: — 

FIRST CLASS. 

Barrow's Dutchess of Sutherland. 
Buck's George the Fourth. 
Bullock's Lancer. 
Clegg's Lord Crewe, alias George 

Canning. 
Collier's Princess Royal. 
Cox's Regent. 
Crownshaw's Invincible. 
Eckersley's Jolly Dragoon. 
Gibbon's Sovereign. 
General Bolivar. 
Gond's Independent. 
Hetcher's Defiance. 
Hilton's President. 
Hufton's Earl Grey, alias Clegg's Lord 

John Russell. 
Hufton's Lord Rancliffe, alias Clegg's 

Prince of Orange, and Clegg's Golden 

Hero. 
Hufton's Lord Lincoln. 
Maude's Beauty of England. 
Nicholson's Bang Europe. 
Ollier's Beauty of Over. 
Pearson's Alexander. 
Saunders's Cheshire Favourite. 
Wood's Espartero. 

SECOND CLASS. 

Beauty of Coven. 
Buckley's Squire Starkie. 
Burnard's Formosa. 
Dew's Britannia. 
Faulkner's Black Prince. 
Fillingham's Tantarara. 
Queen's Earl Fitzwilliam. 
Hepvvorth's Elizabeth. 
Jolly Sailor. 



Nicholson's Ranger. 

Nonsuch. 

King. 



Sir Sidney Smith. 
Telegraph (Head's). ^ 
Turner's Emperor Buonaparte. 
Princess. 



Timm's Defiance and Yorkshire Re- 
gent. 

Characteristics of Excellence, are 
thus enumerated by Dr. Lindley : — 

" The pip of the Polyanthus should 
be large, and the nearer the outline 
approaches a circle the better ; it 
should be free from any unevenness, 
and lie perfectly flat; the edge must be 
smooth, and the divisions in the corolla, 
which form it into heart-shaped seg- 
ments, should reach the eye but not 
cut into it. The segments should be 
well rounded, making the divisions be- 
tween them small and shallow. The 
tube must be of a fine yellow, round, 
clearly defined, well filled with an- 
thers, and terminating in a narrow 
ridge raised slightly above the surface 
of the eye. 

" The eye should be of a bright rich 
yellow colour, of a uniform width 
round the tube. The ground colour 
must be entire, free from specks or 
blemishes, of a dark or rich crimson, 
not paler at the edges, and uniform in 
every division. The edge should form 
a narrow well defined rim of yellow, 
perfectly regular, bordering each seg- 
ment, and passing down the centre of 
each division to the eye. 

" It is essential that the edge and 
the eye be of a uniform yellow. These 
qualities in the pips, and the flowers 
forming a compact truss, standing well 
above the foliage on a firm upright 
stem, will constitute perfection in the 
polyanthus." — Gard. Chron. 

Propagation by Seed. — Dr. Lindley 
says, " during February sow in pots in 
a light and moderately rich soil, and 
give the seed, when sown, a slight 
covering of sifted soil; the pans should 
then be placed under hand-glasses. It 

better to raise them without bottom- 
heat, as the young plants are apt to 
damp off. As soon as the seeds begin 
to vegetate, air should be given ; and 
as they increase in size, care must be 
taken to keep away slugs. When the 
sun has much power, it will be advisa- 
ble to remove the pans to an east or 
north aspect, to prevent them from be- 



POL 



473 



PON 



coming too dry. In August they will 
be ready for transplanting." — Gard. 
Chron. 

General Culture.— This is detailed 
by that most successful floriculturist, 
Dr. Horner, of Hull, and from his di- 
rections are taken the following ex- 
tracts : — 

" Situation and Soil. — A free and 
pure air is necessary for its vigorous 
growth. It should aiway be grown in 
a bed or open border, and in one which 
has an eastern aspect. It is most im- 
patient of heat and drought, but de- 
lights in a cool, or rather moist and 
shaded locality, where it can enjoy 
about two hours of the morning sun. It 
thrives best in a retentive soil from a 
rich old pasture, to which has been 
added about the sixth part of cow 
manure, two or three years old, and 
the same quantity of leaf-mould. The 
natural soil of the garden should be 
dug out to the depth of a foot, and the 
space filled up with the above, three 
months previously to planting them, 
that the bed may have become settled 
before it is required for the plants. 

" Planting. — The proper time is at 
the end of July, not later. Shorten the 
main or tap-root, as it is called, to 
within about half an inch of the leaves, 
that a few of the vigorous young fibrous 
roots only may be retained; with a 
small trowel make a hole in the soil 
sufficiently deep that the plant may 
have the very crown of the main root 
covered at least one inch with the soil. 

" It is of the utmost importance that 
the polyanthus should be thus deep 
set ; for the young roots always ema- 
nate from the very top of the main 
root, and throw themselves out for the 
most part, if a somewhat curved or hori- 
zontal method of planting is adopted. 

" Having well watered the bed, the 
plants require no more care whatever, 
except being kept clean. They should 
be left entirely without covering or pro- 
tection in the winter. 

"Blooming, fyc. — In spring, just 
when the pips are about to expand, if 
wanted for the purpose of exhibition, 
or to ornament the stage or cool green- 
house, they may be taken up with a 
moderateJy-sized ball of earth, and put 
into common auricula pots, for they 
bear this removal without the slightest 
injury or apparent check. Water must 
now be supplied rather freely, and 



should occasionally be sprinkled over 
the foliage (avoiding the flowers) ; and 
the smaller and central pips should be 
thinned out, that the truss or umbel of 
flowers may have a uniform and un- 
crowded appearance. When the bloom 
is over, the plants should be turned out 
of their . pots into the border from 
whence they were taken ; here they 
must remain without further care, ex- 
cept an occasional watering, till the 
end of July, when they should be taken 
up, the soil crumbled from their roots, 
and those which present two or more 
heads divided gently with the fingers, 
and prepared and planted as before de- 
scribed." — Gard. Chron. 

POLYBOTRYL Three species. 
Stove ferns. Division and seed. Sandy 
peat and turf. 

POLYGALA. Forty-four species. 
Herbaceous, shrubby, and annual. All 
hardy or green-house, except the stove 
annuals, P.paniculata and P.umbellata. 
Division, cuttings or seed. Sandy peat 
and a little loam. 

POLYGONATUM. Thirteen species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
Light rich loam. 

POLYGONUM. Forty-eight species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous or annual 
plants, some being aquatics and trailers. 
A few require the shelter of the green- 
house. Seed and division. Light rich 
loam. 

POLYPODIUM. Sixty-six species. 
Chiefly stove ferns. Division and seed. 
Light loam and peat. 

POLYPODY. Polypodium. 

POLYPTERIS integrifolia. Hardy 
annual. Seed. Light rich loam. 

POLYSPORA axillaris. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Unripe cuttings. Light 
loam and peat. 

POLYSTACHYA. Seven species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood and 
moss. 

POMADERRIS. Sixteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

POMAX hirta. Green-house ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat and 
loam. 

POMBALIA ituba. Stove herbaceous. 
Seed and young cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

POMEGRANATE. Punica. 

POMPION. See Gourd. 

PONCELETIA sprengeiloides. 



PON 



474 

— ♦ — 



PON 



Green-house evergreen shrub. Young 
cuttings. Sandy peat. 

PONDS, are reservoirs of water dug 
out of the soil, and made retentive by 
puddling with clay their bottoms and 
sides. 

Puddling is necessary in almost all 
instances and the mode of proceeding 
is thus detailed by Mr. Marnock, in the 
United Gardeners' Journal. When the 
excavacation is formed, or partially so, 
the bottom puddle near the outer edge 
is formed, and upon this is raised the 
upright or side puddle ; and as this 
proceeds the ordinary clay or earth is 
raised at the same time, and by this 
means the upright puddle is retained in 
itsplace; and ultimately the sides, being 
formed in a sloping direction, admit of 
being covered with gravel or sand, and 
may be walked upon, or stakes may be 
driven to a considerable depth without 
reaching the .puddle or in any way in- 
juring it; this can never be the case if 
the puddle, as is sometimes done, be 
laid upon the sloping side of the pond. 
The sides may slope rapidly, or the re- 
verse : if the slope be considerable, 
sand or gravel to give a clean appear- 
ance will be the more likely to be re- 
tained upon the facing; plants can be 
more easily fixed and cultivated; gold- 
fish also find in these shallow gravelly 



and marked out, it will then be neces- 
sary to form a second or outer mark, 
indicating the space required for the 
wall or side puddle, and about three 
feet is the proper space to allow for 
this — the puddle requiring about two 
feet, and the facing which requires to 
be laid upon the puddle ought to be 
about a foot more, making together 
three feet. Ponds may be made very 
ornamental, and for suitable suggestions 
on this point, see Water. 

PONGAMIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

PONTEDERA. Seven species. 
Stove aquatics, except the hardy P. 
ccerulea. Division. Rich light loam 
in water. 

PONTHIEVA. Two species. Stove 
orchids. Division. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

PONTIA. A genus of butterflies of 
which the following one is most ob- 
noxious to the gardener: — 

P. brassicce, the large white cabbage 
butterfly is thus described by Mr. Kol- 
lar : — « The wings are white ; the up- 
per wings with broad black tips, and 
the female has two black spots on the 
middle. The under side of the under 
wings is light yellow. Breadth, when 
expanded, two inches. It appears from 



parts under the leaves of the plants j May to October. The caterpillar 



suitable places to deposit their spawn 
and without this they are seldom found 
to breed. Ponds made in this way may 
be of any convenient size, from a couple 
of yards upwards to as many acres. 
The following is the section of a pond 

Fig. 137. 




thus formed : a indicates the surface of 
the ground at the edge of the water; 
b, the puddle; c,the facing to preserve 
the puddle from injury; d, the water; 
e, the surface of the latter ; and /, the 
ordinary bottom. When a small pond 
of this kind is to be made, and the ex- 



bluish-green, thinly haired, and sprin- 
kled with black dots, having a yellow 
stripe on the back, and the same on the 
sides. These caterpillars are found, 
throughout the summer and autumn, 
on all the sorts of cabbage, on horse- 
radish, radishes, mustard, and similar 
plants, as well as on water -cresses. 
The pupae are yellowish-green, with 
black dots, with a point on the head, 
and five on the back. The best way to 
destroy them is picking off and killing 
the caterpillars, as well as the pupae, 
as far as it is possible; the latter are 
found attached to adjacent trees, hedges, 
and walls. But care must be taken not 
to destroy those pupae which have a 
brown appearance; because they are 
full of the larvae of ichneumons, and 
other allied parasites, which are the 
great scourge of these caterpillars." — 
Kollar. 

P. rapes. Small White Cabbage But- 
terfly. The following extracts are from 
the same good authority : — " This But- 



tent of the surface is determined upon I terfly resembles the foregoing, but 



POP 



475 

— ♦ — 



POT 



one half smaller; and the black tinge 
at the points of the uper wings is faint- 
er, and not visible on the outer edge. 
The time of appearance is the same as 
of the former. 

" The caterpillar is of a dull green, 
with fine white minute hairs, a yellow 
stripe on the back, and yellow spots on 
the sides, on a pale ground. In some 
years it is very injurious to the cabbage 
and turnip plants ; it also infests the 
mignionette, which it strips entirely of 
its leaves. It is very difficult to be dis- 
covered from its colour. The pupa is 
yellowish or greenish-gray, with three 
yellow stripes. Like the former kind, 
it is found attached to trees, hedges," 
&c. — Kollar. 

POPLAR. Populus. 

POPPY. Papaver. 

POPULUS. Poplar. Fifteen species, 
and many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
trees. Cuttings and layers. Light loam, 
near flowing water. 

PORANA volubilis. Stove evergreen 
twiner. Seed. Loam and peat. 

PORANTHERA ericifolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PORLIERA hygrometrica. 
evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings, 
and peat. 

PORTHESIA. See Bombyx. 

PORTLANDIA. Two species, 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, 
loam and peat. 

PORTUGAL LAUREL. Cerasus lu- 
sitanica. This is a beautiful evergreen 
shrub, not sufficiently hardy to with- 
stand the winters of the middle states — 
farther south it would be highly useful 
as a decoration to the garden and lawn 
during winter. 

PORTULACA. Purslane. Fifteen 
species. Stove, green-house, and hardy 
annuals. Seed. Light loam. P.grandi- 
flora is a tuberous perennial, increased 
by offsets. See Purslane. 

PORTULACARIA afra. African 
Purslane Tree. Green-house evergreen 
shrub. Young cuttings. Sandy loam, 
well drained. 

POSOQUERIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

POTATO. Solarium tuberosum 
Varieties, for forcing or first crop, in 
the open ground : — Walnut-leaved Kid- 
ney, earliest ; Broughton Dwarf; Early 
Warwick; Ash-leaved Kidney, white, 



Stove 
Loam 



Stove 
Sandy 



best; Soden's Early Oxford; Fox's 
Seedling, perhaps the best; Early 
Manly; Early Mule. 

Earliest for general cultivation : — 
Early Kidney; Nonsuch; Early Shaw; 
Gold Finder ; Taylor's Forty-fold. 

For main crops, the varieties are 
ranged in this class, according to their 
forwardness in ripening : — 

Early Champion ; Leathercoat ; Ox 
Noble ; Red Nose Kidney, very good ; 
Large Kidney ; Irish Cup ; Bread Fruit, 
the best; Red Streak, or Lancashire 
Pink Eye; Black Skin; Purple; Red 
Apple ; Rough Red. — All these are 
English varieties. At Philadelphia, 
where we write, but two sorts are 
extensively grown, viz., Mercer and 
Foxite; the former has had great popu- 
larity for both quality and product — 
the latter, though not productive, is the 
best we have ever seen grown in this 
country. 

Soil and Situation. — No inhabitant of 
the garden varies more in quality in 
different gardens than the potato ; for a 
variety will have a strong unpleasant 
flavour in one soil, that has a sweet 
agreeable one in another. In a heavy 
wet soil, or a rank black loam, though 
the crop is often fine and abundant, it 
is scarcely ever palatable. SiJicious 
soils, even approaching to gravel, 
though in these last the tubers are 
usually corroded or scabby, are always 
to be planted in preference to the above. 
A dry, friable, fresh, and moderately 
rich soil, is unquestionably the best for 
every variety of" the potato ; and for the 
earliest crop, it may be with advantage 
more silicious than for the main ones. 

The black-skinned and rough-red, 
thrive better than any other in moist 
strong cold soils. 

If manure is necessary, whatever 
may be the one employed, it is better 
spread regularly over the surface pre- 
vious to digging, than put into the holes 
with the sets, or spread in the trench 
when they are so planted. 

Stable dung is perhaps the best of all 
factitious manures; sea-weed is a very 
beneficial addition to the soil ; and so 
is salt. 

Coal-ashes and sea-sand are applied 
with great benefit to retentive soils. 
The situation must always be open. 

Time and Modes of Propagation. — It 
is propagated in general by the tubers, 
though the shoots arising from thence, 



POT 



476 

— ♦— 



POT 



and layers of the stalks, may be em- 
ployed. New varieties are raised from 
seed. 

Planting in the open ground must be 
done with reference to the latitude in 
which we live — in Pennsylvania, for in- 
stance, those intended for the earliest 
crop may be planted in March; for a 
succession, in April ; and for the main 
winter supply, in May. Formerly large 
crops were produced from plantations 
made in July, but latterly they have not 
succeeded. 

Sets. — The next point for considera- 
tion is the preparation of the sets. Some 
gardeners recommend the largest pota- 
toes to be planted whole; others, that 
they be sliced into pieces containing 
two or three eyes ; a third set, to cut 
the large tubers directly in half; a 
fourth, the employment of the shoots 
only, which are thrown out if potatoes 
are kept in a warm damp situation ; and 
a fifth, that merely the parings be em- 
ployed. Cuttings of the stalks, five or 
six inches in length, or rooted suckers, 
will be productive, if planted during 
showery weather, in May or June ; and 
during this last month, or early in July, 
it may be propagated by layers, which 
are formed by pegging down the young 
stalks when about twelve inches long, 
they being covered three inches thick 
with mould at a joint. These three 
last modes are practised more from 
curiosity than utility, whilst at the same 
time, none of the first five mentioned 
plans can be individually followed to 
advantage without modification. For 
the main crops, it is evident from ex- 
periment that moderate sized whole 
potatoes are the best, from which all 
but two eyes have been removed ; but 
especially having the crown, which is a 
congery of small eyes, first removed ; 
for from these proceed little spindled 
stalks, which are comparatively worth- 
less, and injure the main stem. 

For the early crops almost the very 
contrary to the above is the most ad- 
vantageous to be practised. The set 
should have the crown-eye, which is 
one growing in the centre of the con- 
gery of small ones above mentioned, 
preserved. Some potatoes have two 
such eyes, but the generality only one. 
This is always the most prompt to ve- 
getate, and if not known by this de- 
scription, may be evinced by placing 
two or three potatoes in a pan of moist 



earth near the fire. If the earth is kept 
moist, the crown-eye will be in a state 
of vegetation in five or six days. 

To obtain early crops, where tubers 
are rapidly formed, large sets must be 
employed. In these one or two eyes 
at most should be allowed to remain. 
If the sets are placed with their lead- 
ing buds upwards, few and very strong 
early steins will be produced; but, if 
the position is reversed, many weak 
and later shoots will arise, and not only 
the earliness but the quality of the pro- 
duce be depreciated. For the earliest 
crops there are likewise several modes 
of assisting the forward vegetation of 
the sets. These should be prepared 
by removing every eye but one or two ; 
and being placed in a layer in a warm 
room, where air and light can be freely 
admitted, with a covering of straw, 
they soon emit shoots, which must be 
strengthened by exposure to the air and 
light as much as possible, by taking off" 
the cover without injuring them. Dur- 
ing cold weather, and at night, it must 
always be removed : the leaves soon 
become green and tolerably hardy. In 
early spring they are planted out, the 
leaves being left just above the surface, 
and a covering of litter afforded every 
night until the danger of frost is passed. 

The only modification of this plan 
that is adopted in Cheshire, where they 
are celebrated for the early production 
of potatoes, is, that they employ chaff 
or sand for a covering instead of straw. 

Planting. — In garden culture the 
most preferable mode of inserting them 
is with the dibble, in rows ; for the 
early crops twelve inches apart each 
way, and for the main ones eighteen 
inches. The sets should be placed six 
inches beneath the surface. The po- 
tato-dibble is the best instrument that 
can be employed ; the earth being after- 
wards raked or struck in with the spade, 
and the soil not trampled upon but 
planted as sufficient is dug for receiving 
a row. 

The compartment may be laid out 
level and undivided if the soil is light ; 
but if heavy soil is necessarily em- 
ployed, it is best disposed in beds six 
or eight feet wide. If the staple of the 
soil be good throughout, the alleys may 
be two feet wide and dug deep, other- 
wise they must be made broader, and 
only one spit taken out, the earth re- 
moved being employed to raise the 



POT 



477 

— ♦ — 



POT 



beds, which should not be more than 
four parallel ridges, and the sets in- 
serted along their summits. 

Hoeing. — As soon as the plants are 
well to be distinguished, they should be 
perfectly freed from weeds ; and of the 
early crops the earth drawn round each 
plant, so as to form a cup as a shelter 
from the cold winds, which are their 
chief enemy at that season. But the 
main crops should not be earthed up, 
for earthing up diminishes the crop one 
fourth. Throughout their growth they 
should be kept perfectly clear of weeds. 

It is very injurious to mow off the 
tops of the plants, as is sometimes re- 
commended. The foliage ought to be 
kept as uninjured as possible, unless, 
as sometimes occurs on fresh ground, 
the plants are of gigantic luxuriance, 
and even then the stems should be only 
moderately shortened. It is, however, 
of considerable advantage to remove 
the fruit-stalks and immature flowers as 
soon as they appear, unless the stems 
are very luxuriant. A potato plant 
continues to form tubers until the 
flowers appear, after which it is em- 
ployed in ripening those already formed. 

The very earliest crops will be in 
production in July, or perhaps towards 
the end of June, and may thence be 
taken up as wanted until October, at 
the close of which month, or during 
November, they may be entirely dug up 
and stored. In storing, the best mode 
is to place them in layers, alternately 
with dry coal-ashes, in a shed. But a 
still better plan, usually, is to allow 
them to remain where grown, moulding 
the rows over six inches deep, and 
taking them up a week before wanted. 
The best instrument with which they 
can be dug up is a three-flat-pronged 
fork, each row being cleared regularly 
away. 

The tubers should be sorted at the 
time of taking them up ; for, as the 
largest keep the best, they alone should 
be stored, whilst the smaller ones are 
first made use of. The most common 
mode of preserving them, throughout 
the winter, is in heaps or clamps some- 
times called pyeing. The heaps are 
laid in pyramidal form on a bed of straw, 
and enveloped with a covering, six or 
eight inches thick, of the same ma- 
terial, laid even as in thatching, and the 
whole inclosed with earth, in a conical 
form, a foot thick, taken from a trench 



dug round the heap, and well smooth- 
ened with the back of the spade. 

Potatoes should not be stored until 
perfectly dry, nor unless free from 
earth, refuse, and wounded tubers. It 
is a good practice to keep a hole open 
on four different sides of the heap, 
entirely through the earth and straw, 
for a week or two after the heap is 
formed ; for in proportion to its size it 
always ferments, and these orifices 
allow the escape of the vapours and 
perfect the drying. 

To raise Varieties. — A variety of the 
potato is generally considered to con- 
tinue about fourteen years in perfection, 
after which period it gradually loses its 
good qualities, becoming of inferior 
flavour and unproductive ; fresh va- 
rieties must, therefore, be occasionally 
raised from seed. The berries, or ap- 
ples, of the old stock, having hung in a 
warm room throughout the winter, the 
seed must be obtained from them by 
washing away the pulp during February. 
This is thoroughly dried and kept until 
April, and then sown in drills about 
half an inch deep and six inches apart, 
in a rich light soil. The plants are 
weeded, and earth drawn up to their 
stems, when an inch in height: as soon 
as this has increased to three inches 
they are moved into a similar soil, in 
rows, sixteen inches apart each way, 
and during their future growth earthed 
up two or three times. Being finally 
taken up, in the course of October, they 
must be preserved until the following 
spring, to be then replanted and treated 
as for store crops. 

Some gardeners sow in a moderate 
hot-bed, very thin, in drills the same 
depth as above, and nine inches apart. 
Water is frequently and plentifully 
poured between the rows, and earth 
drawn about the stems of the seedlings 
until they are a few inches in height. 
They are then transplanted into rows, 
water given, and earthing performed as 
usual. The only additional advantage 
of this plan is, that as the seed can be 
sown earlier, the tubers attain a rather 
larger size the first year. 

It is to be remarked, that the tubers 
of every seedling should be kept sepa- 
rate, as scarcely two will be of a similar 
habit and quality, whilst many will be 
comparatively worthless, and but few 
of particular excellence. If the seed 
is obtained from a red potato that flow- 



POT 



478 



POT 



ered in the neigbourhood of a white- 
tubered variety, the seedlings, in all 
probability, will in part resemble both 
their parents ; but seldom or never does 
a seedling resemble exactly the original 
stock. At all events, only such should 
be preserved as are recommended by 
their superior earliness, size, flavour, or 
fertility. 

The early varieties — if planted on 
little heaps of earth, with a stake in the 
middle, and when the plants are about 
four inches high, being secured to the 
stakes with shreds and nails, and the 
earth washed away from the bases of 
the stems by means of a strong current 
of water, so that the fibrous roots only 
enter the soil — will blossom and perfect 
seed. 

Forcing. — The season for forcing is 
from the close of December to the 
middle of February, in a hot-bed, and 
at the close of this last month on a 
warm border, with the temporary shelter 
of a frame. The hot-bed is only re- 
quired to produce a moderate heat. 
The earth should be six inches deep, 
and the sets planted in rows six or eight 
apart, as the tubers are not required 
to be large. The temperature ought 
never to sink below 65°, nor rise above 
80°. 

The rank steam arising from ferment- 
ing dung is undoubtedly injurious to the 
roots of potatoes ; and to obviate this 
they may be planted in narrow beds, 
and the dung applied in trenches on 
each side ; or all the earth from an old 
cucumber or other hot-bed being re- 
moved, and an inch in depth of fresh 
being added, put on the sets, and cover 
them with four inches of mould. At 
the end of five days the sides of the old 
dung may be cut away in an inward 
slanting direction, about fifteen inches 
from the perpendicular, and strong lin- 
ings of hot dung applied. 

If the tubers are desired to be brought 
to maturity as speedily as possible, in- 
stead of being planted in the earth of 
the bed, each set should be placed in a 
pot about six inches in diameter; but 
the produce in pots is smaller. But 
young potatoes may be obtained in the 
winter, according to the following plan, 
without forcing : — 

Plant some.late kinds, unsprouted, in 
a dry rich border, in July, and again in 
August, in rows two feet apart. They 
will produce new potatoes in October, 



and in succession until April, if covered 
with leaves or straw to exclude frost. 
If old potatoes are placed in dry earth, 
in a shed, during August, they will emit 
young tubers in December. 

Preparation of Sets for forcing. — 
They should be of the early varieties. 
To assist their forward vegetation, plant 
a single potato in each of the pots in- 
tended for forcing, during January. 
Then place in the ground, and protect 
with litter from the frost. This renders 
them very excitable by heat; and, con- 
sequently, when plunged in a hot-bed, 
they vegetate rapidly and generate tu- 
bers. The seed potatoes are equally 
assisted, and with less trouble, if placed 
in a cellar just in contact with each 
other, and as soon as the germs are 
four inches long, are removed to the 
hot-bed. 

Management. — More than one stem 
should never be allowed, otherwise the 
tubers are small, and not more nume- 
rous. 

Water must be given whenever the 
soil appears dry, and in quantity propor- 
tionate to the temperature of the air. 
Linings must be applied as the temper- 
ature declines; and air admitted as 
freely as the temperature of the atmo- 
sphere will allow. Coverings must be 
afforded with the same regard to tem- 
perature. 

From six to seven weeks usually 
elapse between the time of planting and 
the fitness of the tubers for use. The 
average produce from a light soil is 
about five pounds. 

There is another mode of obtaining 
young potatoes, during the winter, 
which is much practised on account of 
its facility ; though, being produced 
without foliage, they are not so fine in 
flavour, are deficient in farina, and are 
otherwise inferior. Old potatoes often 
throw out from their sides young ones, 
early in the spring ; and of this habit 
advantage is taken in obtaining them 
still earlier. Some full-grown and ripe 
tubers, of the ox noble variety, that 
have no appearance of vegetating, must 
be laid alternately with layers of per- 
fectly dry, rich, vegetable mould, four 
inches deep, in pans or boxes, until 
they are filled. These may be placed 
in a thoroughly dry shed, or on a shelf 
in the kitchen. If the layers are con- 
structed in the corner of a shed or cel- 
lar, the produce will be equally good, 



POT 



479 



POT 



though longer in coming to perfection, the ichor to the tubers. These should 



No foliage is produced, the potatoes 
soon are surrounded by numerous young 
ones of moderate size. No water must 
ever be admitted on any account. No- 
tice is to be taken that between three 
and four months elapse between the 
time of forming the layers and the fit- 
ness of the produce for use. Thus if 
made early in September, the crop will 
be ready in the course of December. 
When they are examined, those that 
are fit may be taken off, and the old 
potatoes replaced until the remainder 
are ready. 

Potato Murrain. — By the above 
name was distinguished a moist gan- 
grene which attacked very generally 
the potato crop of England late in the 
summer of the year 1845. July and 
August were unusually wet and cold, 
and early in August there were sharp 
morning frosts. Immediately after, the 
stems began to decay; but the weather 
continuing wet, instead of their decay 
being dry, and attended with the usual 
phenomena of their reduction to mere 
woody fibre, the putrefaction was moist, 
and the smell attendant upon it precise- 
ly that evolved during the decay of dead 
potato haulm partly under water. The 
stem decayed whilst the fibres connect- 
ing the tubers with them were fresh 
and juicy — the putrefaction spread 
along these, the ichor being absorbed 
by their still energetic vessels, and 
passing into the still immature and un- 
usually juicy tubers, imparted to them 
the gangrene; the infection first being ap- 
parent at the end nearest the connecting 
fibre, spreading gradually throughout 
the liber of the tuber, rendering it brown 
like a decayed apple, and lastly causing 
the decay of its interior portion. Pre- 
viously to the final decay, the increased 
specific gravity of the potato was re- 
markable, amounting to one-third more 
than that of a healthy tuber — an increase 
caused by its greater amount of water. 
When boiled it became black; but when 
submitted to a dry heat of about 200°, 
it rapidly lost moisture, and the pro- 
gress of the ulceration was retarded, if 
not entirely stopped. 

There can be no preventive for such 
a disease as this — and the only chance 
of saving the tubers is to mow off all 
the haulms close to the ground the 
moment infection is apparent in them. 
This might prevent the circulation of 



be taken up forthwith and clamped as 
recommended by Dr. Lindley, with a 
layer of earth or sand alternating with 
each layer of potatoes. 

•The disease seems to be the natural 
result of an excessive degree of wet and 
cold at that period of closing growth 
when all bulbs and tubers require an 
increased degree of dryness and warmth. 
If the hyacinth, or tulip, or dahlia are 
submitted to similar unpropitious con- 
tingencies, their bulbs or tubers simi- 
larly decay. 

It is not a new disease, for to a less 
extent it has been frequently noticed 
before. The best preservative of the 
tubers in such ungeniai seasons is to 
take them up, to dry them perfectly, 
and then store them in a dry shed in 
dry coal ashes. 

Much has been written on this sub- 
ject, and the newspapers here and in 
Europe have been filled with specula- 
tions as to its duration, &c. The failure 
to a considerable extent of the crop of 
the present year, (1846,) would indicate 
that the disease is not of such temporary 
character as had been hoped and pre- 
dicted. If it continue all the old varie- 
ties must necessarily be abandoned, and 
reliance placed on new ones, raised 
from the seed proper ; therefore, as a 
matter of precaution, we would recom- 
mend attention to that object. They 
are readily produced by carefully sow- 
ing the seed, and replanting the young 
tubers in successive seasons, until they 
attain full size. There is reason to hope 
such would be free from disease, or at 
any rate less liable to it, than the older 
varieties. 

POTATO or UNDER-GROUND 
ONION. Allium aggregatum. This 
species of Allium has received the 
above appellations, on account of its 
producing a cluster of bulbs or offsets, 
in number from two to twelve, and even 
more, uniformly beneath the surface of 
the soil. From being first introduced 
to public notice in Scotland by Captain 
Burns of Edinburgh, it is there also 
known as the Bum Onion. 

Varieties. — There evidently appear to 
be two varieties of this vegetable, one 
of which bears bulbs on the summit of 
its stems, like the tree onion, and the 
other never throwing up flower stems 
at all. One variety is much larger than 



POT 



480 



POT 



the other, and this vegetates again as 
soon as ripe. 

Both varieties are best propagated 
by offsets of the root of moderate size, 
for if those are employed which the one 
variety produces on the summit of its 
stems, they seldom do more than in- 
crease in size the first year, but are pro- 
lific the next ; this also occurs if very 
small offsets of the root are employed. 

Planting. — They may be planted, 
during October or November, or as ear- 
ly in the spring as the season will allow, 
but not later than April. They are 
either to be inserted in drills, or by 
a blunt dibble, eight inches apart each 
way, not buried entirely, but the top of 
the offset just level with the surface. 
Mr. Maher, gardener at Arundle Castle, 
merely places the sets on the surface, 
covering them with leaf-mould, rotten 
dung, or other light compost. The beds 
they are grown in are better not more 
than four feet wide, for the convenience 
of cultivation. 

Cultivation. — The only cultivation 
required is to keep them clear of weeds. 
The practice of earthing the mould over 
them when the stems have grown up is 
unnatural, and by so doing the bulbs 
are blanched and prevented ripening 
perfectly, on which so much depends 
their keeping. So far from following 
this plan, Mr. Wedgewood, of Betley, 
recommends the earth always to be 
cleared away down to the ring from 
whence the fibres spring, as soon as 
the leaves have attained their full size 
and begin to be brown at the top, so 
that a kind of basin is formed round the 
bulb. As soon as they vegetate, they 
intimate the number of offsetts that will 
be produced, by showing a shoot for 
each. 

They attain their full growth towards 
the end of July ; for immediate use they 
may be taken up as they ripen, but for 
keeping, a little before they attain per- 
fect maturity, which is demonstrated by 
the same symptoms as were mentioned 
in speaking of the onion. 

POTENTILLA. One hundred and 
sixteen species. Hardy herbaceous, 
except the green-house P. lineariloba. 
Seed and division. Light loam. 

POTERIUM. Burnet. Six species. 
Chiefly hardy herbaceous and shrubby. 
The latter are increased by young cut- 
tings, and the others by seed. Light 
rich loam. 



Poterium Sanguisorba. Small, or 
Upland Burnet. Used in cool tankards, 
soups, and salads. 

Soil and Situation. — It delights in a 
dry, poor soil, abounding in calcareous 
matter ; any light compartment that has 
an open exposure, therefore, may be 
allotted to it, the only beneficial addi- 
tion that can be applied being brick- 
layers' rubbish or fragments of chalk. 
A small bed will be sufficient for the 
supply of a family. 

Propagation is either by seed, or by 
slips and partings of the roots. The 
seed may be sown towards the close of 
February, if open weather, and thence 
until the close of May; but the best 
time is in autumn, as soon as it is ripe; 
for, if kept until the spring, it will often 
fail entirely, or lie in the ground until 
the same season of the following year, 
without vegetating. Insert in drills, 
six inches apart, thin, and not buried 
more than half an inch. The plants 
must he kept thoroughly clear of weeds 
throughout their growth. When two 
or three inches high, thin to six inches 
apart, and those removed place in rows 
at the same distance, in a poor, shady 
border, water being given occasionally 
until they have taken root, after which 
they will require no further attention 
until the autumn, when they must be 
removed to their final station, in rows 
a foot apart. When of established 
growth, the only attention requisite is 
to cut down their stems occasionally in 
summer, to promote the production of 
young shoots, and in autumn to have 
the decayed stems and shoots cleared 
away. 

If propagated by partings of the roots, 
the best time for practising it is in Sep- 
tember and October. They are planted 
at once where they are to remain, and 
only require occasional watering until 
established. The other parts of their 
cultivation are as for those raised from 
seed. 

To obtain Seed some of the plants 
must be left ungathered from, and al- 
lowed to shoot up early in the summer ; 
they flower in July, and ripen abund- 
ance of seed in the autumn. 

POT-HERBS. See Herbary. 

To Dry Pot-Herbs. — Though grow- 
ing plants can bear an elevated tem- 
perature without injury, a very different 
effect is produced upon them by even a 
lower heat after they have been sepa- 



POT 



481 



POT 



rated from their roots. This has to be 
borne in mind in the drying of pot-herbs, 
which, though it is a process very sim- 
ple and very important for the winter 
cuisine that it should be conducted cor- 
rectly, is usually more neglected and 
more thoughtlessly practised than any 
other in the varied range of the garden- 
er's duties. To demonstrate this, will 
only require to have pointed out how it 
ought to be managed. The flavour of 
almost every pot-herb arises from an 
essential oil which it secretes, and this 
being in the greatest abundance just 
previously to the opening of its flow- 
ers, that is the time which ought to 
be selected for gathering. Pot-herbs 
ought to be dried quickly, because if 
left exposed to winds, much of the es- 
sential oil evaporates, and mouldiness 
occurring and long continuing destroys 
it altogether; for nearly every plant 
has its peculiar mucor, (mould,) the 
food of which is the characteristic oily 
secretion of the plant on which it vege- 
tates. A dry brisk heat is therefore 
desirable ; and as the fruit store-room 
ought always to have a stove, and is 
untenanted when herbs require drying, 
no other place can be more efficiently 
employed for the purpose. The tem- 
perature should be 90°, for if it exceeds 
this, the essential oils are apt to burst 
the integuments of the containing ves- 
sels and to escape. Forty-eight hours, 
if the heat is kept up steadily, are suffi- 
cient to complete the process of drying. 

The leaves, in which alone the essen- 
tial oils of pot-herbs reside, should then 
be carefully clipped with scissors, not 
crushed, from the stalks, and stored in 
tightly corked wide-mouthed bottles. 
Each will thus preserve its peculiar 
aroma, not only through the winter, 
but for years, and be infinitely superior 
to any specimens producible in the 
forcing department, for these are una- 
voidably deficient in flavour. — Princ. 
of Gardening. 

POTHOS. Thirty-three species. 
Stove orchids. Division. Peat and 
loam. 

POT-MARIGOLD. Calendula 
officinalis. 

POTTING. Pots are the first con- 
sideration, and these are considered 
under the title Flower Pot. 

Materials required. — These must not 
be sifted, but the pebbles and rough 
vegetable fibres be allowed to remain. 
31 



Mr. Errington has in his potting-shed 
twenty bins containing as follows: — 

1. Strong tenacious loam. 

2. Half-rotten leaf-mould. 

3. Heath soil. 

4. Horse manure. 

5. Cow manure. 

6. Charcoal wood-ashes. 

7. Fine bone manure. 

8. Sharp sand. 

9. Burnt turf of No. 1. 

10. Sphagnum, well scalded. 

11. Heath soil of No. 3, in one inch 

squares. 

12. Loam of No. 1, in one inch 

squares. 

13. One-inch mixed drainage. 

14. Two-inch mixed drainage. 

15. Mixed drainage, small. 

16. One-inch bottom-crocks. 

17. Two-inch bottom-crocks. 

18. Three-inch bottom-crocks. 

19. Charcoal, large lumps. 

20. One-inch boiled bone for bottoms. 
Bin 1. (Strong Tenacious Loam.) — 

This is obtained from very old rest land, 
on a clayey or marly sub-soil ; the more 
rushes and old coarse grass it contains, 
the better it is for the potting-shed ; 
this is piled up in a sharp ridge out of 
doors, so as to exclude rain ; it should 
be used for general purposes, when 
from six to twelve months old ; I house 
a smaller portion in the compost shed 
after being dried in the sun; and this, 
I use for very particular purposes, such 
in fact as require, according to my esti- 
mation, lumps of turf in its native state, 
and for these purposes it is chopped info 
squares for bin 12. This loam is chop- 
ped down from a perpendicular facing, 
(like cutting hay,) when wanted for bin 
1, and being somewhat mellow, a con- 
siderable portion of the mere soil falls 
out loose in the act of chopping. This 
is rejected, and the masses of chopped 
turf alone fill bin 1. 

Bin. 2. (Half-rotten Leaf-mould.) — 
This is generally slightly mixed with 
rotten dung, as it is the worn out pit 
linings, which have generally a little 
dung blended with the leaves. By ly- 
ing in the compost yard for a few 
months, the outside becomes mellowed 
down, and after shaking some of the 
finest out through a quarter of an inch 
riddle, it is passed through a sieve of 
at least one inch in the mesh, and what 
comes through this is put into bin 2. 

Bin 3. (Heath Soil.) — Obtained from 



POT 



482 

— ♦ — 



POT 



Delamere Forest, in parts where the 
heather is cut for making besoms. The 
upper surface of this heath soil is com- 
posed of heath leaves and moss, in a 
raw or half-decomposed state, and too 
fresh for the purposes of potting ; but 
beneath this, and in contact with the 
gray sand, lies a flake of vegetable 
matter full of the roots of heather, pos- 
sessing little sand, and compressed by 
the weight of centuries. This, when 
divested of the dirty sand under it, and 
of the mossy and raw matter on the 
surface, is put in bin 3, after being 
half-dried. 

Bin 4. (Horse Manure, or Old Horse 
Droppings.) — Obtain them before high 
fermentation takes place, and ridge 
them up in the compost yard, three feet 
in width, three feet in height, and in- 
stantly roof them over (to shut in the 
gases) with double turves, each over- 
lapping the other: in this way a slight 
fermentation takes place, which, being 
arrested, is beneficial. Rain is at all 
times excluded from this in the compost 
yard by the roofing. 

Bin 5. (Cow Manure.) — This is cow 
droppings placed in a ridge, and roofed, 
similarly to the horse-dung, but allowed 
to remain to a much greater age ; in 
fact, when placed in Bin No. 5, it has 
the appearance of rich peat, being at 
least two years old. 

Bin 6. (Wood Ashes and Charcoal.) 
— Brush-wood at bottom, covered with 
all sorts of garden refuse, viz. cabbage 
stalks, potato haulm, hedge clippings, 
and in fact weeds and rubbish of all 
kinds, which, when about half-burned, 
are closed up with soils of any kind, 
and kept smouldering for days; when 
the combustion is complete it is sub- 
jected to a riddle of an inch mesh, and 
what comes through is housed in a dry 
state in this bin, the rest belongs to 
bin 19. 

Bin 8. (Sharp Sand.) — Coarse river 
sand ; but every potting-shed should be 
furnished with two kinds, the one very 
coarse and the other very fine, both as 
sharp as they can be obtained ; the 
London propagating sand is an invalu- 
able article. 

Bin 10. (Sphagnum, well scalded.) — 
This is chiefly for orchidaceous plants, 
and requires to be steeped in boiling 
water for some hours previously to be- 
ing transferred to this bin, in order to 
destroy insects. It is also useful to j 



cover fresh sown seeds, where it is de- 
sirable to insure a permanent moisture 
without frequent watering; it also pro- 
duces a darkness favourable to germi- 
nation. 

Bin 13. (One-inch Drainage termed 
No. 1.) — This is composed of about 
equal parts of boiled bone, charcoal, 
and pounded crocks, in lumps averaging 
an inch square, and intended to cover 
the rough crock placed over the hole of 
pots, from No. 32 to No. 16 of the Lon- 
don sizes inclusive. 

Bin 19. (Charcoal in large lumps.) — 
This is used to mix with the potsherds 
for orchidaceous plants, and when large 
masses are wanted for very large shifts. 

Bin 20. (One-inch boiled Bone.) — 
This is used after the manner of No. 19, 
when considered requisite. To the 
above may be added old tan, riddled 
particularly clean ; to be intermixed 
with or placed over the drainage ; for 
such it answers exceedingly well, not- 
withstanding the prejudice against it. 
It is very well adapted for annuals in 
pots, a single crock with a handful or 
two of old tan over it, provides a safe 
drainage for a season, and withal a 
rooting medium. — Gard. Chron. 

Care required. — A principal object to 
be aimed at in potting is complete drain- 
age, for nothing is more injurious to 
most plants than stagnant water about 
their roots. The drainage is best ef- 
fected by filling one-fourth the depth of 
the pot with the larger fragments of 
bones and charcoal mixed in equal pro- 
portions; this and the pebbles, woody 
fibres, &c, which are now allowed to 
remain in the soil, will remove from it 
all superfluous water. Dryness in the 
centre of the ball of earth is another 
evil to be avoided. Though not usual- 
ly suspected, it occurs more often than 
excess of wet, and deprives the roots 
of a large proportion of their pasturage. 
To prevent it, a small rod of iron should 
be thrust through the earth around the 
stem occasionally, to allow the water 
poured upon the surface a freer en- 
trance. Mr. Moore, to effect the same, 
says — " Whenever a plant (most parti- 
cularly a valuable specimen plant) is 
repotted, either in its infancy or in its 
maturity, I would introduce a few sticks 
of charcoal perpendicularly into the 
pot; these should be long enough to 
extend from the bottom of the pot to 
the top of the soil j about three might 



POU 



483 

— ♦ — 



PRO 



be placed at regular intervals, and they 
should be as close to the roots, and as 
near to the centre of the pots as possi- 
ble. Thus if a plant is shifted but 
once, it will be provided with some chan- 
nels for moisture, extending throughout 
the soil, and if it be frequently repotted, 
the number of these channels may be 
increased. When these are once in- 
troduced into the soil they are perma- 
nent ; for being of material which is 
not subject to rapid decay, they will 
serve at least the lifetime of a plant, 
and by occasionally making use of a 
simple siphon, a mere worsted thread, 
in contact with moisture, a slow, mo- 
derate, and constant supply of moisture 
may be conveyed at pleasure to and 
through the centre of the soil, and the 
whole mass may thus be kept regularly 
and equably moistened."— Gard. Chron. 
See One-Shift System. 

POUPARTIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

POURRETIA. Five species. Stove 
herbaceous. P. magnispatha is an or- 
chid. Seed and suckers. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

PRATIA. Three species. Green- 
house herbaceous. Seed and division. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PREMNA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Seed and cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

P R E S LI A cervina. Hardy herba- 
ceous. Division. Moist soil. 

PRESTONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

PRICKLY CEDAR. Cyathodes oxy- 
cedrus. 

PRIESTLEYA. Fourteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

PRIMROSE. Primula vulgaris. 

PRIMULA. Forty-nine species and 
many varieties. Herbaceous and all 
hardy except the fringed green-house 
varieties, P. preenitens, and the species 
P. verticillata. Division and seed. 
Loam and leaf-mould. 

P. auricula. See Auricula. 

P. elatior. Oxl ip. 

P. prcenitens or sinensis. Chinese 
Primrose. This is hardy if grown in a 
light, well-drained soil, but its white 
and pink fringed varieties require win- 
tering in the green-house. 



P. veris. Cowslip. 

P. vulgaris. Primrose. Of this there 
are the following cultivated varieties: 
Brimstone: Crimson; Hose-in-hose; Li- 
lac; Purple; Scotch; Stemless White; 
White and Yellow. All the species 
may be cultivated like the Polyanthus. 

PRINCE, WILLIAM. The name of 
Prince is identified with American hor- 
ticulture. Perhaps no man has done 
more to gratify the taste of amateurs of 
flowers and fruit than the late William 
Prince, whose extensive grounds at 
Flushing, New York, were the nursery 
of almost every vegetable calculated to 
please the eye or palate. We regret 
that there is not within our reach the 
data from which to draft a particular 
description of the foundation, rise and 
progress of the " Linnsean Botanic 
Garden." 

PRINCE'S FEATHER. Amaran- 
thus hypochondriacus. 

PRINOS. Eleven species. Hardy 
deciduous shrubs, except the stove 
evergreen P. montanus and P. lucidus, 
which is evergreen and hardy. Cut- 
tings and layers. Light loam and 
peat. 

PRISMATOCARPUS. Four species. 
P. diffusus is a green-house evergreen 
shrub ; P. fruticosus is a hardy ever- 
green shrub ; the others green-house 
herbaceous. Young cuttings and seed. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PRIVET. Ligustrum. 

PROCKIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

PROLIFEROUS. See Double- 
Flower. 

PROPS are the supports required by 
plants to sustain them in a desired 
position. They must vary in height 
and strength accordantly with the plant 
to which they are applied, and should 
always be as slight as is consistent 
with efficiency. Nothing looks worse 
than a disproportioned prop ; indeed it 
should be concealed as much as pos- 
sible. The props for peas should be 
of the branches of the hazel ; for run- 
ner kidney beans, rods of ash. For 
flowers, stout iron wire painted dark 
green are to be preferred. Some 
flowers require props of a peculiar 
form ; but these will be described 
when giving directions for their cul- 
| ture. Whenever wooden props are 



PRO 



484 



PRU 



used, the end thrust into the ground 
should be previously charred ; if this 
precaution be taken, and when no 
longer required, they are stored in a 
dry shed, they will last for several 
seasons. Props should be placed on 
the south sides of the plants, as they 
incline in that direction, as being most 
light. 

PROSERPINACA. Two species. 
Half-hardy annual aquatics. Seed. 
Rich loam in water. 

PROSOPIS. Five species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

PROSTANTHERA. Seven species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy peat. 

PROTEA. Forty-seven species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings taken off at a joint ; sandy turfy 
loam, well drained. Water moderate- 
ly, but regularly. 

PRUNELLA. Self-Heal. Fourteen 
Bpecies. P. Browniana and P. ovata 
are hardy annuals, the others hardy 
herbaceous. Seed or division. Light 
rich loam. 

PRUNING, as practised in the gar- 
den, has for its object the regulation of 
the branches to secure the due pro 
duction of blossom and maturity of 
fruit. If carried to too great an extent, 
that object is not attained, for every 
tree requires a certain amount of leaf- 
surface for the elaboration of its sap ; 
and, therefore, if this be reduced too 
much, blossom buds are produced less 
abundantly, for leaves are more neces- 
sary for the health of the plant, and by 
a wise provision the parts less requi- 
site for individual vigour are super- 
seded by the parts more needed. On 
the other hand, if the branches are left 
too thick, they overshadow those be- 
neath them, and so exclude the light, 
as to prevent that elaboration of the 
sap, without which no blossom buds 
are formed, but an excessive produc- 
tion of leaves, in the vain effort to at- 
tain by an enlarged surface that elabo- 
ration which a smaller surface would 
effect in a more intense light. The 
appropriate pruning is given when 
considering each species of fruit trees, 
and here we must confine ourselves 
to a few general remarks : " The 
season for pruning must be regulated 
in some degree by the strength of the 
tree ; for although, as a general rule, 



the operation should not take place un- 
til the fall of the leaf indicates that 
vegetation has ceased, yet if the tree 
be weak, it may be often performed 
with advantage a little earlier ; but 
still so late in the autumn as to pre- 
vent the protrusion of fresh shoots. 
This reduction of the branches before 
the tree has finished vegetating, directs 
a greater supply of sap to those re- 
maining, and stores up in them the 
supply for increased growth next sea- 
son. If the production of spurs is the 
object of pruning a branch, it should be 
pruned so as to leave a stump ; because 
as the sap supplied to the branch will 
be concentrated upon those buds re- 
maining at its extremity, these will be 
productive of shoots, though otherwise 
they would have remained dormant, it 
being the general habit of plants first to 
develop and mature parts that are far- 
thest from the roots. It is thus the 
filbert is induced to put forth an abund- 
ance of young bearing wood, for its 
fruit is borne on the annual shoots, and 
similar treatment to a less severe ex- 
tent is practised upon wall fruit." — 
Trine, of Gardening. 

The mystery of pruning consists in 
being well acquainted with the mode of 
the bearing of the different sorts of 
trees, and forming an early judgment 
of the future events of shoots and 
branches, and many other circum- 
stances, for which some principal rules 
may be given ; but there are particular 
instances which cannot be judged of 
but upon the spot, and depend chief- 
ly upon practice and observation. — 
Peaches, nectarines, apricots, &c, all 
produce their fruit principally upon the 
young wood of a year old ; that is, the 
shoots produced this year bear the year 
following ; so that in all these trees, a 
general supply of the best shoots of 
each year must be everywhere pre- 
served at regular distances, from the 
very bottom to the extremity of the 
tree on every side ; but in winter prun- 
ing, or general shortening, less or 
more, according to the strength of the 
different shoots, is necessary, in order 
to promote their throwing out, more 
effectually, a supply of young wood 
the ensuing summer, in proper place 
for training in for the succeeding year's 
bearing. 

Vines also produce their fruit always 
upon the young wood shoots of the 



PRU 



485 



PRU 



same year, arising from the eyes of the 
last year's wood only; and must, there- 
fore, have a general supply of the best 
regular shoots of each year trained in, 
which, in winter pruning, must be 
shortened to a few eyes, in order to 
force out shoots from their lower parts, 
only properly situated to lay in for bear- 
ing the following year. 

Figs bear also only upon the young 
wood of a year old, and a general sup- 
ply of it is, therefore, necessary every 
year ; but these shoots must at no time 
be shortened, unless the ends are dead, 
because they always bear principally 
towards the extreme part of the shoots, 
which, if shortened, would take the 
bearing or fruitful parts away ; besides, 
they naturally throw out a sufficient 
supply of shoots every year for future 
bearing, without the precaution of 
shortening. 

Apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees 
bear principally on spurs, arising in the 
wood of from two or three, to ten or 
twenty years old, the same branches 
and spurs continuing bearing a great 
number of years ; so that, having once 
procured a proper set of branches in 
the manner already directed to form a 
spreading head, no farther supply of 
wood is wanted than some occasional 
shoots now and then to supply the 
place of any worn out or dead branch. 
The above-mentioned spurs or fruit- 
buds are short robust roots of from 
about half an inch to one or two inches 
long, arising naturally, first towards the 
extreme parts of the branches of two or 
three years old, and, as the branch in- 
creases in length, the number of fruit- 
buds increases accordingly. 

In pruning always cut quite close, 
both in the summer and winter prun- 
ing, which, in the summer pruning, if 
attended to early, while the shoots are 
quite young and tender, they may rea- 
dily be rubbed off quite close with the 
thumb; but when the shoots become 
older and woody, as they will not rea- 
dily break, it must be done with a knife, 
cutting them as close as possible ; and 
all winter pruning must always be per- 
formed with a knife. In pruning in 
summer, the necessaj-y supply of regu- 
lar shoots left for training in should 
never be shortened during this season, 
unless to particular shoots,, to fill a va- 
cancy ; for, by a general shortening in 
this season, all the shoots so treated 



would soon push again vigorously from 
every eye, and render the trees a thick- 
et of useless wood. Therefore, all 
sorts, whether they require shortening 
in the winter pruning or not, should, in. 
the summer dressing, be layed in at 
full length; but towards the end of Au- 
gust, the extreme points may be pinch- 
ed off with great advantage. The sap 
is thus made to complete the growth of 
the shoot, and not to increase its length ; 
and it is too late in the season for fresh 
shoots to be induced. 

Summer pruning is a most necessary 
operation. Young shoots require thin- 
ning to preserve the beauty of the trees, 
and encourage the fruit ; and the soon- 
er it is performed the better. It is, 
therefore, advisable to begin this work 
in May, or early in June, removing 
all superfluous growths and ill placed 
shoots, which may be performed with 
considerably more expedition and ex- 
actness than when after the trees have 
shot a- considerable length. Where, 
however, a tree is inclined to luxuri- 
ancy, it is proper to retain as many of 
the regular shoots as can be commodi- 
ously trained in with any regularity, in 
order to divide and exhaust the too 
abundant sap. It will be necessary to 
review the trees occasionally, in order 
to reform such branches or shoots as 
may have started from their places, or 
taken a wrong direction; also that, ac- 
cordingly as any fresh irregular shoots 
produced since the general dressing 
may be displaced ; and, likewise, asi 
the already trained shoots advanced 
in length, or project from the wall 
or espalier, they should be trained in 
close. 

In the winter pruning, a general re- 
gulation must be observed, both of the 
mother branches, and the supply of 
young wood laid in the preceding sum- 
mer ; and the proper time for this work 
is any time in open weather, from the 
fall of the leaf in November, until 
March; but the sooner the better. In 
performing this work, it is proper to 
unnail or loosen a chief part of the 
branches, particularly of peaches, nec- 
tarines, apricots, vines, and other trees 
requiring an annual supply of young 
wood. First look over all the principal 
or mother branches, and examine il 
any are worn out, or not furnished with 
parts proper for bearing fruit, and let 
such branches be cut down to the great 



PRU 



486 



PS Y 



branch from which they proceed, or to 
any lower shoot or bottom part, leaving 
these to supply its place. Likewise 
examine if any branches are become too 
long for the allotted space, either at 
sides or top, and let them be reformed 
accordingly, by shortening them down 
to some lower shoot or branch proper- 
ly situated to supply the place, being 
careful that every branch terminates 
in a young shoot for a leader, and not 
stumped off at the extremity. From 
the principal or larger branches pass to 
the shoots of the year which were train- 
ed up in summer, first cutting out close 
all foreright and other irregular shoots 
that may have been omitted in the sum- 
mer pruning 5 likewise all very weak 
shoots, and those of very luxuriant 
growth, unless it be necessary to keep 
some to supply a vacant place. In this 
pruning, as in the summer dressing, it 
is of importance to have a strict eye to 
the lower parts of wall-trees, &c, to 
see if there is any present vacancy, or 
any that apparently will soon happen, 
in which cases, if any good shoot is 
situated contiguous, it should be train- 
ed in, either at full length, or shorten it 
to a few eyes, to force out two or more 
shoots, if they shall seem necessary; for 
precaution should ever be observed in 
taking care to have betimes a sufficient 
stock of young wood coming forward to 
fill up any casual vacancy, and substi- 
tute a new set of branches in place of 
such as are either decayed or stand in 
need of retrenchment. 

Sometimes in wall-trees and espaliers 
there are many large disagreeable bar- 
ren spurs, consisting both of old worn 
out fruit spurs, and of clusters of stumps 
of shortened shoots projecting conside- 
rably from the branches, occasioned 
by unskilful pruning, when retrenching 
the superabundant and irregular shoots 
which, instead of being cut out close, 
are stumped off to an inch or two long. 
At this season of pruning, it is advisable 
to reform them as well as possible, by 
cutting all the most disagreeable stumps 
close to the branches, leaving these at 
full length, especially if apples, pears, 
&c, and reserve an occasional supply 
of young wood in different parts, and 
thus, in two or three years, you may 
reduce such trees to a regular figure, 
and a proper stale of bearing. 

Too severe pruning is greatly preju- 
dicial to the health of some sorts of 



fruit. Plums and cherries, in particu- 
lar, are often greatly damaged by a too 
severe discipline of the knife, these 
trees being very liable to gum by large 
amputations. It is, therefore, of import- 
ance to attend to these trees well in the 
summer pruning, to retrench all the 
superfluous and irregular shoots while 
quite young, and pinch others occasion- 
ally where wood is wanted to fill va- 
cancies, so as to require but little prun- 
ing out of large wood in winter. — 
Abercrombie. 

PRUNING APPARATUS. In all 
mechanical operations success is more 
certainly attained by the use of proper 
implements; though pruning or the lop- 
ping of branches may be very simple, 
yet there is great advantage in execut- 
ing it with the instruments best adapted 
to the purpose, most of which are de- 
scribed in these pages, under their 
proper heads. 

PRUNUS. Plum. Eight species and 
many varieties. P. domestica, see Plum. 
All hardy deciduous trees. Seed, suck- 
ers, and grafting or budding. Common 
soil, well drained. 

PSIDIUM. Guava. Thirteen spe- 
cies. Stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

PSOPHOCARPUS tetragono- 
bulus. Annual stove twiner. Seed. 
Light rich loam. 

PSORALEA. Forty-two species. 
The green-house and stove evergreens 
are increased by cuttings ; the half- 
hardy herbaceous, by seed and cut- 
tings ; the biennials, by seed. All re- 
quire light loam and peat. 

PSYCHOTRIA. Sixteen species. P. 
daphnoides is a green-house evergreen 
shrub; P. parasitica is a parasite, and 
the others stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

P S Y L L A . The chermes, nearly 
allied to the aphis. P. pyri, Pear 
chermes, appears in May, not unlike a 
large aphis, crimson coloured, shaded 
with black. Mr. Kollar thus details its 
habits : — 

" As soon as the fruit trees put out 
buds, the winged chermes makes its 
appearance. When pairing is over, the 
female lays her eggs in great numbers 
near each other on the young leaves 
and blossoms, or on the newly formed 
fruit and shoots. They are of a longish 
shape, and yellow ; and, without a mag- 
nifying glass, they resemble the pollen 



PS Y 



487 



PTE 



of flowers. They are called either 
nymphs or larvae in this state (accord- 
ing to the extent of their develop- 
ment); and, like their parents, have 
their mouth in the breast. After a few 
days, they change their skins, and be- 
come darker, and somewhat reddish on 
the breast, and rather resemble bugs 
than plant-lice, having the extreme 
point of the body somewhat broad, and 
beset with bristles. After changing 
their skins, they leave the leaves, blos- 
soms, and fruit, and proceed more 
downwards to the bearing wood and 
the shoots of last year, on which they 
fix themselves securely, one after the 
other, in rows, and remain there till 
their last transformation. 

" When the nymphs have moulted 
for the last time, and have attained their 
full size, the body swells out by de- 
grees, and becomes cylindrical. They 
then leave their associates, and before 
they lay aside their nymph-like cover- 
ing, they search out a leaf to which 
they fasten themselves firmly, and ap- 
pear as if they were lifeless. After a 
few minutes the skin splits on the upper 
part of the covering, and a winged in- 
sect proceeds from it. It is of a plea- 
sant green colour, with red eyes, and 
snow-white wings. It very much re- 
sembles its parents in spring, even in 
the colour. After a few days, this 
chermes has assumed the colours of 
the perfect insect ; the head, collar, and 
thorax, are of an orange colour, and 
only the abdomen retains its green hue. 
It now flies away from the place of its 
birth, to enjoy the open air." 

P. mali. Apple Chermes. For the 
following I am also indebted to the too 
much neglected work of M. Kollar : — 

" It usually appears in June. In 
September, the apple chermes pair, and 
lay their eggs. They are white, and 
pointed at both ends, a line and a half 
long, and the fourth of a line thick, 
and become yellow before the young 
escapes. The apple chermes lays its 
eggs in different places of the twigs of 
an apple-tree ; usually, however, in the 
furrows of the knots, and sometimes in 
a very regular manner. The larva? 
were scarcely escaped from the egg, in 
the open air, when they hastened to 
the nearest bud, and began to gnaw its 
scales, because the bud was only some- 
what swollen, and had not begun to 
sprout. On the second day after their 



birth, they cast their first skin, after 
which they appeared nearly of their 
former shape and colour. The second 
changing of the skin can sometimes be 
scarcely seen at all, because the larva 
not only puts out a thicker string with 
the tubercle, but also an immense num- 
ber of very fine entangled threads or 
small hairs, which it turns upwards 
over its back, and with them entirely 
covers its body and head. In sunshine, 
these strings look transparent, as if 
they were made of glass, and become 
of a greenish variable colour. Under 
this screen the chermes are secured 
from every attack of other insects ; for 
no ants, mites, or bugs can disturb 
them in their fortification, or consume 
them as their prey. After changing 
the second skin, the young assumed a 
different colour and form ; they now 
became light green all over, the abdo- 
men was much broader than the thorax, 
and on the side of the latter, rudiments 
of the wings were distinctly seen. The 
third time of changing the skin comes 
on in about eight days, sometimes 
sooner and sometimes later, according 
to the weather. After this skin the 
wing rudiments very distinctly make 
their appearance, and become larger 
and whiter the nearer the insect ap- 
proaches to the perfect state. The 
body is also of a light green, and the 
larvas have black eyes, and blackish 
antenna?. At last the time arrives when 
the insect assumes the perfect state ; 
when it retires to a part of a leaf which 
it had selected, and after having firmly 
fixed itself there, the back splits open, 
and the beautiful winged chermes ap- 
pears from the nymph. The back of 
the thorax is of a light green, the abdo- 
men is marked with yellow rings, and 
the membranous wings with strongly 
marked snow-white veins." 

P. cratcegi infests the camellia. It 
is destroyed by syringing with tobacco 
water, or diluted gas ammoniacal liquor, 
until the insects are dead, and then 
syringing with water only. 

P. ficus and P. ?~os<z, are respectively 
on the fig and rose trees. 

PTELEA trifoliata. Hardy decidu- 
ous shrub. Layers. Light rich loam. 

PTELIDIUM ovatum. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

PTERIS. Forty-six species. Stove, 
green-house, and hardy and herbaceous 



PTE 



PUT 



ferns. Division and seed. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

PTEROCARPUS. Eight species. P. 
scandens is a stove climber, and the 
others stove evergreen trees. Young 
cuttings. Rich light loam. 

PTEROCEPHALUS. Four species. 
P. dumetorum is a green-house ever- 
green shrub, the others are hardy an- 
nuals ; the first is increased by cuttings, 
and all by seed. Light loam. 

PTERODISCUS speciosus. Stove tu- 
ber. Division. Rich sandy loam. Pro- 
bably half-hardy. 

PTERONEURON. Two species. 
One herbaceous, the other annual ; 
both hardy. Seed. Light loam. 

PTERONIA. Nine species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

PTEROSPERMUM. Six species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

PTEROSTYLIS. Twelve species. 
Green-house orchids. Division. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

PTILOSTEPHIUM. Two species. 
Hardy annuals. Seed, in a hot-bed; 
and seedlings planted in light open 
border. 

PUCCOON. Sanguinaria. 

PUDDLING. See Mudding. 

PUERARIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

PULMONARIA. Eight species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division. Light 
loam. 

PULTEN^EA. Fifty species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Half-ripe cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

PUMPKIN. Cucurbita pepo. See 
Gourd. 

PUNICA. Pomegranate. Two spe- 
cies, and several varieties. Half-hardy 
deciduous shrubs. All are increased 
by cuttings and layers, and the less 
common by grafting on the more com- 
mon. Light rich loam. The fruit of 
the common pomegranate, P. granatum, 
ripens well against a south wall. 

PUNNET. See Basket. 

PURSBIA tridentata. Hardy ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Light well 
drained loam. 

PURSH, FREDERICK, was a native 
of Germany, and is distinguished as an 
early classifier of our native vegetables. 
He immigrated to the United States 
somewhere about 1800, and was for a 



short period, we believe, in charge of 
the Hamilton collection, at the Wood- 
lands, near Philadelphia. His "Flora 
Septentrionalis , or a systematic arrange- 
ment and description of the plants of 
North America," is a standard work, 
and evinces his thorough acquaintance 
with the subject. But little is known 
of Pursh's personal history. 

PURSLANE. Portulaca. 

P. oleracea. Green, or Garden Purs- 
lane. 

P. sativa. Golden Purslane. 

Soil and Situation. — A light rich soil 
is the one in which they thrive most, 
and they must have a warm situation, 
as a south border. Sow in February 
and early in March, in a moderate hot- 
bed, to remain where sown ; and at the 
close of March, and once monthly, 
during April, May, and the summer 
months until the end of August, in the 
open ground. 

Sow in drills six inches apart, very 
thin, and about half an inch deep. The 
plants soon make their appearance. 
They must be kept clear of weeds, and 
thinned to six or eight inches asunder. 
In dry weather water is required mode- 
rately two or three times a week. 

In general, they are ready forgather- 
ing from in six weeks after sowing, the 
young shoots being made use of from 
two to five inches in length, and the 
plants branch out again. 

The hot-bed crops require the air to 
be admitted as freely as possible, the 
temperature ranging between 50° and 
75°. 

To obtain Seed. — As a small quantity 
will suffice for the largest family, a few 
of the earliest border-raised plants must 
be left ungathered from; the strongest 
and largest leaved being selected; they 
blossom in June and July. They must 
be cut immediately the seed is ripe, laid 
on a cloth, and when perfectly dry, 
thrashed. The refuse is best separated 
by means of a very fine sieve. 

PURSLANE-TREE. Portulacaria. 

PUSCHKINIA scilloides. Half-hardy 
bulb. Offsets. Sandy loam. 

PUTTY is a compound of boiled lin- 
seed oil and whiting, but as it may be 
bought in London at half-a-guinea per 
cwt., it is scarcely worth the gardener's 
while to make it. One hundred weight 
is enough for puttying about three hun- 
dred square feet of glass. 

Old putty may be softened by apply- 



PYC 



QUI 



ing to it rags dipped in a saturated solu- 
tion of caustic potash, leaving them on 
for twelve hours ; or by rubbing a hot 
iron along the putty. 

If the gardener does make putty, the 
whiting should be well dried, and then 
pounded and sifted till it becomes a fine 
powder, and is quite free from grit. 
The whiting, a little warm, should be 
gradually added to the oil, and well 
mixed by means of a piece of stick, or 
a spatula. When it is sufficiently stiff, 
it should be well worked with the hand 
on a table, and afterwards beaten on a 
stone with a wooden mallet, till it be- 
comes a soft, smooth, tenacious mass. 
A ball of putty, when left some days, 
becomes somewhat hard, but may be 
easily softened by beating. 

PYCNANTHEMUM. Seven species. 
Hardy herbaceous. Division. Peat, 
with a little light loam. 

PYCNOSTACHIS ccerulea. Stove 
annual. Seed. Light rich loam. 

PYRALIS forficalis. Cabbage-gar- 
den Pebble Moth. Its appearance and 
habits are thus detailed by M. Kollar : 
— ^The head, back, and upper wings 
of the moth are hazel-brown, and brown- 
ish gold ; the antennae light brown ; the 
abdomen and under wings whitish. On 
the upper wings are two distinct, and 
two faint deep rusty-brown stripes. 
The first brood flies in May, and the 
second in August. The caterpillar is 
found in May and June, and the second 
generation in September and October. 
It has a light-brown head, and a yel- 
lowish-green body, with blackish stripes 
running lengthwise, and blackish dots 
having fine white lines between, and 
white incisions and spiracles. Its length 
is about eight lines. When these cater- 
pillars are numerous, they do important 
damage to the cabbage tribe, and horse- 
radish. 

PYRASTER. Pyrus communis py- 
raster. 

PYRETHRUM. Fifty species. 
Hardy herbaceous, and green-house 
evergreen shrubs, except a few hardy 
annuals, and P. simplicifolium, which 
is a stove evergreen trailer. The shrubs 
are increased by cuttings, the herba- 
ceous by division, and the annuals by 
seed. A light rich loam suits the 
whole. 

PYROLA. Eight species. Hardy 
herbaceous. Division and seed. Shady 
border of peat, with a little light loam. 



PYROLIRION aureum. Green-house 
bulb. Offsets. Sandy loam. 

PYRULARIA pub'era. Half-hardy 
deciduous shrub. Cuttings. Light 
loam. 

PYRUS. Forty-four species, and 
very numerous varieties. Seed, cuttings, 
and grafting. Light loam, well drained. 
See Apple, Pear, and Service. 

PYXID ANTHER A barbulata. Half- 
hardy trailer. Cuttings and division. 
Peat, and a little sandy loam. 

QUAMOCLIT. Ten species. Herb- 
aceous, and annual. Q. sanguined is 
evergreen. Young cuttings or seed. 
Light rich loam. 

QUENOUILLE is a fruit tree, with 
a central stem, and its branches trained 
in horizontal tiers, the lowest being the 
longest, and the others of course gradu- 
ally lessening in length as they do in 
age, so that the tree, like a spruce fir, 
acquires a pyramidal form. 

QUERCUS. The Oak. Forty-eight 
species, and many varieties. Hardy 
evergreen and deciduous trees. Seed, 
and grafting for some of the merely or- 
namental kinds. Deep clayey loam in 
valleys. Q. cerris, Bitter Oak. Q. 
robur or sessiliflorum, Common Oak. 
Q. ilex, Evergreen Oak. 

QUICKSET, the same as the Haw- 
thorn, or Whitethorn, Cratcegus oxya- 
cantha. See Hedge. 

QUINCE. Cydonia vulgaris. 

Varieties: — Common ; Apple-shaped; 
Pear-shaped ; and Portugal. The last 
is the best, and very distinct from the 
others. C. sinensis, the Chinese Quince, 
has been fruited in this country, but it 
requires a wall. The fruit is very dif- 
ferent from that of either the common 
or Portugal quinces; it is cylindrical, 
about six inches in length, and exceed- 
ingly gritty. 

Method of Propagation and general 
Culture. — The trees may be raised from 
seed sown in autumn, but there is no 
certainty of having the same or any good 
fruit from seedlings. But the several 
varieties may be propagated by cuttings 
and layers ; also by suckers from such 
trees as grow upon their own roots, and 
by grafting and budding upon their own 
or pear-stocks. 

The propagation by cuttings, layers, 
and suckers, may be performed in 
autumn, winter, or early spring. 

Choose young wood for the cuttings 
and layers. They will be rooted by 



QUI 



490 



RAD 



next autumn; then transplant into nur- 
sery rows two feet asunder; plant the 
suckers also at the same distance, and 
train the whole for the purposes intend- 
ed; if for standards with a stem, to any 
desired height, from three to six feet; 
then encourage them to branch out at 
top, to form a head ; and those designed 
as dwarfs must be headed near the 
ground, and trained accordingly, for 
espaliers or dwarf standards. 

When they have formed tolerable 
heads, plant them out finally. Standard 
quinces, designed as fruit trees, may be 
stationed in the garden or orchard and 
some by the sides of any water in by 
places, suffering the whole to take their 
own natural growth. And as espaliers 
they may be arranged with other mode- 
rate growing trees, about fifteen feet 
apart. — Abercrombie. 

QUINCUNX is the form resulting 
from planting in rows, with one plant 
opposite the centre of each vacancy 
in the row on each side of it, as in this 
diagram. — 

Fig. 138. 



QUISQUALIS. Four species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

QUIVISIA heterophylla. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Peat and 
light loam. 

RADISH.— "The Radish is originally 
from the East Indies, but cultivated in 
Europe since the sixteenth century. 
Formerly the leaves were often boiled 
and stewed ; but now the roots are 
chiefly employed. The young seedling 
leaves are often used with cress and 
mustard, as small salad, and radish seed 
pods, when of plump growth, but still 
young and green, are used to increase 
the variety of vegetable pickles, and 
are considered a tolerable substitute for 
capers. 

"The well known manner in which 
this vegetable is cultivated, renders 
any observations thereon unnecessary. 
All that is required, is to point out the 



varieties which answer best at different 
seasons of the year. For the early 
crops, use the Long Scarlet Short Top ; 
the Long Salmon, similar to the above, 
but of lighter colour, and white at the 
point; the Scarlet Turnip Rooted, and 
White Turnip Rooted ; frequent sow- 
ings are necessary, as all the foregoing 
soon become pithy and shoot to seed. 
In flavour they differ but little; dis- 
crimination is from fancy. At the same 
time the early kinds are sown, make 
a sowing of the Yellow Turnip, and 
Summer White, which are fine kinds, 
withstand the heat, and are firm and 
crisp even in hot weather ; frequent 
sowings of these, as well as the White 
Spanish or Black Spanish, as mostliked, 
should be made during the summer 
months. The two latter kinds sown in 
the autumn, keep well throughout the 
winter, if secured from frost. In the 
autumn, any of the early kinds may be 
again sown ; when about to do so, al- 
ways observe to dig the earth deeply, 
and pulverize it well, which tends to 
produce fine shaped roots." — Rural 
Reg. 

To obtain Seed. — Leave in April or 
early May, some of the most perfect 
plants of a main crop. When in full 
vigour they must be taken up with as 
little injury as possible to the roots and 
leaves, and planted in rows three feet 
asunder each way, being inserted by 
the dibble, completely down to the 
leaves. Water must be applied until 
they have taken root, and occasionally 
throughout their growth,, especially 
when in flower. If practicable, it is 
best to leave some plants where raised. 

To obtain seeds of the Black Span- 
ish, some seeds must be sown in March, 
or some of the winter-standing crop 
left or transplanted during that month. 

The flowers open from June until 
August, and their pods are of a size fit 
for pickling, as they must be gathered 
whilst young and tender, during that 
last month, or July. For seed, they 
must be cut as soon as they become of 
a brown hue, and well dried, otherwise 
it will thresh with difficulty. 

Two varieties must never be raised 
near each other, and seed of the pre- 
vious year's raising should always be 
employed. 

Forcing. — A moderate hot-bed is re- 
quired for this crop, of a length ac- 
cording with that of the frame to be 



RAF 



491 



RAM 



employed ; the earth about eight inches 
deep, on the surface of which the seed 
is to be sown as soon as the violent 
heat is abated, and an additional half- 
inch sifted over it. 

The seedlings are in general up in 
less than a week, and in six they will 
be ready to draw. Throughout their 
growth air must be admitted as freely 
as is allowable. The glasses, however, 
must be closed on the approach of even- 
ing, and mats or other covering put on 
in proportion to the severity of the sea- 
son. When the earth appears at all 
dry, a light watering must be given 
during the noon. 

The plants must not stand nearer 
than two inches to each other. The 
temperature required is from 50° to 
70° ; and it must be kept to this heat 
by moderate coatings as required. 

If there be a deficiency of frames, 
hoops and mats may be employed, a 

Fig. 



frame of boards being formed round the 
bed, light and air being admitted as 
freely and as often as possible. If seed 
is sown within a frame without any 
bottom heat, the plants will be two or 
three weeks forwarder than if sown in 
the open ground. 

RAFNIA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. R. triflora is 
a biennial. Young cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

RAGGED ROBIN. Lychnis Flos- 
cuculi. 

RAGS. See Vegetable Manures. 

RAGWORT. Othonara. 

RAGWORT. Senecio Jacobaa. 

RAILING is of various forms, but 
all, if made of wood, are soon decayed 
if slight, and clumsy and inelegant if 
strong. Iron railing is at once light, 
neat, and enduring, and like the follow- 
ing, may be purchased in England for 
about fifty cents per yard. 
139. 




RAKE (Fig. 140). "Garden Rakes 
vary in the length and strength of their 
teeth, as well as in their number; they 
are used for covering seeds, raking off 
weeds or cut grass, smoothing and 
pulverizing surface, &c. This imple- 
ment is now much less in use than 
formerly, when broadcast sowing was 
prevalent. Now the broad hoe is quite 
as efficient in covering drill-sown seed. 

Fig. 140. 




"The Grass Lawn Rake, (Fig. 141,) 
has teeth sharpened on both edges, 
and is used for raking the grass in order 



to cut off the flower heads or buds of 
daisies, dandelions, and other plants, 
and the uneven tufts on grass lawns." 
— Rural Reg. 

Fig. 141. 




RAMONDIA pyrenaica. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennial. Division. Light 
soil. 

RAMPION. Phyteuma and Cyphia 
Phyteuma. 

RAMPION. Campanula rapunculus. 

Soil and Situation. — The soil ought 
to be moderately moist, but it must be 
light. A shady rich border is most 
favourable. If it is cloddy or subject 



RAN 



492 



RAN 



to bind and crack in hot weather, the 
plants will not thrive. 

Time and Mode of Sowing, during 
March, April, and May, the plants from 
sowing in the two first months, soon, 
however, run up to seed. 

The insertions are to be performed in 
drills six inches apart. 

The plants are to remain where sown ; 
though in case of any deficiency, those 
which are taken away in thinning the 
crops, may be transplanted successfully, 
if removed to a border similar to the 
seed-bed, and inserted with the roots 
perpendicular, and without pressing the 
mould too close about them. The best 
time for performing the removal is of an 
evening. 

They are fit for thinning when of six 
or eight weeks' growth, or when about 
two inches in height; they must be set 
at a distance of six inches apart, being 
hoed at the time, and the same opera- 
tion repeated two or three times. 

The plants of the sowings during the 
two first-mentioned months will be fit 
for use at the close of August, or early 
in September, and continue throughout 
the autumn. Those of the last one will 
continue good throughout the winter, 
and until the following April. 

The soil throughout their growth 
must be kept moist by giving frequent 
but moderate waterings through the fine 
rose of a watering-pot, as required. 

The root for which it is cultivated, 
either to be sliced together with its 
leaves in salads, or eaten as the radish, 
as well as to be boiled like asparagus, 
is most palatable when drawn young, 
and eaten fresh from the ground. 

To obtain Seed. — A few of the 
winter-standing plants are left unmoved. 
These shoot up in the spring, flowering 
in July and August, and ripening abund- 
ance of seed in early autumn. Nothing 
more is necessary than to gather it be- 
fore it begins to scatter, and to lay it on 
a cloth to become perfectly dry before 
thrashing. 

RANDIA. Ten species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Partly ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat, and a strong moist heat. 
RANUNCULUS. One hundred and 
two species, and many varieties. R. 
asiaticus, the Garden Ranunculus, is 
a truly beautiful flower, unfortunately 
not adapted to the climate of the United 
States. 

Varieties: — Mr. Jackson, the florist 



of Kingston, has published the follow- 
ing selection : — 

CLASS I. — SELFS. 

XEil Noir, very fine, dark rich colour ; 
Naxara extra, fine dark (one of the best 
of its class) ; Fete Nocturne, rich pur- 
ple, fine; Duke of Bedford, large fine 
formed, crimson ; Giles's Eliza, very 
fine, straw, extra form, super variety; 
Costar's Apollo, very fine dark, rather 
coarse ; Plaisance, very fine, yellow, 
good form ; Les Vos, dark purple, very 
fine ; Rosa Montana, superior bright 
rosy crimson, excellent form; Tyso's 
Nivis, fine white ; Costar's Tippoo Saib, 
rich dark ; Condorcet, fine pure purple ; 
Bouquet Nonpareil , dark olive, very fine. 

CLASS II. 

Flavimorus, cream, with purple edge, 
very fine ; Tyso's Victoria, clear white, 
with crimson edge, very fine ; Aust's 
Henrietta, white, crimson-edged, good 
shape, very fine; Horatio, yellow-edged, 
fine free bloomer, not quite a pure 
ground; Tyso's Herbert, yellow, with 
red edge, very fine ; Temeraire, white, 
red-striped (one of the best of its class); 
Lightbody's William Penn, white, with 
purple edge, very fine, strongly marked 
ground, colour seldom pure; Melange 
des Beautes, red and yellow-striped 
(an excellent old flower, merits well 
known) ; Tyso's Alexis, yellow-spotted, 
extra fine, good form ; Tyso's Attractor, 
white, with purple edge, large, very 
fine ; Kilgour's Queen Victoria, cream, 
crimson-edged, large, and extra fine ; 
Costar's Coronation, half pink mottled, 
very fine ; Grand Monarque, yellow- 
edged, fine petals, rather loose ; Aust's 
Nonsuch, white, purple-edged, distinct, 
very fine; Tyso's Felix, buff, with dis- 
tinct spot, extra fine ; Lightbody's No 
Mistake, cream, purple-edged, strong 
marking, very fine ; Dr. Franklin, fine 
clear white, with purple edge, very fine; 
Tyso's Edgar, yellow-coffee-edged, ex- 
cellent form, extra fine ; Quentin Dur- 
ward, yellow-edged, very fine colours, 
rather thin; Tyso's Delectus, yellow, 
red-edged, very fine ; Lightbody's Rob 
Roy, cream, crimson edge, very fine ; 
Imbert, yellow, with faint-brown spot, 
very good ; Tyso's Harmonius, yellow, 
with dark spot, extra (one of the best of 
its class); Herald, white, crimson-edged, 
very fine, excellent shape, high crown ; 
Tyso's Creon, buff, dark edging, very 



RAN 



RAN 



fine; Glacia, yellow-mottled, large and 
very fine ; Paxos, white, with deep 
purple edge, extra fine ; Biddal's Duke 
of Wellington, yellow, delicate-edged, 
very fine; Macrobius, white spotted, 
very fine; Lightbody's Endymion, white, 
with delicate rose edging, very good ; 
Tyso's Premium, white, purple spot, 
very fine, high crown ; Aust's Queen 
Victoria, white, with delicate edging, 
very fine ; Saladin, fine yellow, with 
faint spot ; Sophia, cream, with rose 
edge, very good ; Tyso's Vendome, 
cream, with dark purple edge, extra 
fine, rather spotted : Waterstone's 
Epirus, yellow - spotted, very fine. — 
Gard. Chron. 

Character Sportive. — " There is in 
the ranunculus what is by florists called 
a sportive character — that is, they run 
from their original colour. Some that 
have yellow ground, delicately spotted, 
will come plain yellow, and some red 
and white striped will come plain red ; 
sometimes the colours will mix, and 
the flowers will become dingy." — 
Gard. Chron. 

" Sometimes the flowers will be as 
green as the grass of the plants from 
which they grow. Some of the finest 
seedlings are weak, and therefore die 
in a few years, though for a short time 
they had great renown. Such has been 
the case with Abbe St. Andrew, Quixos 
Viol le. Vrai Noir, Grand Berger, and 
Rose Incomparable, and some others of 
later date. But there are others of 
first-rate character which are remark- 
ably strong, and increase abundantly, 
such as Attractor, Felix, Saladin, Ed- 
gar, Eureka, Victor, and many others." 
—Ibid. 

Characteristics of a Good Flower. — 
" The form of the ranunculus should 
be two-thirds of a ball; petals, broad, 
thick, free from notch or indentation, 
cupping a little, and so disposed that 
each cover the place where the two 
under ones join ; commonly concealing 
the anthers, abundance of petals lying 
close over each other, and forming a 
compact flower, open enough to show 
the colour on their inside, but not 
enough to be loose; and the under 
ones must hold well in their places, 
forming a square, if not a hollow back. 
The stem thick, strong, and elastic ; 
but the flower upright, and from one 
and a half to two inches in diameter. 
The colour is a matter of taste, but 



must be dense and distinct ; the purer 
the white or yellow, and the more con- 
trasted the edging or spotting is, the 
better the flower; in selfs the more 
brilliant the colour is, the more likely 
to be attractive ; but so long as the 
colour is decided, the only advantage 
that can be gained by colour is novelty. 
The outside of the petal should be as 
bright as the inside. 

If shown in a stand, there must not 
be two alike : all the flowers in a row 
should be of one size, and the back row 
the largest." 

Propagation. — By Seed. — To the Rev. 
Joseph Tyso we are indebted for the 
following directions : — 

" Impregnate the double flowers with 
the farina of the single ones. This can- 
not be done with effect in every case ; 
but whenever an old flower, with a 
pericarpium or eye, gather a single or 
semi-double flower, and apply the farina 
to the eye of the double flower. 

" The seedlings will bear a striking 
resemblance to the mother plant, as to 
colour and habit of growth. The seed 
may be sown at all seasons, from the 
1st of August to the 1st of March, 
the middle or latter end of October, 
and the beginning of January. Sow in 
boxes eighteen inches by eleven inches, 
and four inches deep, full of loamy 
earth, and the surface level. Sow the 
seeds about an eighth of an inch apart; 
cover them as thinly as possible, and 
water with a fine rose ; but place the 
boxes under glass, without heat. The 
plants usually make their appearance 
in about a month. Give air day and 
night, except in severe frost ; then cover 
up with straw mats. With such pro- 
tection, the young plants will endure 
the severest seasons. Clean the surface 
of the boxes from green moss in Feb- 
ruary, and top dress them. Put the 
boxes in the open ground up to the 
second week in May, and water daily 
until the grass begins to wither ; then 
suffer the boxes to become quite dry ; 
and in the middle of July, take them 
up, and preserve the roots in bags until 
February, and then plant them as the 
general stock. In the following June 
they flower in great profusion." — Gard. 
Mag. 

By Offsets.—" Unlike the offsets of 
the hyacinth and tulip, those of the 
ranunculus generally attain perfection 
in the season of their formation on the 



RAN 



494 



RAN 



parent plant, and are, therefore, fit to 
be planted as full grown tubers the 
same season in which they are removed. 
Smaller ones, which are unfit to bloom 
the following year, maybe planted in a 
bed prepared, as to be directed for the 
full sized roots." 

By Dividing the Tubers. — In minutely 
examining the crown of a ranunculus 
root, several small protuberances will 
be found, from each of which a shoot 
will arise, and the root may, therefore, 
be divided by a sharp knife into as 
many parts as there are protuberances ; 
and thus the danger of losing any rare 
variety is much diminished. These 
sections will not bloom till the second 
year." — Hort. Trans. 

Soil. — Mr. Hovy of Boston, one of 
the best of the American horticulturists, 
is quite right in recommending, as " the 
best soil for the ranunculus, a strong 
rich mellow loam ; but good garden 
loam, enriched with very old cow ma- 
nure, or leaf-mould, will answer — fresh 
mould, however, will insure a much 
better bloom." 

" A somewhat moist and cool situa- 
tion," says Dr. Horner, one of the best 
of amateur floriculturists, " is the most 
suitable. The bed, therefore, should 
be so situated that it receive but a few 
hours of the morning sun, and be in the 
lowest part of the garden. It must not 
be raised higher than the surrounding 
walks ; should be two feet in depth of 
soil, and have board instead of box 
edging, that slugs, &c, which often eat 
the tender foliage and opening flower- 
buds of some varieties, may not be 
sheltered. The only suitable soil is a 
retentive loam, from the surface of a 
rich old pasture, the sods included ; to 
which should be added, and well in- 
corporated, one third of thoroughly- 
decayed cow manure. Fresh manure 



will not reach it at all, or if they do, 
their sudden transition into deep com- 
post is at least unnatural : it is more 
consonant with reason that the food 
should be generally and equally dis- 
tributed." — Gard. Chron. 

Planting. — "The bed being about 
four feet in width," adds Dr. Horner, 
" and any suitable length, and having 
been neatly smoothed over, the roots 
should be planted about five inches 
distant from each other in rows, which, 
again, should be about six inches apart. 
If planted closer, as is commonly the 
case, the plants will grow comparatively 
weak, and bloom more sparingly. 

" The situation of the rows having 
been marked out, holes, one and a half 
inch deep, should be dibbled with the 
finger, or other instrument, in which 
the roots should be compactly set, and 
covered over with soil, after the manner 
of dibbling beans, by this means the 
surrounding soil is not disturbed, but 
left close and retentive. 

" The next best plan is drawing drills 
across the beds in rows, setting the 
roots therein, and then filling them up 
with the displaced soil ; the worst of all 
plans being the raking the bed evenly 
over, setting the roots on it, and then 
covering the whole one and a half inch 
with loose soil — yet this is commonly 
practised. " — Ibid. 

Choice of Roots. — Mr. Glenny recom- 
mends " the middle sized, with firm 
tubers and plump buds, as preferable 
for planting; and care should be taken 
to place a little sand under and over 
each, to guard them against too much 
moisture." — Gard. and Tract. Florist. 
General Management. — " About the 
beginning of April," says Dr. Horner, 
" the young plants will appear above 
ground, when the loosened soil should 
be carefully yet firmly compressed with 



must be avoided, as the roots will not j the fingers about the roots. 



bloom where it exists, but many will 
perish. All hot and stimulating com- 
posts are equally pernicious. With the 
enriched soil just recommended, the 
bed should be made at the beginning 
of October, and finished off", and, on no 
account, disturbed till planting time ; 
for it is all important that the soil be 
compact and close in which the roots 
are planted. 

" The practice of putting some inches 
of manure at the bottom of the bed is 
not to be commended ; the roots either 



" During the months of April and 
May, should a continuance of dry 
weather prevail, water may be cautious- 
ly administered at intervals in an even- 
ing, but only just so much as will pre- 
vent the soil of the bed from cracking ; 
or a little moss, or old spent tanner's 
bark, &c, may be neatly placed be- 
tween the rows, which will retain the 
moisture in the soil. The injudicious 
and over abundant application of water 
is a very common error, and one of the 
greatest evils. It not unfrequently hap- 



RAN 



pens that plants, which have looked 
well for a time, at length begin to turn 
yellow in the foliage, and the flower 
buds dwindle and go off. 

" The dying of the leaves in some in- 
stances evidently depends on a want of 
vigour, or partial rot in the root ; and, 
in some few cases, it would appear to 
be caused by large earthworms, forming 
their wide tracks amid the roots of the 
plants, nearly undermining them ; but 
in the great majority of cases, it is pro- 
duced by injudicious watering. 

" During the expansion of the flower 
buds, and when they are fully blown, a 
stage and awning should be erected 
over the bed, as in the case of tulips, 
that rain and hot sun may be excluded ; 
and gentle watering every second or 
third evening, may be given, which will 
keep the bed cool and moist, and pro- 
mote the size of the flower. As much 
air should be admitted as possible, that 
the flower-stems be not drawn and 
weakened." — Gard. Ch'ron. 

Protection during Winter. — This 
is essential ; and the following plan, 
adopted by Mr. Glenny, is excellent : — 

" Let the bed be made just the size 
of a cucumber frame ; place one of 
these on the bed, and if there is danger 
of heavy rains, or severe weather, put 
on the sashes. As soon as heavy frost 
sets in, the whole of the interior of the 
frame must be filled with leaves, and 
the sashes replaced, and a few boards 
laid on to keep the leaves from blowing 
away. In this manner, the whole may 
remain until April, or until all danger 
of frost is over, when the leaves, frames, 
&c, may be entirely removed." — 
Gard. and Prac. Flor. 

Taking up the Roots. — Upon this 
point, the same excellent authority di- 
rects this to be done « a fortnight after 
the last flowers have faded, when the 
foliage looks yellowish. It is a very 
nice operation, and should not be done 
hastily. The best way is to pare off 
three inches of the soil into a sieve, if 
the bed is composed of mixed sorts, 
and then, by shaking out the earth, the 
roots will remain. 

" When the varieties are named, 
they must be taken up singly, and put 
in a box correctly labeled. They must 
not be placed in the sun, but may be 
carried to a dry room, where they may 
remain till the earth is sufficiently dry 
to shake off easily, when they should 



495 

-♦ — 



RAP 



be put into paper bags." — Gard. and 
Prac. Flor. 

Late Succession of Blooms. — To ob- 
tain this, we have the following direc- 
tions by Mr. H. Groom, the well known 
florist : — 

" The beds are prepared in the usual 
manner, the ground immediately after- 
wards well watered with lime water; 
but to destroy the worms, which are 
otherwise apt to draw the roots from 
their places ; afterwards water with 
clear cow-dung water, until the foliage 
makes its appearance. The beds are 
then kept shaded from nine in the morn- 
ing till five or six in the evening, till the 
bloom is over. For a bloom all the sea- 
son, commence in February, and plant 
every fortnight or three weeks; in Sep- 
tember, plant in a frame, and you will 
have a bloom about January or Februa- 
ry." — Hort. Trans. 

Forcing.— Mr. Bouche of Berlin, a 
florist, gives these directions : — 

" Select tubers which have been kept 
three or four months, or even a year, 
over the season of planting, these being 
more easily excited than those which 
have been only the usual time out of the 
soil, plant them in pots about the be- 
ginning of August; and, by bringing 
these into the green-house at different 
periods, a bloom is kept up from Octo- 
ber to February." — Gard. Mag. 

RAPE, or COLESEED. Brassica na- 
pus esculentus. Like mustard and other 
small salading, it may be sown at any 
period of the year, when in request, 
being allowed a separate bed. It is 
cultivated as Mustard, which see. 

To obtain Seed. — Some plants of a 
sowing made about the middle of July 
must be thinned to eighteen inches 
apart; they will survive the winter, and 
flower in the May and June of the next 
year. The seed, which is produced in 
great abundance, ripens in July and 
August, and must be cut as it does so, 
and laid upon cloths to dry, as it is very 
apt to shed. 

RAPE (EDIBLE-ROOTED). This 
name may be applied to a variety of the 
rape mentioned by Mr. Dickson, one of 
the vice-presidents of the Horticultural 
Society. Its root is white and carrot- 
shaped, about the size of the middle- 
finger. It is much more delicate in 
flavour than the turnip, like which root 
it is cooked, only that it is not peeled 
but scraped, its skin being remarkably 



RAP 



496 

— ♦ — 



R AS 



thin. It has been cultivated for a great 
length of years on the continent, and 
for about thirty years in this country ; 
but only by one person, as far as Mr. 
Dickson is aware. 

Time of Sowing. It is propagated by 
seed, which, for the main crop, may be 
sown from the middle of July to the 
end of August, or even later. These 
will supply the table until April ; and 
if wanted throughout the year, a little 
may be sown in the latter end of Octo- 
ber, the plants from which will be fit 
for use, if they succeed during April 
and May: the last crop to be inserted 
from the middle of January to the mid- 
dle of February, which will come in at 
the end of May and during June. On 
a north border, and if the soil is sandy 
and moist, it is possible to have them 
sweet and tender during the whole 
summer, to effect which the seed must 
be sown at the close of March and May. 

Cultivation is the same as turnips. In 
dry weather the beds must be watered 
regularly until the plants have got three 
or four leaves. 

Soil. — One great advantage attending 
the cultivation of this vegetable is, that 
it requires no manure. Any soil that is 
poor and light, especially if sandy, is 
suitable to it. In rich manured earth it 
grows much larger, but not so sweet 
and good. 

To obtain seed. — Mr. Dickson recom- 
mends, in February or March, some of 
the finest roots to be transplanted to 
two feet asunder; but it would perhaps 
be a better practice to leave them where 
grown. The ground is to be hoed re- 
peatedly, and kept clear of weeds. The 
seed must be cut as soon as ripe, and 
treated as directed for turnips, &c. 

RAPHANUS. Three species. Har- 
dy annuals, except R. landra, which is 
an herbaceous perennial. Seed. Rich 
mould. See Radish. 

RAPHIOLEPIS. Four species. 
Half-hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

RASPAILIA microphylla. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

RASPBERRY. Rubus idaus. 

Best Varieties. — Red. — Fastolff, or 
Bee-hive, Franconia, Antwerp, red ; 
Barnet; Cornish; Double-bearing, and 
Genncssee. 

Yellow. — Antwerp, yellow; Cox's 
Honey; Old white. 



The Fastolff (Fig. 142) has been " re- 
cently received from England, where 
it was raised or discovered near the 
castle of that name. It has produced 
fruit at Philadelphia the two past sea- 
sons, and quite equals its transatlantic 
character, which is higher than that of 
any of its tribe. The fruit is large, deep 
red, inclining to purple, well flavoured, 
and yielded longer than usual. Such was 
the description written before the fruit 
of the present year (1846) had matured ; 
another season's observation has con- 
firmed it. The annexed drawing, ac- 
curately copied from nature, has been 
supplied by Doctor William D. Brinckle. 
The plants are yet scarce, and conse- 
quently higher priced than the old va- 
rieties ; but from its adaptation to our 
climate, it will, it is hoped, be speedily 
increased, and widely distributed — so 
valuable an acquisition one could desire 
to see domesticated in every garden in 
the land." — Rural Reg. 

The Franconia was "imported from 
France some years since; it is hardy, 
fruitful, and may be safely recommend- 
ed as in all respects desirable. This is, 
perhaps, taking all its merits into ac- 
count, next in value to the Fastolff." 
— Rural Reg. 

Propagation by Seed. — New varieties 
are easily raised from seed. Wash 
away the pulp from some of the finest 
thoroughly ripe fruit, dry the seed, and 
sow it the same autumn in a dry border, 
giving it the shelter of a frame through 
the winter. Trim and plant out the 
seedlings to remain in the autumn fol- 
lowing, and they will bear in the suc- 
ceeding summer. 

By Suckers. — These spring from the 
root annually, and grow from three to 
five feet in height the same year, form- 
ing plants by autumn or winter for 
transplanting, to bearfiuit the following 
summer. 

Planting maybe done any time from 
October till March, the earlier the bet- 
ter, in open weather. Raise the plants 
carefully with plenty of fibres; shorten 
any long straggling root; and cut off 
any naked woody part of the root of 
the old stool, observing at the same 
time, if one or more buds appear near 
the root, they, being the embryo of 
future shoots, must be very carefully 
preserved ; and shorten each sucker at 
top to about three or more feet long, 
according to their strength — they are 



497 
Fig. 142.— ( p. 4 96.) 




^m it 

It * I 



w 



RASPBERRY. 



R AS 



498 

— ♦— 



RED 



then ready for planting : having previ- 
ously to this chosen an open spot of 
good ground and trenched it, put in the 
plants as soon as possible, in rows a 
yard and a half apart, and a yard asun- 
der in the rows. If planted closer the 
plants, producing numerous suckers in 
summer, grow so close as to exclude 
the due influence of sun and air from 
the fruit, as well as render it trouble- 
some to gather the produce. If the 
planting is performed late in the spring, 
give a good watering, and repeat it oc- 
casionally till the plants have struck 
fresh root. 

After-Culture. — Keep them clean 
from weeds all summer by broad hoe- 
ing, giving an annual dressing in au- 
tumn, cutting down the decayed stems 
that bore the preceding summer. Thin 
the young succession bearers; clear 
away all intermediate suckers between 
those of the main stocks ; and then 
point with a fork the ground between 
the rows. 

Previous to the above-mentioned an- 
nual dressing of raspberries, observe 
that, as they produce a fresh supply of 
shoots or suckers every year for bear- 
ing the next, therefore the annual dress- 
ing be performed anytime from October 
till March. First proceed to clear out 
all the decayed stems, being last sum- 
mer's bearers, breaking them down 
close to the bottom ; then examine the 
supply of young shoots for next year's 
bearing. In March select three or four 
of the strongest shoots on each stool, 
cutting all the others away close to the 
ground ; shorten those left according 
to their strength, cutting them general- 
ly a little below the bend, at the top of 
the shoots, to about three or four feet 
in length, both to render them more 
robust, to support themselves more 
firmly upright in summer, and to pro- 
mote a stronger supply of laterals for 
flowering and fruiting. Allow them a 
little rotten dung or leaf-mould once 
every other year, applying it in the 
spring. Make a plantation every four 
or five years in a fresh spot of ground ; 
as, after that period of time, the plants, 
although they may continue shooting 
with tolerable vigour, yet are apt to be 
less fruitful, and the fruit smaller, than 
in younger plantations in fresh ground. 
— Abercrombie. 

Autumn Crop. — To obtain of the 
Antwerp, and other large varieties, 



Mr. Mearns recommends, " in May 
the removal of the young fruit-bearing 
shoots from the canes, leaving in some 
cases one or two eyes, in others cutting 
them clean off. Under either plan they 
soon show an abundance of vigorous 
shoots, frequently three or four from 
each eye, which produce plenty of blos- 
soms in the beginning of July, and on 
these a good crop of fine raspberries is 
borne in August." — Hort. Trans. 

Training. — The earliest and finest 
are obtained from canes planted beneath 
a south wall, and trained against it in 
this form. (Fig. 143.) But in the open 
ground the best mode of training is 
round small hoops, thus. (Fig. 144.) 
The worst form is plaiting the canes 
together; and training in arches or other 
compact forms, excluding the light and 
warmth of the sun, is little better. 



Fig. 144. 




Forcing. — Raspberries may be forced 
growing either in pots or in the borders 
of the house. They may be also plant- 
ed on the outside of a pit, the bearing 
canes being introduced withinside and 
trained to a trellis, whilst the present 
year's shoots are left outside. 

RATABIDA columnaris, and its va- 
riety. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division or seeds. Common soil. 

RATTLESNAKE FERN. Botrichium 
virginicum. 

RATTLESNAKE ROOT. Polygala 
senega. ' 

RAUWOLFIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs or trees. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

REAUMURIA. Two species. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

RED BAY. Laurus carolinensis. 

RED CEDAR. Juniperus virginiana. 

RED GUM TREE. Eucalyptus re- 
sinifera. 



RED 



REN 



RED NIGHTSHADE. Erica Hali- 
cacaba. 

RED SPIDER. See Acarus. 
REEDS. See Shelter. 
REEVESIAThyrsoidea. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings, with 
the leaves. Light turfy loam, or loam 
and peat. 

REHMANNIA chinensis. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial, but it succeeds 
best in a cool green-house. Cuttings. 
Common soil. 

REICHARDIA hexapetala. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich soil 
and a strong heat. 

RELHANIA. Five species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loamy soil. 

RENANTHERA. Three species. 
Stove orchids. Cuttings. Peat mixed 
with broken potsherds, moss, or wood. 
RENDLE'S TANK SYSTEM. First 
suggested, I believe, by Mr. Rendle, 
nurseryman, of Plymouth. I have given, 
in the customary monthly calendars, the 
necessary intimations when the bark- 
beds will probably require stirring, but 
those troublesome, uncertain, and dan- 
gerous operations, dangerous to the 
plants, are entirely rendered needless 
by Mr. Rendle's plan. It has been 
adopted by some of the best practical 
gardeners with entire satisfaction. 

A tank of iron or wood, twenty feet 
long, five feet broad, and six inches 
deep, is constructed in the centre of 
the house, and surrounded by a walk, 
except at the end, where the boiler is 
fixed for heating it. The top of the 
tank is covered with large slabs of 
slate, cemented together, to prevent 
the excessive escape of steam. Around 
this is a frame sufficiently high to re- 
tain the bark, in which the pots are 
plunged. The boiler and tank are 
filled with water, and this circulates, 
when the fire is lighted under the 
former, by means of two pipes, one 
from the top of the boiler, and the 
other returning nearer to its bottom. 
The expense of piping, and danger of 
their freezing, is avoided ; the fire only 
requires to be kept lighted for two 
hours at night, and again for the same 
period in the morning; the water, 
when once heated, retaining its tem- 
perature for a long time. In a small 
house, the apparatus can be constructed 
for 51. , and in all, for less than half the 
cost of hot-water pipes. The saving 



in tan and labour is also very great ; 
in some places tan is expensive, and 
where it is cheaper, the trouble and 
litter incident to its employment, and 
the dangers of loss from fungi and in- 
sects, of which it is the peculiarly 
fertile foster-parent, render it objec- 
tionable as a source of heat. And 
whenever the tan has to be renewed, 
the trouble and destruction of plants is 
always great. 

" In my new propagating house," 
says Mr. Rendle, " the tank or cistern 
is placed in the centre, with a walk 
surrounding it, so as to enable the 
propagator with greater ease to attend 
to the plants, &c. 

"On the outside of the house is a 
fire-shed, in which the boiler is fixed. 
The tank, made of wood, one and a 
half or two inches thick, which I find 
the cheapest material, (it also prevents 
the water cooling so fast as it does 
either in stone or iron,) may be lined 
with lead or zinc. Exactly in the cen- 
tre of the tank is a partition, serving 
the double purpose of causing the water 
to circulate, (as well as to support the 
edges of the slates,) an aperture being 
left, in the partition, of about two inches 
in breadth, to allow the water a free 
passage. The flow-pipe enters near 
the appendage of the tank, at the mouth 
of which pipe a piece of perforated 
copper is placed, as also at the return- 
pipe, to prevent dirt and sediment from 
finding its way into the boiler. After 
everything is properly fixed, the tank 
is filled with water, which, of course, 

at the same time fills the boiler 

The tank is about four inches deep. 
Across it, and resting on its sides, are 
placed slate stones about an inch and a 
half thick, cut square at the edges. 
These are fastened to each other by 
Roman cement, or Aberthaw lime, to 
prevent a superfluity of steam from 

escaping into the house Around 

the edges of the slates a piece of inch 
board, about nine inches deep, should 
be placed to enclose the sawdust, sand, 
moss, or other plunging material." 

In the following sketch, for which, 
as well as for the next, I am indebted 
to Mr. Rendle, A is a transverse sec- 
tion of Rogers's conical boiler; B is 
the fireplace ; g, the tank : c, the flow- 
pipe; d, the pipe by which the water 
returns to the boiler ; e, is the hole for 
the smoke, which, joined to a flue, /, 



REQ 



500 



RH A 



can be made either to ascend the chim- 
ney at once, or to pass round the house. 

Fig. 145. 




The next sketch is a Pinery, 
up with Mr. Rendle's tank. 



fitted 




It is described as " a very useful and 
most desirable structure for the growth 
of the Pine Apple, with a hollow wall, 
recommended by all garden architects 
in preference to a solid wall — the heat 
or cold being not so readily conducted 
as through a solid mass of masonry." 
Mr. Rendle might have added, that 
hollow walls are also much drier. — 
Rendle , s Treatise on the Tank System. 
See Stove, &c. 

REQUIENIA obcordata. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Young cuttings. Peat, 
loam, and sand. 

RESEDA. Mignonette. Seventeen 
species. Chiefly hardy annuals, bien- 
nials, herbaceous perennials, and a few 
green-house evergreens. Cuttings or 
seeds. Light rich soil. See Mignon- 
ette. 

RETARDING requires as much skill 
as forcing, for as the latter requires the 
application of all that is suitable to the 
promotion of a plant's rapid healthy 
growth, so retarding requires the with- 
holding from it of those contingencies. 
Thus to retard growth, the lowest tem- 



perature, and the least degree of light 
compatible with healthy growth must 
be secured ; and to this end plants for 
succession are often placed on the 
north side of a wall. 

Then again, as in the case of rasp- 
berries and strawberries, plants are 
often cut down in the spring, compelling 
them to form fresh foliage and stems, 
and thus be productive in the autumn 
instead of the summer. 

The vegetation of many bulbs may 
be prevented by merely keeping them 
dry, and, indeed, the withholding the 
usual supply of water, giving it only in 
diminished quantities, is necessary in 
all retarding treatment. To secure the 
entire quiescence of bulbs, and of such 
plants as will bear so low a tempera- 
ture, the atmosphere of the ice-house 
is effectual ; and to this end it should 
have a few shelves for the support of 
boxes or flower pots. Banks of earth 
ranging east and west, and facing the 
north at a very acute angle, are very 
useful in retarding the early advance to 
seed in hot weather, of spinach, let- 
tuces, &c. Espaliers ranging similarly, 
and shaded during the whole of March, 
and the two following months, will 
blossom later and more unfailingly than 
trees more exposed to the sun in spring. 
Similar exclusion of heat and light re- 
tards the ripening of picked fruit, and 
if the air be excluded from them, or 
its oxygen withdrawn, fruit will remain 
unripened for weeks. To effect this, 
put a paste formed of lime, sulphate of 
iron, and water, at the bottom of a 
wide-mouthed glass bottle, then a layer 
of large pebbles to keep the fruit from 
the paste, — then fill the bottle with 
peaches, apricots, or plums, gathered 
a few days before they are ripe, cork 
the bottle tight, and cover the cork 
with melted resin. They have been 
thus kept for a month, and summer 
apples and pears for three months. 
They ripen when again exposed to the 
air. 

RHAMNUS. Thirty-eight species. 
Chiefly hardy evergreen, or deciduous 
shrubs, or trees. Layers, seeds. Com- 
mon soil. The few stove and green- 
house kinds, increase by cuttings; and 
require a light soil. 

RHAPIS. Two species. Dwarfish 
palms. Suckers. Sandy loam. 

RHAPONTICA. Four species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials, except 



RHE 



501 

— ♦ — 



RHO 



R. pulchra, which is a biennial. Divi- 
sion. Common soil. 

R H E E D I A javanica. Stove ever- 
green tree. Ripe cuttings. Peat, loam, 
and sand. 

R HEM AN EI A chinensis. Hardy 
shrub. Cuttings and layers. Rich light 
loam. 

RHEUM. Rhubarb. Fifteen spe- 
cies. Hardy fusiform-rooted peren- 
nials. Division or seed. Rich loamy 
soil. See Rhubarb. 

RHEXIA. Four species. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennials. Division. Peat soil. 

RHINOPETALUM karelini. 
Hardy tuberous-rooted perennial. Off- 
sets. Light rich soil. 

RHIPODENDRON plicatile, and its 
variety. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
Suckers or leaves slightly planted. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

RHODANTHE manglesii. Green- 
house annual. Dr. Lindley recommends 
that " its seeds should be sown at two 
seasons : the first about the beginning 
of September; the second about the 
end of February. The soil the seeds 
are sown in should be rather strong, 
but not rich, for the first sowing, con- 
sisting of a mixture of sandy loam and 
leaf-mould. They should be sown in 
pots and placed in a cold pit or frame, 
if sown in the autumn, which should be 
kept close until the plants are up. The 
young plants should be potted off when 
small, for if allowed to get large before 
potting, they never do any good ; put a 
single plant into a small sixty-pot, they 
must then be returned to the pit or 
frame, and keptclose until they recover 
the effects of the shift ; afterwards hard- 
en by admitting air. Then when there 
is danger of frost, remove them to an 
airy part of the green-house for the 
winter, taking care that they are not 
over watered ; for much depends on 
the manner in which they are treated 
during the winter, as too much or too 
little water will destroy the healthiest 
plants in a short time. In the spring, 
February, repot them into a richer but 
light sandy soil, and place them in a 
warmer and moister situation, and pinch 
off all the first flowers as they appear. 

" The spring-sown plants may be 
treated like other half-hardy annuals, 
only they must have plenty of air to 
keep them from being drawn up weak- 
ly."— Gard. Chron. 

RHODODENDRON. Twenty-six spe- 



cies, and many varieties. Hardy and 
half-hardy evergreen shrubs, except R. 
rhodora, which is deciduous and hardy. 
R. ponticum, Common Rhododendron. 
R. maximum ; R. Caucasicum; R. cam- 
panulatum ; and JR. Catawbiensis, are 
the best hardy species. It is to be re- 
gretted that such a noble evergreen 
shrub as JR. maximum should be so sel- 
dom seen in our grounds. Here in the 
United States, where it is indigenous, 
it is really less known than in England, 
where it forms one of the main features 
of the undergrowth in lawns and plea- 
sure grounds, — when will Americans 
learn to estimate as they deserve, their 
own natural products ! From the above 
named species have been obtained the 
following superior 

Varieties. — R. Russellianum, scarlet ; 
R. Lowei, pale straw; R. tigrinum, 
pale rose: R. nobleanum, dark red; 
R. splendidum, (Cunningham's,) white ; 
R. altaclerence, scarlet; R. multimacu- 
latum, pale rose, spotted; R.arboreum 
roseum, bright rose ; R. Victoria, deep 
red; R. venustum, pink ; R. augustum, 
pale flesh spotted ; R. pulcherrimum, 
scarlet; R. grandiflorum, (Cunning- 
ham's,) pale flesh ; R. macranthum, 
rose; R. Knightii, scarlet ; and R. Car- 
narvonianum, bright rose. 

Hybrids with Azalea. — R. Adonsonii ; 
R. Azaleoides ; R. azaleoides album; 
R. fragrans ; R. luteum ; and R. Gow- 
erianum. 

Green-house Species and Varieties.—- 
R. anthopogon, purple ; R. arboreum 
cinnamomeum, reddish purple; R. lap-, 
ponicum, crimson; R. setosum, purple. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — Mr. 
Glenny gives the following good crite- 
ria : — " The flower large, circular, and 
campanulated, or hollow like a globular 
cup. The five divisions of the petals 
should be concealed by means of the 
lapping over. The petal thick, smooth- 
edged, and stiff. The truss, pyramidal 
or dome-shaped, standing clear of the 
foliage ; the flower compact, touching, 
but not crowding each other ; footstalks 
stiff and elastic. The colour brilliant, 
the spots distinct and contrasted, and 
stand well without fading. The plant 
should be bushy, the foliage bright, 
clear, green, large, and disposed all 
round the branch, especially round the 
flower ; the stems should be well cover- 
ed with leaves, and the bloom should 
be abundant. It should not bloom 



RH 



502 

— • — 



RHO 



until the middle of May, if hardy, for j pots requires much care ; the best and 
those flowering before the frosts have easiest way is to plunge the pots to the 



ceased, have the blooms spoiled." 
Gard. and Prac. Flor. 

Propagation. — By Seed. — The same 
good floricultural authority gives these 
excellent directions : — " The seed ves- 
sels must be gathered as soon as ripe, 
and before they burst ; let them lie in 
a drawer in the stove or green-house, 
or a sunny window, to burst and give 
out their seed : sow immediately ; and, 
to sow thin enough, mix it with twenty 
times its quantity of the smallest sand. 
Sow in pots with good drainage, and the 



rim in coal ashes, and still have frames 
over them for the purpose of preserving 
them from excessive wet, heat, and 
cold. When they have perfected a 
second growth, and are resting, shift 
them into forty-eight sized pots, and 
treat them as before, and so continue 
shifting from size to size until they 
flower." — Gard. and Prac. Flor. — 
Gard. Chron. 

Raising Varieties is best done in 
April from forced plants, the two in- 
tended to be bred from being brought 



following compost. One half rich loam, into bloom at the same time. They 
such as the top spit of an old meadow, | should be widely different in colour, 
sifted through a coarse sieve ; the other! or form, or habit, or some peculiarity 
half the best peat or bog earth, such as ; which may be desirable to combine in 
is formed of the half-decayed fibres j one. Hybrids may be obtained by im- 
broken into pieces and rubbed through pregnating the Rhododendron with pol- 
the same sieve ; by knocking the bottom len from the Azalea, 
of the pan or pot on the potting table or j Grafting. — Mr. Glenny gives these 
bench, the compost will be solid enough j directions: — " Young plants of the R. 
without pressing ; level it and sow very Ponticum must be potted and well es- 
thinly ; then with a fine sieve, sift a lit- tablished before you want to use them. 
tie of the compost on the seeds very | Cut them down within three inches of 
evenly, and only just enough to cover j the pot, and adopt the mode of saddle 
them; over this put a little fine sand, [grafting. See Grafting. 
not more than one sixteenth of an inch " Let the bark of the stock and scion 
deep. Take a brush about the texture [ touch, if possible, all over ; but as the 
and strength of a clothes brush, dip it j stock may be, and often is, the largest, 
in water, turn its hairs upwards, point- j let the bark fit perfectly on one side, 
ing at the seeds, draw your hand along I and fall short on the other. The plants 
the hairs towards you, and they will i should be placed after the operation in 
throw off an almost imperceptible show- i a garden frame kept from the air for a 
er of moisture, by means of which the day or two, and shaded altogether from 
whole surface can be fairly wetted with the sun. Side-grafting and inarching 
out disturbing a seed or a grain of the are better modes of increase for the 
compost. When the seedlings have Rhododendron than saddle-grafting. In 
four good leaves, prick out into other order to insure success, August or Sep- 
pans of the same kind of compost, three i tember is the best time for budding or 
inches apart, carefully raising them grafting Rhododendrons in the open 
without disturbing the surface to hurt , air. This plant being thin-rinded does 
the more backward seedlings, and the best by side-grafting, and buds of it had 
pan may be put back to its place, for also better be inserted after the manner 
the seeds will continue coming up for a of side-grafting, with a portion of the 
considerable time. When pricked out, | soft wood retained behind the bud." — 
they should be watered, and afterwards i Gard. Chron. — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 
regularly. Though in the green-house Grafting may be done at almost any 
keep them under hand-glasses for a few j season of the year, and even the Chinese 
days until re-established, after which | Azalea may be inarched upon them. In 



they may be removed to a cold frame, 
or put out of doors. Shade from the 
mid-day sun, weed regularly, and care- 
fully tend until they have grown to 
touch each other. They should then 
be potted in sixties in the same kind of 
soil. They have now only to be kept 
from getting dry, which in such small 



summer, if a low stock be employed, it 
is sufficient to turn over it a hand-glass; 
f the grafting be in the spring or 



but 
autumn 



to obtain success a little bot- 



tom heat is necessary. 

Other Modes of Propagation. — Lay- 
ering and inarching may both be suc- 
cessfully practised with the E.hododen- 



RHU 



503 

— • — 



RHU 



dron, but require no particular direc- 
tions. Cuttings will also sometimes 
succeed, and if a branch is desirably 
removable let it be cut off. The cut- 
tings should be only half ripe. Plant 
in a large sized pot, two-thirds full of 
the compost, cover with a glass, fitting 
within the rim of the pot: place in a 
frame, with a trifling bottom-heat, or in 
a common propagating house; or, for 
want of a better accommodation, in a 
green-house or cold garden frame. The 
glass must be wiped clean every morn- 
ing, and the sand kept moist. Neglect 
of watering is fatal . When the cuttings 
are struck they must be treated as seed- 
lings. — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 

Soil for Out-door Kinds. — A light 
loam, manured annually with a mixture 
of peat and leaf-mould suits them best. 
The subsoil should be retentive, for if 
very dry they will not flourish. 

Pruning. — They require but little 
pruning, except to remove superfluous 
branches, &c, and this is best done in 
April. Mr. Glenny says that old plants 
which have become bare at the bottom 
are easily converted into standards by 
selecting the largest bare stem, cutting 
all the rest away, and pruning the head 
into shape. If the stem be growing out 
slopingly, you have only to dig up the 
plant and place it upright. 

Green-house Culture. — Whilst grow- 
ing, that is from about the end of April 
to the middle of June, keep them in a 
temperature of which the extreme at 
night and in the day are 45° and 60o. 
Supply them liberally with water during 
that time, and then remove them to a 
cool situation out of doors, otherwise 
they will be super-luxuriant and not 
flower. 

Forcing. — To obtain early flowers, 
place some potted plants in a very gen- 
tle heat the last week in December. 

RHUBARB. Rheum rhaponticum, R. 
hybridum, R. undulatum, and R. palma- 
tum. This last is the medicinal, or 
Turkey Rhubarb of the shops — the es- 
culent one or pie-plant, as it is familiar- 
ly termed, has become quite a common 
inmate of our American gardens; its 
early growth, affording facility for pies 
and tarts, long before green fruit can be 
obtained, and its close resemblance in 
flavour to the gooseberry, render it al- 
most indispensable. 

Varieties. — There are several varie- 
ties, of which the most preferable are 



the Tobolsk ; Gigantic ; Victoria, (best;) 
and Bucks or Elford. 

Soil and Situation. — The soil best 
suited to these plants is light, rich, 
deep, unshaded, and moderately moist. 
A poor heavy or shallow soil never pro- 
duces them in perfection. 

Sowing. — It may be propagated by 
cuttings, but the mode almost univer- 
sally practised is by seed. Sow soon 
after it is ripe, in September or October, 
for if kept out of the ground until the 
spring, it often continues dormant for 
twelve months : if the danger of this, 
however, is risked, sow early in Feb- 
ruary or March, in drills three feet 
apart, and an inch deep, the plants to 
remain where raised ; for although they 
will bear removing, yet it always checks 
and somewhat lessens their growth. 
When they make their appearance in 
the spring, and have been thoroughly 
cleared of weeds, thin to six or eight 
inches asunder, and let the surface of 
the ground about them be loosened 
with the hoe. At the close of summer, 
when it can be determined which are 
the strongest plants, finally thin to three 
or four feet, or the Gigantic and Victo- 
ria to six. In autumn remove the de- 
cayed leaves, and point in a little well 
putrefied stable-dung, and earth up the 
stools. In the spring hoe the bed, and 
as the stalks when blanched, are much 
less harsh in taste, require less sugar to 
be rendered palatable, and are greatly 
improved in appearance, dig a trench 
between the rows, and the earth from 
it place about a foot thick over the stool. 
This covering must be removed when 
the cutting ceases, and the plants allow- 
ed to grow at liberty. As the earth in 
wet seasons is apt to induce decay, the 
covering may be advantageously formed 
of coal ashes or drift sand. 

To obtain Seed. — Those plants pro- 
duce the seed in greatest perfection 
that are not gathered from, but on no 
account must they be subjected to the 
process of blanching. Two year old 
plants often produce seed, but in their 
third year always. It must be gathered as 
soon as ripe, and great care taken that 
none is scattered over the beds, for the 
plants thence produced often spring up, 
and greatly injure the old plants by 
growing unobserved amongst them. 

Forcing. — Plant a single row three 
feet apart in ground that has been 
trenched two spades deep, and dressed 



RHU 



504 

— ♦ — 



RIC 



■with well putrefied dung at the time. | the roots are placed on a level with 
The forcing may commence in Decern- each other, and about an inch below 
ber ; first cover either with sea-kale or j the surface. These being covered with 
common garden pots (twelves), but inverted pots of the same size, may be 
chimney pots are still better, the leaf- placed in a vinery or hot-bed, and on 
stalks becoming much longer and finer, the approach of spring, probably any 
and envelope them with fermenting time after January, any room or cellar 
dung. When well up, the pots are re- will be sufficiently warm. If copiously 
moved, except when chimney pots are supplied with water, the plants vege- 
used, and large hand-glasses substi- tate rapidly and vigorously, and each 
tuted; covering is required every night, I pot will produce three successional 



and in dull weather with thick mats 
By this mode the plants are very liable 
to be broken, as their leaves soon touch 
the sides. A frame is much less objec- 
tionable, formed by driving stakes into 
the ground on each side of the bed, al- 
ternating with the plants. These are to 
be three feet high above ground, and the 
space between the two rows of stakes 
two feet at the bottom, but approach- 
ing each other, and fastened by cross 
pieces, so as to be only fifteen inches 
apart at top. To the sides and top stout 
laths are fixed to prevent the dung fall- 
ing upon the plants, as represented in 
the accompanying sketch. 

Fig. 147. 




The dung may either be fresh, or 
Jhat which has previously undergone 
fermentation, and placed all round the 
frame eight, or ten inches thick, and the 
top covered with long litter. The tem- 
perature in the interior should have a 
range from 55° to 60°. If it rises higher, 
two or three large holes made through 
the top soon corrects it. 

A frame renders hand-glasses or any 
.other coverunnecessary, requires much 
less attention, and produces plants of 
excellent quality. Rhubarb may be 
forced without either pots or frame, by 
merely covering the plants six inches 
deep with light litter, care being taken 
that the plants are not injured. 

Mr. Knight's mode of forcing is to 
place " in the winter as many plants as 
necessary in large deep pots, each pot 
receiving as many as it can contain, and 
the interstices entirely filled up by fine 
sandy loam, washed in. The tops of 



cuttings, the first two being the most 
plentiful. As soon as the third is ga- 
thered, the roots may be changed, and 
those removed replanted in the ground, 
when they will attain sufficient strength 
to be forced again in a year's time. If 
not, it is of little consequence, for year- 
old roots raised from cuttings, or even 
seed sown in autumn, are sufficiently 
strong for use." 

Propagation by Division. — Mr. Ro- 
gers, a successful cultivator, says, that 
" when the rhubarb is propagated by 
the root, care must be taken to retain a 
bud on the crown of each offset, toge- 
ther with a small portion of the root 
itself, with, if possible, some fibres at- 
tached to it. These offsets may be taken 
from roots of three or four years old, 
without injury to the plant. They may 
be planted where they are intended to 
remain, at the same distance and in the 
same manner as advised for the seed- 
lings." 

Taking for Use. — " Scrape away a 
little of the earth, then bend down the 
stalk you wish to remove, and slip it 
off from the crown without breaking it, 
and without using a knife. The stalks 
are fit to gather when the leaves are 
but half expanded, but a larger produce 
is obtained by letting them remain till 
full grown." — Gard. and Pract. Flor. 

RHUS. Seventy-seven species. 
Chiefly green-house evergreen shrubs, 
some hardy deciduous trees, shrubs, 
and climbers, or creepers. The stove 
and green-house kinds increase by ripe 
cuttings, the hardy species by cuttings 
and layers. Common soil suits them 
all. 

RIBES. Forty-four species and many 
varieties. Hardy deciduous shrubs. 
Cuttings. Common soil. See Currant 
and Gooseberry. 

RICHARDIA athiopica. Green- 
house herbaceous perennial. Offsets. 
Light rich soil. 

R I C H I E A fragrans. Stove ever- 



RIC 



green climber. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

RICINUS. Eight species. Half- 
hardy annuals and green-house ever- 
green shrubs. Seeds and cuttings. 
Rich soil. R. communis produces the 
Castor Oil. 

RICOTIA lunaria. Hardy annual. 
Seeds. Light sandy soil. 

RIDGING is digging the soil into 
aaa parallel ridges in this form — so 
' ' ' as to expose it thoroughly to the 
action either of the atmosphere or of 
frost. 

M. Schluber says, "that freezing re- 
duces the consistency of soils most re- 
markably, and that in the case of clays 
and other adhesive soils, the diminution 
of this consistency amounts to at least 
fifty per cent." 

In hoeing clay he found it reduced 
from sixty-nine to forty-five of the scale 
already stated, and in the ordinary 
arable soil from thirty-three to twenty. 
He satisfactorily explains this phenome- 
non, by observing that the crystals of 
ice pervading the entire substance of 
the frozen soil, necessarily separate the 
particles of earth, rendering their points 
of contact fewer. 

Ridging, however, should not be con- 
fined to the winter, for in summer the 
extra exposure to the air and heat is 
highly promotive of vegetation — it im- 
pregnates the soil with oxygen, pro- 
motes the decay of stubborn vegetable 
remains, and disturbs predatory vermin. 

Mr. Barnes says, " I keep all ground, 
as soon as a crop is done with, well 
trenched, burying all the refuse I pos- 
sibly can in a green state, casting the 
earth into rough ridges, tumbling those 
ridges over with a strong fork on frosty 
mornings in winter and spring, and 
during hot sunny days in summer, con- 
tinually changing the crops. Keeping 
the hoe at work at all seasons in suit- 
able weather, forking up all odd cor- 
ners and spare ground without loss of 
time. By this management, I find the 
ground is always in good condition and 
never tired by cropping, some judgment 
only being exercised in applying such 
properties again to the soil that have 
been taken from it, or that are likely to 
be required by the succeeding crop." 

An effectual mode of ridging is thus 
described : 

" Let a, 6, c, d, represent a section 
of the ground to be trenched two feet 




a. \c ' \ / d 



tii 



deep. In the first place the ground is 
measured out in longitudinal beds four 
feet wide ; this done, the top spit of the 
bed c. is laid on the bed g, and the 
second spit of the bed c, is laid on h. 
The first or top spit of the bed /, is then 
laid on h, so that the top soil and sub- 
soil are kept on separate and alternate 
beds, and may be mixed, reversed, or 
returned as taken out, at the will of 
the operator. By this method the ad- 
vantages are — much greater exposure 
of surface to the action of the weather; 
the opportunity of incorporating with 
the soil any desirable or obtainable 
manures, and at any desired depth ; a 
thorough blending of the soil to the 
depth of two or three feet; and it also 
facilitates the operation of draining, 
where necessary. It is needless to add, 
that when the first thrown-out beds are 
sufficiently pulverized, they are levelled 
down, and others thrown out in the 
same manner; g, h, i, represent the 
ridges thrown out and left as rough as 
possible." — Gard. Chron. 

RIGIDELLA flammea. Stove tuber- 
ous-rooted perennial. Offsets or seeds. 
Light rich soil. 

RINGING is a practice adopted for 
the purpose of checking the return of 
the sap, and thereby confining a larger 
supply to the blossom. It is removing 
an entire zone of bark, about an inch 
wide, around the branch to be ren- 
dered more fruitful, and taking care 
that the bark be completely removed 
down to the very wood. This was 
designated the ring of Pomona, but it 
certainly was not auspiciously received 
by that deity ; for although it renders 
the part of the branch superior to the 
wound more fruitful for two or three 
seasons, yet it renders the branch un- 
sightly by the swelling which occurs 
around the upper lip of the wound, and 
is always followed by disease and un- 
fruitful ness. See Ligature. 

RIPOGONUM. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen climbers. — 
Young cuttings. Loam and peat. 

RIVEA UlicefoUa. Stove evergreen 
twiner. Cuttings. Rich .oam ana peat. 



RI V 



506 

— ♦ — 



ROC 



RIVINA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. 
Light soil. 

ROBINIA. Seven species and many 
varieties. All hardy deciduous trees, 
except R. guineensis and jR. purpurea, 
which are stove evergreens. Increased 
by young cuttings. Loam, sand, and 
peat. The hardy kinds are increased 
by layers or grafts, and require only 
common soil. 

ROCAMBOLE. Allium Scorodo- 
prasum. Sometimes called Spanish 
Garlic, has its bulbs or cloves growing 
in a cluster. The stem bears many 
bulbs at its summit, which as well as 
those of the root are often preferred in 
cooking to garlic, being of much milder 
flavour. 

Time of Insertion. — It is best propa- 
gated by the root bulbs, those of the 
stem being slower in production. The 
plantation may be made either in Feb- 
ruary, March, or early part of April, 
as well as throughout the autumn, in 
drills or by the dibble, in rows six 
inches apart each way, and usually 
two inches within the ground ; though 
the plants would thrive better if grown 
on the surface as recommended for 
the shalot. In other respects they are 
cultivated as directed for Garlic. A 
very small bed is sufficient for the sup- 
ply of the largest family. 

ROCHEA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Partly dried 
cuttings. Sandy loam, peat, and brick 
rubbish. 

ROCKET. Hesperis. 
ROCK ROSE. Cistus and Convolvu- 
lus Dorycnium. 

ROCK- WORK. "Mere rocks, un- 
less they are peculiarly adapted to cer- 
tain impressions, may surprise, but 
can hardly please ; they are too far 
removed from common life, too barren 
and inhospitable, rather desolate than 
solitary, and more horrid than terrible. 
So austere a character cannot be long 
engaging if its rigour be not softened 
by circumstances, which may belong 
either to these or to more cultivated 
spots ; and when the dreariness is ex- 
treme, little streams and waterfalls are 
of themselves insufficient for the pur- 
pose : an intermixture of vegetation is 
also necessary, and, on some occa- 
sions, even marks of inhabitants are 



proper. 

"If such a scene 



occurs within the 



precincts of a park or a garden, no ex- 
pense should be spared to meliorate 
the soil, wherever any soil can be 
found. Without some vegetation 
among the rocks, they are only an 
object of curiosity or a subject of won- 
der ; but verdure alone will give some 
relief to the dreariness of the scene, 
and shrubs or bushes, without trees, 
are a sufficiency of wood. The thickets 
may also be extended by the creeping 
plants — such as pyracantha, vines, and 
ivy— to wind up the sides, or cluster on 
the tops of the rocks; and to this vege- 
tation may be added some symptoms of 
inhabitants, but they must be slight and 
few : the use of them is only to cheer, 
not to destroy the solitude of the place; 
and such therefore should be chosen as 
are sometimes found in situations re- 
tired from public resort. A cottage 
may be lonely, but it must not here 
seem ruinous and neglected ; it should 
be tight and warm, with every mark of 
comfort about it, to which its position 
in some sheltered recess may greatly 
contribute. A cavity also in the rocks 
rendered easy of access, improved to a 
degree of convenience, and maintained 
in a certain state of preservation, will 
suggest similar ideas of protection from 
the bitterest inclemencies of the sky, 
and even of occasional refreshment and 
repose. But we may venture still fur- 
ther. A mill is of necessity often built 
at some distance from the town it sup- 
plies ; and here it would at the same 
time apply the water to a use, and in- 
crease its agitation. The dale may, 
besides, be made the haunt of those 
animals — such as goats — which are 
sometimes wild and sometimes domes- 
tic, and which, accidentally appearing, 
will divert the mind from the sensa- 
tions natural to the scene, but not 
agreeable if continued longer without 
interruption. 

" These, and such other expedients, 
will approximate the severest retreat 
to the habitations of men, and convert 
the appearance of a perpetual banish- 
ment into that of a temporary retire- 
ment from society. 

" When rocks retire from the eye 
down a gradual declivity, we can, 
by raising the upper ground, deepen 
the fall, lengthen the perspective, and 
give both height and extent to those at 
a distance. This effect may be still 
increased by covering this upper 



ROC 



507 



ROC 



ground with a thicket, which shall 
cease, or be lowered, as it descends. 
A thicket, on other occasions, makes 
the rocks which rise out of it seem 
larger than they are. If they stand 
upon a bank overspread with shrubs, 
their beginning is at the least uncer- 
tain, and the presumption is that they 
start from the bottom. 

" Another use of this brushy under- 
wood is, to conceal the fragments and 
rubbish which have fallen from the 
sides and the brow, and which are 
often unsightly. 

" Rocks are seldom remarkable for 
the elegance of their forms ; they are 
too vast and too rude to pretend to 
delicacy ; but their shapes are often 
agreeable, and we can affect those 
shapes to a certain degree — at least 
we can cover many blemishes in them 
by conducting the growth of shrubby 
and creeping plants about them. For 
all these purposes mere underwood 
suffices ; but for greater effects larger 
trees are requisite. They are worthy 
of the scene, and not only improve- 
ments but accessions to its grandeur. 
We are used to rank them among the 
noblest objects of nature ; and when 
we see that they cannot aspire to the 
midway of the heights round them, the 
rocks are raised by the comparison. A 
single tree is, therefore, often prefera- 
ble to a clump ; the size, though really 
less, is more remarkable ; and clumps 
are, besides, generally exceptionable, 
in a very wild spot, from the suspicion 
of art which attends them. But a wood 
is free from that suspicion ; and its own 
character of greatness recommends it to 
every scene of magnificence. 

" On the same principle, all the con- 
sideration which can be should be given 
to the streams. No number of little 
rills are equal to one broad river; and, 
in the principal current, some varieties 
may be sacrificed to importance. But 
a degree of strength should always be 
preserved. The water, though it needs 
not be furious, must not be dull ; for 
dignity, when most serene, is not lan- 
guid ; and space will hardly atone for 
want of animation. 

" Inhabitants furnish frequent oppor- 
tunities to strengthen the appearances 
of force by giving intimations of danger. 
A house placed at the edge of a preci- 
pice — any building on the pinnacle of a 
crag — makes that situation seem form- 



idable, which might otherwise have 
been unnoticed. A steep, in itself not 
very remarkable, becomes alarming 
when a path is carried aslant up the 
side. A rail, on the brow of a perpen- 
dicular fall, shows that the height is 
frequented and dangerous; and a com- 
mon foot-bridge, thrown over a cleft 
between rocks, has a still stronger 
effect. In all these instances the im- 
agination immediately transports the 
spectator to the spot, and suggests the 
idea of looking down such a depth ; in 
the last that depth is a chasm, and the 
situation is directly over it. 

"If the body of the rock is intended 
to be raised much above the ground 
level, a quantity of soil and rubbish 
should be carried into the centre of the 
space. This soil, besides serving to 
support the rockwork, will also form a 
border for the plants to grow in. Hav- 
ing at hand plenty of large rough stones, 
broken bricks, or stony rubbish of any 
kind or colour, proceed with these to 
imitate the form of natural rock as 
nearly as possible. Rough, bold, an- 
gular projections, and deeply-formed 
chasms, are the principal features in 
natural scenery which please us most. 
A rock, with a flat unbroken surface, 
whether horizontal or perpendicular, 
presents too much sameness to be pleas- 
ing to the eye: therefore, in imitating 
nature, the projections should be varied 
and bold, and unless raggedness and 
intricacy form principal features in its 
composition, it will lose much of its 
effect. If the rock-work be on a large 
scale, it should not be one continued 
line, but broken at intervals, in one part 
lost beneath the surface of the earth, 
and again rising in another part and 
resuming its sinuous form. 

" So far there is little difference be- 
tween this and the common method of 
making artificial rock. When, how- 
ever, every stone has been arranged to 
suit the eye, the interstices between 
them are to be filled up with any kind 
of rough mortar. Of course fissures, 
and similar places intended for the 
plants which are to cover the rock, 
must be left open, so that the roots may 
penetrate to the soil beneath the stones. 
The next operation is to daub the whole 
mass over with Roman cement. For 
this purpose the latter should be mixed 
with water until it is of the consistence 
of thick paint, in which state it may be 



ROC 



508 



ROO 



applied to the stones with a large 
painter-s brush. The spaces between 
the stones having been tilled with rough 
mortar prevents the cement from being 
wasted. The thickness of the latter on 
the stones need not be more than the 
eighth of an inch: it will unite the 
whole into one mass; and rock-work, 
thus constructed, is beyond all compa- 
rison far more natural than that made 
in the usual way. It has none of that 
disjointed appearance which usually ac- 
companies rock-work made without 
cement. After a few months' exposure 
to the weather, rock-work thus formed 
(if skillfully made) cannot without care- 
ful examination be distinguished from a 
natural mass; it will soon cover all but 
the most prominent parts. If the ce- 
ment be of a colour too light, which, 
for some situations, may be the case, a 
little lamp-black, or soot, may be mixed 
with it. Care must, however, be taken 
that no substance which may make the 
cement more porous is used, otherwise 
it will peel from the stones after a hard 
frost. For the benefit of those who 
are not accustomed to using cement, I 
may mention that no more should be 
moistened at once than can be used in 
a short time. If the cement be good it 
will quickly harden, and will then be in 
a manner useless. 

" In preserving cavities in the rock 
for plants, care should be taken that no 
places are left in which the water may 
lodge, or, in frosty weather, the ice, by 
expansion, would split and peel off the 
thin crust of cement, or lowest part of 
them, communicating with the soil be- 
neath the stones, so that the water may 
drain off. 

" In making artificial rock for water- 
falls, or other constructions, where the 
cement may be constantly exposed to 
the action of water, the best water-ce- 
ment should be used. Any preparation 
that does not quickly indurate under 
water, will, in a short time, be washed 
away, and leave nothing but the bare 
stones." — Whateley. 

Plants suited for Rock-work are : — 
Rhododendron ferrugineum; R. hirsu- 
tum; Arctostaphylos Uva ursi ; Cha- 
moeledron procumbens ; Sedum rupes- 
tre; S. Forsterianum ; S. populifolium; 
S. villosum ; S. hexangulare; Arbutus 
phillyreaefolia ; A. pilosa ; Mahonia aqui- 
folium; Ramondia pyrenaica; Soldanella 
alpina ; Androsace villosa ; Crydalis 



nobilis; Phlox ovata; P. subulata ; P. 
nivalis; Vinca minor, florepleno; Cam- 
panula pumiia ; Gentiana verna ; Dryas 
octopetala; Digitalis lutea ; Sibthorpia 
europjea ; Arabis alpina ; Draba azoides; 
Premanthes purpurea ; P. Muralis ; 
Antennaria plantaginea ; Gnaphalium 
arenanum ; Polypodium vulgare cam- 
bricum; P. dryopteris ; Onoclea sensi- 
bilis ; Asplenium adiantum nigrum ; 
Pteris caudata ; Adiantum Capillus 
veneris; Aspidium rigidum; A. Lon- 
chitis. 

RODRIGUEZIA. Six species. Stove 
orchids. Division. Peat and wood. 

ROELLIA. Six species. Chiefly 
green-house evergreen shrubs. R. &e- 
currens, a half-hardy annual ; R. mu- 
cosa, an herbaceous perennial. Seed, 
or young cuttings. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

R. ciliata is a Cape plant, and re- 
quires a green-house in this country. 
It should be potted in light rich soil, 
such as a mixture of peat, leaf-mould, 
sand, and loam. Keep it rather dry 
when it is not growing, but give it plenty 
of water at other times. 

RGEPER4. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings or seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 
R. aurantiaca will flower in an open 
border. 

ROLANDRA argentea. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

ROLLER. This is best made of cast- 
iron, and may be had of four different 
sizes, viz. with a diameter of sixteen, 
eighteen, twenty-two, or twenty-four 
inches. The roller and water-engine, 
where either the lawns or roads are 
extensive, may be combined advan- 
tageously. 

RONDELETIA. Eleven species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

ROOTS are either annual, biennial, 
or perennial, but in all roots, and under 
any mode of management, the fibrous 
parts (radiculse) are strictly annual ; they 
decay as winter approaches, and are 
produced with the returning vigour of 
their parent in the spring. Hence the 
reason that plants are transplanted with 
most success during the season of their 
decay: for, as the root almost exclu- 
sively imbibes nourishment by the 
mouths of these fibres, in proportion as 
they are injured by the removal, so is 



ROO 



509 
♦ ■ - 



ROO 



the plant deprived of the means of sup- 
port ; that sap which is employed in 
the formation of new fibres, would 
have served to increase the size of other 
parts. 

The quantity of root I have always 
observed to increase with the poverty 
of the soil in which it is growing. A 
root always proceeds to that direction 
where food is most abundant; and from 
a knowledge of this fact, we should be 
circumspect in our mode of applying 
manures, according to the crop and ob- 
ject we have in view. The soil in my 
own garden being shallow, never pro- 
duced a carrot or a parsnip of any size ; 
but almost every root consisted of nu- 
merous forks thickly coated with fibres ; 
digging two spades deep produced no 
material advantage, the gardener ap- 
plying as usual manure to the surface ; 
but by trenching as before, and turning 
in a small quantity of manure at the 
bottom, the roots always spindled well, 
grew clean, and had few lateral fibres. 
For late crops of peas, which mildew, 
chiefly from a deficiency of moisture to 
the root, it is an object to keep their 
radicular near the surface, for the sake 
of the light depositions of moisture in- 
cident to their season of growth ; hence 
it will always be found of benefit to 
cover the earth over the rows, with a 
little well-rotted dung, and to point it 
in lightly. 

If it be desirable to prevent the roots 
of any plant travelling in a certain di- 
rection, the soil on that side should be 
excavated, and the cavity refilled with 
sand, or some other unfertile earth, 
whilst the soil on those sides of the 
plant whither the roots are desired to 
tend, should be made as fertile as is 
permissible with its habits. 

It may be accepted as a universal 
maxim, that whatever causes an exces- 
sive development of root, prevents the 
production of seed ; and vice versa, the 
productiod of seed, especially in tuber- 
ous-rooted plants, reduces the amount 
of root developed. Thus, frequent 
transplanting the young plants of the 
lettuce, brocoli, and cauliflower, causes 
the production of numerous fibrous 
roots, and is found effective in prevent- 
ing the mature plants advancing early 
to seed. 

The early varieties of the potato do 
not naturally produce seed ; but if their 
tubers are removed as soon as they are 



formed, these early varieties bl< 
and bear seed as freely as the latter 
kinds, a fact suggesting many experi- 
ments in the cultivation of shy-blooming 
tuberous-rooted flowers. Again, if the 
blossoms of these later varieties are 
plucked off as they appear, the weight 
of tubers produced will be very mate- 
rially increased. 

According to the usual acceptation 
of the term, the roots of plants do not 
emit excrements, yet it is quite certain 
that, in common with all the other parts 
of a plant, they perspire matters differ- 
ing in their amount and composition in 
every species. The earth in contact 
with the tubers of a potato fully ripe 
contains mucilage, and has the peculiar 
odour of the root; that in contact with 
the roots of peas is also mucilaginous, 
and smells very strongly of that vegeta- 
ble ; and the freshly upturned soil where 
cabbages have been growing, always 
smells offensively. 

MM. Sennebier and Caradori found 
that if roots of the carrot, scorzonera, 
and radish, are placed in water, some 
with only their extremities immersed, 
and others with their entire surfaces 
plunged in except the extremities, the 
former imbibe the water rapidly, and 
the plants continue vegetating, but the 
others imbibe no perceptible quantity, 
and speedily wither. It suggests also 
the reason why the gardener in apply- 
ing water or manure to trees or shrubs, 
does so at a distance from their stems. 

A good rule, for ascertaining the 
proper distance for such applications, 
seems to be to make them beneath the 
circumference of the head of the tree ; 
for, as M. De Candolle observed, there 
is usually a relation between that and 
the length of the roots, so that the rain 
falling upon the foliage is poured off 
most abundantly at the distance most 
desirable for reaching the extremities 
of the roots. 

This explains why the fibrous points 
of roots are usually annually renewed, 
and the caudex (or main limb of the 
root) extended in length; by these 
means they each year shoot forth into 
a fresh soil, always changing their di- 
rection to where most food is to be ob- 
tained. If the extremity of a root is cut 
off, it ceases to increase in length, but 
enlarges its circle of extension by late- 
ral shoots. 

The roots of plants, unless frozen, 



ROO 



510 



ROO 



are constantly imbibing nourishment, i with a superabundance of roots, the 
and even developing parts ; for if the j loss, in their case, is not so much felt. 



roots of trees planted during the winter 
be examined after an interval of a few 
weeks, they will be found to have emit- 
ted fresh radicles. 

The food they imbibe is slowly ela- 
borated in the vessels of the stem and 
branches, and there deposited. In ge- 
neral, roots have no buds, and are, 
therefore, incapable of multiplying the 
plant to which they belong. But it 
constantly happens in some species, 
that they have the power of forming 
what are called adventitious buds ; and 
in such cases, they may be employed 
for purposes of propagation. 

There is no rule by which the power 
of a plant to generate such buds by its 
roots can be judged of: experiment is 
therefore necessary, in all cases, to 
determine the point. When there is a 
difficulty in procuring a suitable stock, 
pieces of the roots of the plant to be 
multiplied are often taken as a substi- 
tute, and they answer the purpose per- 
fectly well ; for the circumstance which 
hinders the growth of pieces of a root 
into young branches, is merely their 
want of buds. If a scion is grafted 
upon a root, that deficiency is supplied, 
and the difference between the internal 
organization of a root and a branch is 
so trifling as to oppose no obstacle to 
the solid union of the two. 

ROOT-PRUNING has been thus con- 
sidered by Dr. Lindley, in his excellent 
Theory of Horticulture : — 

" In the nurseries, it is a universal 
practice to prune the roots of trans- 
planted trees: in gardens, this is as 
seldom performed — which is right. If 
a wounded or bruised root is allowed 
to remain upon a transplanted tree, it 
is apt to decay, and this disease may 
spread to neighbouring parts, which 
would otherwise be healthy: to remove 
the wounded parts of roots is, therefore, 
desirable. But the case is different with 
healthy roots. We must remember that 
every healthy and unmutilated root 
which is removed, is a loss of nutriment 



If performed at all, it should take place 
in the autumn ; for, at that time, the 
root, like the other parts of a plant, 
are comparatively empty of fluid ; but 
if deferred till the spring, then the roots 
are all distended with fluid, which has 
been collecting in them during winter; 
and every part taken away carries with 
it a portion of that nurture which the 
plant had been laying up as the store 
upon which to commence its renewed 
growth. 

"It must now be obvious that, al- 
though root-pruning may be prejudicial 
in transplanting trees, it may be of the 
greatest service to such established 
trees as are too prone to produce 
branches and leaves, instead of flowers 
and fruit. In these cases, the excessive 
vigour is at once stopped, by removal 
of some of the stronger roots, and con- 
sequently, of a part of the superfluous 
food to which their 'rankness' is owing. 

" The operation has been success- 
fully performed on the wall trees at 
Oulton, by Mr. Errington, one of our 
best English gardeners, and by many 
others, and, I believe, has never proved 
an objectionable practice under judi- 
cious management. Its effect is, pro 
tanto, to cut off the supply of food, 
and thus to arrest the rapid growth of 
the branches. 

" Under all ordinary circumstances, 
the roots must necessarily be injured 
more or less by removal: in that case, 
all the larger wounds should be cut to 
a clean smooth face, and not in long 
ragged slivers, as is often the case, and 
which is only substituting one kind of 
mutilation for another; but at an angle 
of about 45°, or less. 

" If the ends of small roots are 
bruised, they generally die back a little 
way, and then emit fresh spongioles; 
but the larger roots, when bruised, lose 
the vitality of their broken extremity ; 
their ragged tissue remains open to the 
uncontrolled introduction of water ; de- 
cays in consequence of being in con- 



to the plant, and that, too, at a time I tact with an excess of this fluid; and 
when it is least able to spare it; and , often becomes the seat of disease which 
there cannot be any advantage in the spreads to parts that would be healthy, 
removal. The nursery practice is pro- " When, however, the wound is 
bably intended to render the operation j made clean by a skilful pruner, the 
of transplanting large numbers of plants \ vessels all contract, and prevent the 
less troublesome : and, as it is chiefly j introduction of an excess of water into 
applied to seedlings and young plants | the interior; the wound heals bygranu- 



ROP 



511 

— # — 



ROS 



lations formed by the living tissue ; 
and the readiness with which this takes 
place is in proportion to the smallness 
of the wound. It may be sometimes 
advantageous to remove large parts of 
the coarser roots of a tree, even if 
they are not accidentally wounded 
when taken up, the object being to 
compel the plant to throw out, in room 
of those comparatively inactive subter- 
ranean limbs, a supply of young active 
fibres. 

<l This is a common practice in the 
nurseries in transplanting young oaks 
and other tap-rooted trees, and is one 
of the means employed by the Lan- 
cashire growers of gooseberries, in or- 
der to increase the vigour of their 
branches ; in the last case, however, 
the operation is not confined to the 
time when transplantation takes place, 
but is practised annually upon digging 
the gooseberry borders. The reason 
why cutting off portions of the princi- 
pal roots causes a production of fibres 
appears to be this ; the roots are pro- 
duced by organizable matter sent down- 
wards from the stem ; that matter, if 
uninterrupted, will flow along the main 
branches of the roots, until it reaches 
the extremities, adding largely to the 
wood and horizontal growth of the 
root, but increasing in a very slight de- 
gree the absorbent powers : but if a 
large limb of the roots is amputated, 
the powers of the stem remaining the 
same, all that descending organizable 
matter which would have been ex- 
pended in adding to the thickness of 
the amputated part, is arrested at the 
time of amputation ; and, unable to 
pass further on, rapidly produces granu- 
lations to heal the wound, and imme- 
diately afterward young spongioles, 
which soon establish themselves in the 
surrounding soil, and become the points 
of new active fibres." — Theory of Hort. 

ROPALA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

ROSE. Rosa. Seventy-eight spe- 
cies, and an almost innumerable num- 
ber of varieties, principally hardy de- 
ciduous or evergreen shrubs. To 
attempt an enumeration, much less a 
description of all the varieties which 
they profess to cultivate in Europe, 
would be an unnecessary waste of 
space, for the simple reason that many 
of them are unworthy of preservation, 



and others vary so slightly that a prac- 
ticed eye is scarcely able to detect the 
difference. The Queen of Flowers had 
at no previous day attained the cele- 
brity and popular favour it now enjoys, 
and never was it so well worthy that 
popularity. Ever charming, it is now 
doubly so from exhibiting its beauty 
almost without intermission, whilst very 
many of them yield powerful and de- 
licious perfume. Those who may be 
resident in remote positions, and whose 
idea of the rose, pleasing as it maybe, 
is the recollection of it, as it was in by- 
gone years, are far behind the age — 
nothing, whether it be artificial, or the 
product of nature assisted by art, has 
kept more steady pace with the im- 
provements of our day. 

The following select varieties in each 
of the divisions into which by common 
consent this flower has been divided, 
are abstracted from the catalogue of 
the old Landreth nursery, and though 
they are now certainly among those 
most to be desired, who can tell how 
soon many of them may be superseded 
by more attractive varieties? Whilst 
speaking of varieties it may not be out 
of place to remark that great disap- 
pointment has been endured by im- 
porters of roses from Europe, induced 
to order by the enticing descriptions in 
English and continental works: a large 
majority, it is believed, have fallen short 
of their transatlantic character, and 
American florists have not al ways escap- 
ed censure for distributing varieties of 
little worth, when their only fault was 
reliance on the fidelity of European 
descriptions. 

ROSA INDICA. 

Bengal, or Daily Rose. 

Animated, rosy blush. 
Arsenie, light rose. 
Augustine Hersent, superb rose. 
Assuerus, crimson. 
Admiral Duperre, dark rose. 
Belle Isidore, crimson. 

" de Monza, dark rose. 

" Violet, violet purple. 
Bisson, rosy blush. 
Burette, dark red. 
Cameleon, rose. 
Cramoisi superieur, crimson. 
Cels, blush. 

Comble de Gloire, crimson. 
Don Carlos, dark rose. 



ROS 

Duchess of Kent, pink. 

Eugene Beauharnais, crimson. 

Fabvier, scarlet. 

Grandral, crimson. 

Grandida, rose. 

Hortensia, light rose. 

Indica Alba, pure white. 

Jacksonia, bright red. 

Louis Philippe, crimson. 

Lady Warrender, white. 

Lawrencia, pink. 

Marjolin, crimson. 

Mrs. Bosanquet, large blush. 

Napoleon, rose fine. 

Heine de Lombardie, cherry red. 

Samson, light rose. 

Triomphant, crimson. 

Vanilla, dark rose. 

ROSA INDICA ODORATA. 

Tea scented Roses. 
Archduchess Theresa, white. 
Aurora, blush. 
Alba, pure white. 
Arkinto, flush colour. 
Adelaide, blush. 
Antherose, blush white. 
Adam, rosy blush. 
Belle Marguerite, rosy purple. 
Bougere, light rose. 
Boutrand, rosy blush. 
Bon Silene, superb red. 
Bourbon, white. 
Barbot, blush. 
Camellia, white. 
Caroline, bright rose. 
Countess Albemarle, straw colour. 
Due d'Orleans, bright rose. 
Devoniensis, creamy yellow. 
Devaux, blush. 
Delphine Gaudot, white. 
D'Arrance de Navarre, light pink. 
Eliza Sauvage,pale sulphur. 
Flon, buff. 
Flavescens, yellow. 
Golcondi, blush white. 
Goubault, rosy blush. 
Gigantesque de Lima, light yellow. 
Gloria de Hardi, light rose. 
Hymenee, white. 
Jaune Panache, straw colour. 
La Sylphide, rosy buff. 
Lilicina, lilac. 
Lyonnais, rose. 
La Pactole, yellow. 
La Renomme, white. 
Madam Desprez, white. 
Mansais, rosy buff. 
Niphetos, white. 
Odoratissima, rich blush. 



512 

— ♦ — 



ROS 

Princesse Maria, blush. 

e< d'Esterhazy, light rose. 
Strombio, white. 
Triomphe de Luxembourg, rosy 

blush. 
Victoria Modeste, blush. 
William Wallace, pale blush. 

ROSA BOURBONIANA. 

Bourbon Roses. 

Augustine Lelieur, bright rose. 

Acidalie, white, large and fine. 

Comte de Rambuteau, violet purple. 

Ceres, dark rose. 

Cytherea, rosy pink, very fragrant. 

Comte d'Eu, bright carmine. 

Doctor Rocques, purple crimson. 

Dumont de Courset, deep purple. 

Du Petit Thouars. 

Emilie Courtier, rosy red. 

Gloire de Rosamene, brilliant crimson. 
" de Paris, bright red. 

Grand Capitaine, brilliant scarlet. 

Gloire de France, rose, very fragrant. 

Hermosa, light pink. 

Henri Plantier, pale rose. 

Imperatrice Josephine, creamy white. 

Lady Canning, deep rose. 

Madam Desprez, rosy lilac. 
" Souchet, blush, fine. 
t( Lacharme, blush white. 
" Nerard, light rose. 

Marechal de Villars, rosy purple, fine. 

Ninon de l'Enclos, dark rose. 

Paul Joseph, velvet crimson. 

Princesse Clementine, deep rosy pur- 
ple. 

Phoenix, rose red. 

Pierre de St. Cyr, light rose. 

Queen, delicate blush. 

Reine de Fontenay, brilliant rose. 

Souchet, deep crimson. 

Souvenir de la Malmaison, creamy 
white, fine. 

Theresita, bright carmine. 

REMONTANT, OR HYBRID PERPETUAL 
ROSES. 

Note.— In Europe these roses are highly 
esteemed; here their reputation as "per- 
petuals" has been seriously injured, in 
consequence of their having been in 
many instances, worked on stocks un- 
suited either to this rose, or to our cli- 
mate. 

Antinous, dark crimson. 
Aubernon, clear red, very fine. 
Augustine Mouchelet, clear bright 

rose. 
Baronne Provost, fine rose colour. 



ROS 



513 



ROS 



Comte de Paris, dark crimson. 

Claire du Chatelet, purple red. 

Clementine Syringe, pale rose. 

Comtesse Duchatel. 

Crimson orRosedu Roi,lightcrimson. 

D'Angers, delicate rose. 

Doctor Marjolin. 

Due de Aumale. 

Duchesse de Nemours, pale rose. 

" de Sutherland, bright rose. 
Edouard Jesse, dark purple crimson. 
Isaure, bright pink. 
Israel, sable. 
Insigne D'Estotells. 
Josephine Antoinette, rosy blush. 
Louis Bonaparte. 
Lady Fordvvich, deep rose. 

" Alice Peel, rosy carmine. 
La Reine, or Queen, rose colour, 

superb. 
Madame Laffay, brilliant rose. 
Marquise Bocella. 
Mrs. Elliott, rosy red. 
Melanie Cornu, deep crimson. 
Newton. 
Palmyre, blush. 

Princesse Helene, large deep rose. 
Prince Albert, very dark crimson, 

fine. 
Prudence Rceser, rosy pink. 
Prince de Salm, dark crimson. 

" of Wales, rose carmine. 
Reine de la Guillotiere, brilliant 

crimson. 
Desquermus or Royal, large rose. 
Stanwell, blush very fine. 
Sisley, large bright red. 

NOISETTE OB. CLUSTER FLOWERING ROSES. 

Those marked * are dwarfs. 

*Alba, creamy white. 
*Aimee Vibert, pure white. 
Bengal Lee, blush, fragrant. 
Cadot, blush lilac. 
Charles Tenth, purple. 
Conque de Venus, white rose centre. 
Coeur Jaune, white yellow centre. 
Champneyana, rosy white. 
*Countesse de Grillion, blush. 
Chromotelle, large yellow fine. 
*Euphrosine, pale yellow. 
Fellenberg, crimson, superb. 
*Gabriel, blush, fine. 
Jaune Desprez, rosy yellow. 
*Julienne le Sourd, rose. • 
Julie de Loynes, white. 
Lamarque, creamy white, fine. 
La Biche, flesh colour. 
Lady Byron, pink,./ine. 
33 



Lutea or Smithii, fine yellow. 
Landreth's Carmine, carmine. 
*La Nymphe,pale rose. 
Miss Simpson, blush. 
Orloff, pink, fine. 
*Ophire, yellow,/rcrgTanL 
Sir Walter Scott, deep rose. 
Solfatare, superb dark yellow. 
Vitellina, white. 

CLIMBING ROSES. 

These flower annually in immense 
clusters, grow rapidly, and are quite 
hardy. 

Banksia lutea, double yellow. 

" alba, white. 
Boursault, rose colour. 

" purpurea, purple. 

',' blush, large blush. 

" gracilis, bright rose. 

Bengalensis scandens, large rosy 

white. 
Felicite perpetuelle, blush white. 
Grevillia. Greville produces immense 
clusters, of various colours and 
shades, from white to crimson. 
Multiflora, pink. 

" alba, blush white. 

Rubifolia, single Michigan or prairie. 
" elegans, double pink. 
" purpurea, double purple. 
tc Queen, double pink. 
" alba, double blush white. 
Russelliana, crimson cottage rose. 
Sempervirens plena, superb white. 
Triomphe de Bollwyler, blush white. 
Laura Davoust, white. 

MICROPHYLLA ROSES. 

Maria Leonid a, white, extra fine. 
Microphylla rosea, rose colour. 

" odorata alba, creamy 

white. 

MUSK-SCENTED ROSES. 

Moschata, white semi-double. 

" superba, pure white, very 

double. 
Princesse de Nassau, white double. 

HARDY GARDEN ROSES. 

Miaulis, rosy purple. 
Coronation, purple crimson. 
Reine des Roses, bright crimson. 
Due d'Orleans, dark rose. 
Painted damask, white. 
Brennes, dark pink. 
Rivers' Geo. IV., superb crimson. 
Hybride blanche, white. 



RO S 



514 

— ♦— 



ROS 



Heureuse surprise, carmine. 

Ranunculus, purple, compact. 

La capricieuse, purple crimson. 

Royal Provins, superb pink. 

Du Roi, perpetual, bright red. 

Harrisonii, yellow Austrian briar. 

Moss single, crimson, very mossy. 
11 common, rose. 
" Luxembourg, crimson. 
" white, perpetual. 
" crested. 
" Adelaide. 

York and Lancaster, red and white. 

Provins Belgic, large pink. 

Four Seasons, pink. 

Moretti, light rose. 

Burgundy, rose, compact. 

Persian, this is the finest yellow rose 
now in cultivation. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — Petal s 
thick, broad, and smooth edged; highly 
perfumed; outline of flower, circular ; 
outer petals, curving slightly inwards, 
and imbricated in distinct rows ; colour, 
distinct and permanent ; flowers, uni- 
form in size, well above the foliage, 
and on foot-stalks stiff but elastic; 
foliage, bright green; habit of the 
plant, shrubby. 

Propagation. — We give the direc- 
tions for propagation by budding, graft- 
ing, cuttings, &c, and the general 
management of this plant, just as it 
appears in the English edition of this 
work. The American florist has greatly 
simplified much therein described — 
still it is well to exhibit what is done 
by others. 

By Seed. — Mr. Paul, the eminent 
florist, recommends the following, — 
" which," he says, " seed freely, and 
appear well suited for female parents. 
First among the hybrid Chinese are, 
Athelin and Celine ; Ne plus Ultra ; 
Duke of Devonshire ; Chatelain ; Prin- 
cess Augusta; Henri Barbet ; Globe, 
White Hip ; General Allard, Aurora, 
and others. These might be crossed 
with some of the freest blooming da- 
mask, perpetual, or Bourbon roses, to 
endeavour to obtain an increase of, and 
an improvement among, the hardy au- 
tumnal roses. The Ayrshire and Sem- 
pervirens, among which there is a 
paucity of high-coloured flowers, might 
be fertilized with the farina of some 
dark varieties selected from those sec- 
tions which approach nearest to them 
in natural character. Here Ruga Splen- 
dens, and Leopoldine d'Orleans, might 



form the female parents. Among the 
moss, the Single Crimson, Du Luxem- 
bourg, and Eclatante, occasionally seed. 
Among the briers, the Double Yellow, 
and Harrisonii. Among the Bourbons, 
the old or de Lisle, Augustine Lelieur, 
Dubourg, Gloire de Rosamene, Emile 
Courtier, and Bouquet de Flore. Among 
the Chinese, Camellia Blanc, Fabvier, 
Therese Stravins, Alba, Belle Elvire, 
Henri Cinque, and Madame Bureau. 
Among the tea-scented, Odbrate, Jaune 
Hamon, Lyonnais, Hardy, Lady Gran- 
ville, Caroline Gonbault, Belle Alle- 
mande, and Bardon. Many of the least 
double Gallica roses also seed freely. 
As the female parent will, in many 
cases, be but semi-double, we should 
endeavour to counteract the probable 
results of this by crossing with farina 
gathered from the most double varieties 
that we can collect it from. The plants 
intended to seed should be selected in 
a good state of growth, and never al- 
lowed to suffer from drought. When 
the bloom is in trusses, the backward 
flower buds should be cut out, leaving 
not more than six of the plumpest and 
most perfect buds on one flower-stalk." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Those who wish to raise seedling 
roses should not gather the hips until 
they have been exposed to frost, for it 
is a curious fact that the seeds of those 
thus subjected to a low temperature 
germinate with less failures. This is a 
lesson probably from nature, for it is 
certain that the hips of the rose never 
fall or shed their seed to the ground 
until they have been frosted. 

Budding. — Preparing Stocks.— The 
Boursault and De Lisle roses have been 
suggested as the best stocks for pot- 
culture, and if grown in a rich shel- 
tered soil, and cut down for stooling, 
some of the shoots of the second year 
may be layered the same season. If 
the end of the layer is tied carefully to 
a stick, it will allow a bud to be in- 
serted in a few weeks. The tongue 
being cut on the layer's upper side will 
save the shoot from breaking. Mr. 
Reid, of Noble Thorpe, near Barnsley, 
from whom these directions come, re- 
commends a piece of clay or a small 
stone to be inserted in the opening, to 
prevent its adhering before roots are 
formed. About the end of October 
these early layers will be rooted, and 
may be potted. Only one bud to be 



ROS 



515 

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ROS 



inserted on a stock. Many varieties, as 
Bourbon, Noisette, China, Tea-scented, 
&c, if well managed, will bloom beau- 
tifully in the spring and summer fol- 
lowing. 

Mr. Jos. Baumann recommends the 
seeds of the dog rose to be sown in 
„ February, the seedlings, cut back to 
two eyes, potted in forty-eights next 
autumn ; plunged in a border until early 
in July; to be budded at the end of 
August; headed down in November; 
potted in thirty-twos; protected in a' 
frame during winter ; started by dung 
heat in January, and the shoots when 
three inches long pinched back to one 
inch, this being repeated two or three 
times to form a good head. In autumn, 
prune and shift to larger pots, to re- 
main for some years. These stocks 
produce very enduring and bright flow- 
ers. Rosa Banksia, herberifolia, brac- 
teata, and multiflora, do best on Quatre 
Saisons stocks. 

In budding on the Boursault, and in- 
deed on any other rose, an excellent 
mode is, in April, to tongue a strong 
shoot, pass it through a forty-eight pot, 
until the tongue is in the centre, and 
then press the pot full of a mixture of 
rotten dung and sand. It may be bud- 
ded at the time, but whenever done, 
the shoot should be headed down at the 
time of budding to within two eyes of 
the bud. — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Glenny recommends the stocks 
to be planted in a rich stimsh ground, 
two feet apart in the row, and three 
feet between the rows, with a stake 
every ten feet, and rods of sufficient 
strength, reaching from one to another, 
to secure them against the effects of the 
wind. Plant no deeper than just to 
cover the crown of the roots. When 
growing commences rub off, twice a 
week, all the buds that are not wanted, 
but let the highest remain, for a stock 
six feet high often produces no shoots 
higher than half its height. In the first 
week of July, the thorns should be re- 
moved from those places on the stocks 
intended for budding roses. If they be 
not taken away, the operation is ren- 
dered needlessly troublesome ; and it 
is best done now as time is thus allowed 
for the bark's healing. The best time 
for budding the rose is towards the end 
of July, a dormant eye being employed, 
just after a fall of rain, and when no 
strong dry wind is moving. An atten- 



tion to these circumstances insures that 
the sap is flowing freely, and avoids a 
rapid evaporation, so often preventing 
success. But budding may be in spring, 
if the buds are extracted with a small 
portion of wood adhering to them. For 
this purpose, scions are cut before win- 
ter, and stuck into the ground till the 
moment when in spring the bark of the 
stock will run. To prepare the bud, 
we make firstly, a transverse cut into 
the wood a little below an eye, which 
incision is met by a longer cut down- 
wards, commencing at a short distance 
above the eye, care being taken that a 
portion of wood is removed with the. 
bark. This bud is inserted into the 
bark of the stock, which is cut like 
an inverted T, the horizontal edges of 
this cut in the stock, and of the bud, 
must be brought into the most perfect 
contact with each other, and then bound 
with waterproof bast, without, however, 
applying grafting clay. Eight days after 
the insertion of the bud, the stock is 
pruned down to the branch, which is 
immediately above the opposite side, 
and this branch is stopped by being cut 
down to two or three eyes; all the side 
wood is destroyed, and when the bud 
has pushed its fifth leaf, compel it to 
branch by pinching its extremity ; it will 
then flower in September of the same 
year. You may also bud the rose in 
the spring without waiting till the bark 
separates, by placing the bud with some 
wood on it, in a niche made in the 
stock, similar to what would be formed 
by taking an eye for budding from it in 
the manner above described, and into 
which it is fitted exactly with a slight 
pressure. It is recommended to make 
the cut for the niche where there is al- 
ready a bud on the stock ; when placed, 
the bud is then bound with bast and 
covered with mastic. — Gard. Mag. 

Grafting. — " The exact time," says 
the best treatise on the ' Tree Rose,' 
" for removing the scions from the pa- 
rent tree, must depend upon the season ; 
some time during the first three weeks 
in February is the usual period. There 
does not exist an actual necessity for 
cutting the scions until they are required 
for use; but then it will be more diffi- 
cult to select the numbers required in 
a state fit for use, and there is a greater 
chance of their going off, if the weather 
remain cold, or the sap be not imme- 
diately supplied. Scions cut when the 



ROS 



516 



ROS 



sap is quite down, carry better and are 
in every way more hardy. Let the 
shoot remain for three weeks in an out- 
house, or any other place, neither very 
dry nor very damp, where neither wind 
nor sun can come in contact with them; 
the clay being damped with a sparing 
hand, if the generality of the scions 
appear to shrink. During the first week 
in March the head of the stock (in which 
the sap should be beginning to rise) is 
to be cut off horizontally, a slit made 
in it straight downwards of a couple of 
inches, or an inch and a half long, with- 
out injuring the sides of the bark. The 
scion is to be taken in the left hand, 
^hree buds, or two if the stock be not 
large, being left upon it; the lower ex- 
tremity must then be cut in the shape 
of a wedge, the back being rather the 
thinnest, and the lowest bud about half 
an inch above the thick end of the 
wedge. In doing which, care must be 
taken that the bark be undisturbed, and 
each scion so placed that when entered 
in the stock, all the buds may point 
outward, or at any rate be in such posi- 
tion, that the shoots from them may not 
interfere with each other. The end of 
a budding knife or a little wooden or 
ivory wedge may be used to open the 
slit in the stock on one side, and the 
scion, with the thickest part or front 
outwards, must be placed in the other, 
care being taken that the edge of the 
inner bark or liber of the scion touches 
the edges of the inner bark of the stock 
all the way down ; the wedge may then 
be removed and another scion entered 
in its place, the slit being kept open by 
the first : if the size of the scion be only 
half the size of the stock, a shoulder 
may be left to the former, and the 
chances of success thereby increased. 
Any number of scions may be inserted 
in the same stock, but from one to four 
at most are all that are desirable in the 
present case to cover completely the 
head of the stock, which is apt to re- 
ceive much injury from the weather, if 
not carefully attended to. The object 
of laying by the scions, is that the stock 
may be forwardest, and be enabled to 
supply the sap and force them forward 
at once, instead of lingering while they 
perish from exposure and want of nou- 
rishment. When the shoots are on, the 
whole must be tied up with a bast liga- 
ture to prevent the scions from shifting, 



will have a tendency to do, when the 
rise of the sap swells the stock, thereby 
diminishing the juxtaposition of their 
respective libers, and the whole be- 
neath the lowest bud covered with 
grafting clay, totally excluding air, sun, 
and rain. If the clay crack, it must be 
renewed, not by shifting, but by filling 
up the crack. In about six months the 
clay may be removed, and the wound 
covered with grafting wax; this latter 
on no account must be omitted." — 
Gard. Chron. 

" In Flanders, cleft-grafting is adopt- 
ed, and care taken that the scion is of 
the same diameter as the stock, or the 
cleft in the stock made sufficiently near 
one side of the cross section, that the 
bark of the scion may fit the stock on 
both sides. This mode is adopted in 
grafting one sort of garden-rose upon 
another. In grafting upon the dog- 
rose the same practice is followed, with 
this addition, that a shoulder is very 
often made to the scion, so as that it 
may rest with greater firmness upon 
the stock ; such stocks being often em- 
ployed as standards, and therefore more 
exposed to wind. 

" Mr. Calvert, of Rouen, observes 
that it is the general practice to form 
the wedge in a part of the scion where 
there are no buds, but that he adopts a 
contrary practice, and finds that a bud, 
on the wedge part of the scion, greatly 
contributes to the success of the graft. 
By taking care to have a bud on the 
lower part of the scion, Mr. Calvert has 
even been successful in grafting roses 
by the whip or splice method, which, 
without a bud on the lower part of the 
scion, very often fails; but, with a^bud, 
fails very seldom." — Gard. Mag. 

Cuttings are made to succeed by the 
following treatment : — 

" Take a cutting of a this-year's 
shoot, removing all but one leaf, and 
cutting off the upper part of the shoot 
above the leaf, and reducing its entire 
length to six inches. The cutting 
should be planted on the north side of 
a wall, under glass in a small frame, on 
a newly prepared hot-bed, and in a soil 
of leaf-mould, eight inches deep, well 
soaked with water, and covered over 
with sand. Water is to be given, and 
air abundantly, for the first four days, 
lessening its admission daily, until root- 



which from their wedge-like shape they i ing is completed, which will be in about 



ROS 



517 



ROS 



three weeks. In the fourth week the 
cutting may be potted." — Gard. Chron. 

By Suckers. — Roses send up many 
suckers annually, which may be taken 
up in autumn, winter, or early spring, 
with some rootlets attached ; and the 
strongest may be planted out finally, 
and the weakest in the nursery for a 
year or two or longer. They will 
readily grow, and will, most of them, 
produce flowers the following summer. 

When rose-trees have grown into 
large bunches, with many suckers, the 
whole may be taken up and slipped, or 
divided into separate plants. The moss, 
and some others, furnish suckers but 
sparingly. 

By Layers. — To obtain shoots for 
layering, a quantity of rose-trees should 
be planted for stools, which, being 
headed down low, will throw out shoots 
abundantly near the ground, in summer, 
for layering in autumn or winter follow- 
ing. They will be rooted by next 
autumn, and fit for transplantation in 
nursery rows; though sometimes the 
moss-rose and some others require two 
years before they are tolerably well 
rooted. But of these sorts you may 
also try layers of the shoots of the year, 
layered in summer, any time in June. 
They will probably root a little the 
same season. The layers of all the 
sorts, after being properly rooted, 
should be taken up in autumn and 
planted in the nursery, to have one or 
two years' growth. — Abercrombie. 

Soil. — All the cultivated roses, and 
especially the double-flowering kinds, 
require a rich loamy soil inclining to 
clay rather than sand ; and they require 
also, like most double flowers, plenty 
of moisture when in a growing state. 

Manures. — The best is a mixture of 
one part guano, three parts charred 
turf and earth, and six parts cow-dung. 
A thin dressing pointed in every spring. 

Pruning. — Mr. Glenny gives these 
very good and full directions : — 

" Suppose we have a standard, with 
only one branch from the bud, which is 
always stronger and better than if there 
are two or three — the first season we 
should cut that to within two eyes of 
the ground, if a rose on its own root, or 
within two eyes of the stock, if it be a 
budded one. These two eyes would, 
the very first year, send out two bloom- 
ing branches, which would grow a con- 
siderable length. The next season we 



should cut both of these into within two 
eyes of the short branch they started 
from ; and this would make each of 
those branches start out two more ; and 
unless to get the tree, or the dwarf 
bush, into any particular form, we 
should never omit cutting down shoots, 
and often cut out old lumps of wood 
and branches to thin the tree, which 
must never get crowded. By the same 
rule we should always cut away all the 
spindly shoots. China roses, and all 
constant bloomers, which require con- 
tinued attention, should have only the 
old wood and the weak shoots cut away, 
because any violent pruning would 
throw the plant out of flower for a con- 
siderable time ; while carefully remov- 
ing the seed-vessels, and taking away 
weak wood to make room for the 
stronger, will keep them constantly 
flowering. This is especially requisite 
with climbing roses, where the favour- 
able aspect, and other circumstances, 
may set the seed ofalmost every bloom. 
The swelling of their seed-vessels will 
take all the nourishment from the shoots 
that would otherwise continue to grow 
and bear flowers ; and the seed will 
often complete its growth and ripen 
before there is anything like a general 
bloom again." — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 

" A very good time for performing 
the operation is immediately after the 
bloom is over ; cutting out old exhausted 
wood, shortening shoots which have 
flowered to a good bud accompanied 
with a healthy leaf, but leaving such 
shoots as are still in a growing state 
untouched till October. 

" Where very large roses are wanted, 
all the buds but that on the extreme 
point of each shoot should be pinched 
off as soon as they make their appear- 
ance, and the plant liberally supplied 
with water. 

" To lessen evaporation, and keep 
up a constant moisture at the root of 
their roses, the Paris gardeners gene- 
rally mulch them with half-rotten stable 
dung or partially rotten leaves." — Enc. 
Gard. 

The Banksian Rose must be pruned 
at no other time, but immediately after 
it has done blooming in June, or early 
in July. 

Planting. — "On removing trees," 
says the author of the Tree Rose, " the 
fresh shoots they have made, and the 
appearance of those which were left, 



ROS 



518 

— ♦ — 



ROS 



will require attention in the applica- 
tion of the knife. In pruning a large 
root it should be cut to a lateral; in 
shortening a small one, to a fibre. 
Where a plant has been examined and 
trimmed recently, however, the knife 
should be sparingly used. 

" And it may here be well to observe, 
that all cuts to remove branches, knots, 
or roots, should be quite clean, slant- 
ing (and deep enough to the stem, viz. 
even with it), and nothing left projecting 
lest dead wood be the consequence, 
and the plant be eventually injured. 
All wounds should be carefully healed, 
and dead wood should, in all cases, be 
removed, and living bark encircle that 
which remains." 

The best time for planting is No- 
vember. 

Forcing. — For the following very 
successful mode of forcing roses, we 
are indebted to R. A. Salisbury, Esq : — 

" Take off strong suckers about the 
end of October or beginning of No- 
vember, with all the fibres they may 
have formed, which can only be well 
done by digging up the parent stock. 
Plant these suckers in pots only about 
four inches diameter at the top, wind- 
ing the sucker three, four, or five times 
round the inside of the pot ; and prune 
it, so as to leave no more than two 
buds, or three at most, above ground. 
Fill the pots with hazel loam, mixed 
with one-third equal parts charred turf 
and vegetable mould, pressing it firmly 
down to keep the sucker from starting, 
and plunge them to the brim close to 
one another quincunx fashion, in an 
open bed fully exposed to the sun and 
air. 

" The small size of these pots makes 
stronger blossoms, even the first if the 
suckers are large ; and as they are to 
be shifted annually, it is absolutely 
necessary to begin with small pots. 
To have a plentiful supply of blos- 
soms during the months of December, 
January, February, March, April and 
May, from one hundred to three hun- 
dred suckers must be thus prepared. 

" For the plants to be forced, from 
December to March, a small frame 
should be devoted, about twelve feet 
long, five feet wide, seven feet wide 
behind, and only six or eight inches in 
front. This pitch admits the rays of | 



or tank, or pipes, if hot water be used, 
running from one end to the other. If 
the floor be built thick, and the fire- 
Fig. 149. 




place, as well as the chimney-top, be 
well closed up after the heat has pene- 
trated the flue, the air within will be 
sufficiently heated with very little fuel, 
and require no attendance at night, ex- 
cept in very severe frost. The back of 
this frame may consist of wood, or a 
narrow brick, at pleasure, and should 
have a door in the middle, just suffi- 
ciently large to admit the gardener to 
creep in and water the plants, by 
reaching over them from one side to 
the other without any walk inside. , 

" A strong latticed floor must be fixed 
six inches above the flue, on which the 
pots must be placed when introduced ; 
and these must have a pan or receiver 
under each, to prevent the heat of the 
flue, which will now and then be smart 
notwithstanding every precaution, from 
striking directly on the pots them- 
selves. After the month of March, 
roses may be advantageously forced in 
other houses and situations, but hardly 
sooner, except on the front flue of a 
pine-stove : and a small frame like this 
is not only built and maintained at a 
small cost ; but the lights may be used 
for other crops, especially melons, after 
June. 

" The plants to be forced into blos- 
som by Christmas-day should be placed 
in this frame on the first day of October, 
lighting fires gradually, so as to keep 
rather 



the temperature, in the daytime 
light, at that period, to strike upon the I increasing than decreasing — from GO* 1 
plants to the greatest advantage, a flue, I of Fahrenheit to 80^ ; but at night 35 ; 



ROS 



519 



ROS 



is not too low. If the plants meet with 
one frosty night or two in the beginning 
of October, so much the better ; for 
they will push more vigorously after 
the heat is applied. The first year 
none of the crops will come in so early 
as afterwards; and I advise all the 
young suckers to be forced in succes- 
sion the first year, not waiting till ihey 
have had one year's growth in the open 
air. Moreover, if the suckers are 
strong, they will produce more blos- 
soms than might be expected. The 
second crop of plants introduced on the 
first of November will blossom from the 
middle of January to mid-February ; the 
third crop, introduced December 1st, 
from mid-February to the middle of 
March ; those of the fourth crop, intro- 
duced on the first of January, from the 
middle of March to the middle of April ; 
those of the fifth crop, introduced on 
the first of February, from the middle 
of April to the middle of May ; those of 
the sixth and last crop, introduced on 
the first of March, from the middle of 
May till the middle of June, when 
several varieties in the open ground be- 
gin to blossom. 

" As soon as the plants begin to push 
their buds, whether any aphides ap- 
pear upon the young shoots or not, fill 
the frame with tobacco-smoke ; and do 
not fail to repeat this every third week 
till the flowers appear ; smoking, for 
the last time, just before any red tints 
appear on the earliest buds. No un- 
pleasant smell of the tobacco will re- 
main upon the plants after a day or 
two. The young shoots must also be 
carefully examined when half an inch 
long, and any grubs feeding upon them 
destroyed. 

(f After the blossoms are gathered 
the plants must not be removed to a 
back shed, but kept in the frame, or 
brought back into it, if they have been 
taken into the apartments of the owner, 
permitting them to grow as they do in 
summer, in the open air, for at least 
two or three months. They must then 
be placed in a shady situation, and kept 
rather dry than moist, to throw them 
into a state of rest. 

" After the month of May, Mr. Salis- 
bury prefers inverting them, especially 
the earlier crops, between two plank 
raised upon tressels, high enough to 
prevent the branches from touching the 
earth, as in the annexed sketch, having 



for twenty-five years experienced the 
utility of this treatment, and suspecting 
that it strengthens the future blossoms 
by retaining sap in the branches, which 
would otherwise descend to the root or 
form suckers. 

Fig. 150. 




" While the plants are growing they 
must be constantly supplied with moist- 
ure — water and guano, or pigeons' 
dung infused in it a few days before, in 
the proportion of one ounce of the 
former, and of the latter one ounce to 
a gallon of water. Where pigeons' 
dung cannot be had, two ounces of 
sheep or deer's dung may be substi- 
tuted to each gallon of water. 

" It now only remains to add, that it 
is most important in forcing roses to 
mark all the plants, so that those intro- 
duced into the frame in October, the 
first year, may be introduced on the 
same day, the second and every suc- 
ceeding year. To secure this, paint 
No. 1, 2, 3, &c, upon the pots them- 
selves, No. 1 to go in first, and so on. 

" Every year, about a fortnight be- 
fore the plants are forced, they must be 
shifted into larger pots, exactly one 
inch wider in diameter, and not more, 
turning them out without breaking the 
ball or disturbing any of the fibres, and 
filling the pots with the same compost 
of hazel loam, charred turf, and vege- 
table earth. By this method the same 
plants may be forced for ten years, 
without the inconvenience of using a 
very large pot, as the last season they 
will not want to be removed, or may 
be shifted into the same pot again. 

"With respect to pruning, I have 
never been in the habit of leaving more 
than two buds on each branch, and, as 
the plants increase in size and number 
of branches, often only one bud upon 
the weaker branches. It is much bet- 
ter to have from ten to twenty strong 
blossoms than a larger number of weak 
ones, and the foliage is likewise more 
healthy." — Gard. Mag. 

Pot-Culture has been more fully dis- 



ROS 



520 

— • — 



ROS 



cussed by Messrs. Paul and Son, the 
florists of Cheshunt, than by any other 
authority ; and from their observations 
I have made these extracts : — 

" Transplanting and Potting. — Early 
in autumn, immediately after rain, re- 
move both worked plants and others 
from the ground. Such as have grown 
moderately, with well ripened wood, 
should be chosen. The pots best suit- 
ed are numbers thirty-two, twenty-four, 
sixteen and twelve, according to the 
size of the plant, and they should be 
well drained. The soil should be 
pressed firmly in the pots, watering 
freely afterwards, through a fine rose, 
to settle the soil. 

" The cultivation of the autumnals, 
on their own roots, maybe commenced 
at any season, as they are usually kept 
growing in pots. If purchased in spring, 
in sixties, they may be immediately shift- 
ed into forty-eights, then plunged, and 
watered continually as required. Our 
aim being to get the plants strong, they 
should not be suffered to flower, but 
endeavour, through the growing season, 
to bring them to form only a few vi- 
gorous shoots. To accomplish this it is 
advisable to rub out some of the buds 
when first pushing, but keeping in view 
the handsome formation of the plant. 

"The plantsmay be shifted on through 
the season ; and in the following spring 
we shall probably find them in sixteen 
or twelve-sized pots, preparing for a 
vigorous growth and bloom. 

''Thinning out. — When potting, all 
suckers should be cut from the worked 
plants, and straggling shoots shortened 
back to within a few eyes. Where too 
thick, some of the shoots may be cut 
out entirely, from three to ten, accord- 
ing to the age or growth of the plant, 
being in most cases sufficient. Thin- 
ning, in summer, immediately after 
flowering, is very beneficial. The best 
ripened snoots should be left, and such 
as stand in the best position. These 
may be shortened in November and 
March, some at both periods, to obtain 
an early and late bloom. 

"Soil. — Two parts of fresh turfy loam, 
broken up but not sifted, two parts ma- 
nure (road gatherings laid by for a sea- 
son, or the remains of a hot-bed not too 
far decomposed), and one part burnt 
earth. 

" This compost should be thrown up 
in a heap in autumn, and turned two or 



three times during winter, and a little 
newly slaked lime scattered throughout 
to destroy worms and grubs. This ia 
the soil used for the moss, but for the 
delicate varieties, (Chinese, &c.,) it may 
be improved by the addition of one part 
leaf-mould or well pulverized manure." 

Protection. — After potting, the plants 
taken from the ground, should be re- 
moved to a cold pit, syringing and shad- 
ing if sunny weather, for a week or ten 
days. It will be well if the tender va- 
rieties can be allowed to remain in the 
pit during winter, at which season they 
require scarcely any water, otherwise 
they should be removed to the north 
side of a wall or fence, and a thatch of 
fern or beech boughs, with the leaves 
on, formed. The hardy ones may be 
removed from the pits about a month 
after being potted, and plunged at once 
in the open ground where intended to 
be grown and flowered. 

Pruning. — About the middle of No- 
vember pruning may be performed, in 
order to effect an early bloom. The 
plants having been thinned out previ- 
ously, all that is now required, is the 
shortening in of the remaining shoots. 

Among the hybrid Chinese, the two 
favourite old roses, Brennus and Ful- 
gens, both vigorous growers, frequently 
occasion great disappointment by not 
blooming. The failure will probably 
be found to arise from the method of 
pruning. 

These roses, and others of like habit, 
should be well thinned out, but the 
shoots that are left for flowering short- 
ened but little. Others of the same 
class (hybrid Chinese), that are weak 
growers, may be shortened in close, 
such are General Allard and Lady Stuart. 

There are also varieties of interme- 
diate growth, which may be pruned in 
proportion. The classes Gallica, Pro- 
vence, and Moss, may be pruned closer 
than the hybrid Chinese. 

The autumnal roses there is but little 
fear of pruning out of bloom ; early or 
late, they are sure to flower. These, 
when grown on their own roots, should 
be cut down almost close to the ground, 
to induce them to throw up suckers 
from beneath, which will grow much 
stronger than shoots formed above 
ground, and flower beautifully through 
the summer and autumn. One point 
too should be borne in mind, that roses, 
when grown in pots, may be pruned 



ROS 



521 

— ♦- 



ROS 



closer than when grown in the open 
garden. 

Removal of Tender Varieties. — By 
the end of March, if room cannot be 
granted them in pits or a green-house, 
the tender varieties may be brought 
from their winter residence and plunged 
in an airy situation, and such as were 
left unpruned for late flowering, should 
now be pruned. But if allowed to re- 
main in the pits through spring, they 
will bloom much earlier, in greater 
perfection, and with finer foliage. 

Plunging. — Place the pots so that 
the bottoms rest on an inverted seed- 
pan or flower-pot. This secures drain- 
age, prevents the roots growing through 
the bottom of the pot into the soil, and 
is an effectual barrier to the ingress of 
worms. The pots may be plunged level 
with the ground, and so far apart that 
the plants may not touch each other 
when full grown. After plunging, it is 
beneficial to cover the surface lightly 
with stable manure. 

Watering. — Water should be given 
abundantly through the growing and 
blooming season. Guano-water is an 
excellent manure for roses in pots ; it 
should, however, be used cautiously. 
If the plants require watering oftener 
than once a week, pure water should 
be given at the intervening periods. 

Disbudding, SfC. — When the buds 
first push, if two or three break close 
together, the weakest, or those taking 
the least favourable direction, should 
be rubbed out. Such shoots as are in- 
clined to grow rank without blooming, 
should be stopped or taken out, if not 
wanted to form the head, for they ap- 
propriate to themselves the sap, which 
should be directed into the flower 
branches, and further render the plants 
of uneven growth. When the flower- 
buds are forming imperfectly, they 
should be nipped out; and the size of 
the early flowers may be increased by 
removing, at an early stage, the small 
backward flower-buds. 

Suckers from the stock should be in- 
variably cut out. It will also be found 
beneficial to keep the surface of the 
soil constantly in a loose state. 

Tying-up and Training. — As the 
plants advance in growth, some will 
require sticks to support the flowers, 
and keep the shoots apart. But those 
which hold their flowers gracefully and 
show themselves well are not, perhaps, 



improved by being drawn from their 
natural position of growth. Where 
the flowers do not show themselves to 
advantage, or the shoots become much 
crowded, the dwarf standards may be 
improved in appearance, and really 
benefited, by drawing the lower shoots 
downwards towards the edge of the 
pot, where they may be fastened to a 
piece of bast or wire made to pass be- 
neath the rim ; the upper shoots may 
then be drawn out to sticks ; or a neat 
hoop, fixed horizontally about the cen- 
tre of the head of the plant, admits of 
a very pretty method of arrangement. 
If the plant be large, two or even three 
hoops may be requisite, to which the 
shoots should be drawn inclined down- 
wards ; as they are, when growing, 
sure to rise sufficiently upwards. 

Shading. — When the plants com- 
mence flowering, it will be necessary 
to shade them during the middle of the 
day ; and the covering should be mova- 
ble, that they may have the advantage 
of slight rains and dews. — Gard. and 
Prac. Flor. 

Diseases. See Extravasated Sap, Cy- 
nips, Mildew, Aphis, and Ornix. 

ROSCOEA. Five species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
turfy loam. 

ROSE. See Rosa. 

ROSE ACACIA. Robinia hispida. 

ROSE BAY. Epilobium angustifo- 
Hum. 

ROSE BEETLE. See Anisopia. 

ROSEMARY. Rosmarinus officina- 
lis. 

Varieties. — There are three varie- 
ties — the green, golden-striped, and 
silver-striped. The first is in general 
cultivation. 

Soil and Situation. — It thrives best 
on a poor light soil mixed with old 
mortar, or other calcareous matters, 
In such, or when the plants are self- 
raised on an old wall, they will bear 
our severest winters; but in a rich 
soil they lose much of their aromatic 
nature, and perish in frost. For the 
green variety, the situation may be 
open, but the other two being tender, 
require to be planted beneath a south 
wall, or in pots to be allowed the shel- 
ter of a green-house in winter. 

Propagation is by cuttings and rooted 
slips, during any of the spring months, 
or by layers in the summer. But the 
finest plants are raised by seed, which, 



ROS 



522 

— ♦ — 



ROT 



and by layers, is the only mode of pro- j derive different materials from the soil ; 



pagating the gold and silver-striped 
varieties. Sow in March or early in 
April, in drills one inch deep and six 
inches apart. The rooted slips, and 
the cuttings of the young shoots, must 
be from five to seven inches long, and 
planted in a shady border, in rows 
eight or ten inches apart. Previously 
to being inserted, remove the leaves 
from the lower two-thirds of their 
length. Layers may be formed by cut- 
ting young branches half through on 
their under side, and pegging them 
down an inch or two below the sur- 
face ; they become established plants 
by autumn. Water must be applied 
abundantly at the time of planting, 
and occasionally afterwards until es- 
tablished. 

The plants require no further care 
than to be kept clear from weeds, and 
in September to be transplanted to re- 
main, being performed, in preference, 



and though the vegetables having the 
smallest systems of leaves, will propor- 
tionately most exhaust the soil of com- 
mon nutritive matter, yet particular 
vegetables, when their produce is car- 
ried off, will require peculiar principles 
to be supplied to the land in which 
they grow. Strawberries and potatoes 
at first produce luxuriantly in virgin 
mould recently turned up from pasture, 
but in a few years they degenerate and 
require a fresh soil; and the organiza- 
tion of these plants is such as to be 
constantly producing the migration of 
their layers. Thus the strawberry by 
its long shoots is continually endea- 
vouring to occupy a new soil ; and the 
fibrous radicles of the potato produce 
bulbs at a considerable distance from 
the parent plant. The most remarkable 
instance of the powers of the plant to 
exhaust the soil of certain principles 
necessary to its growth, is found in 



during mild showery weather; but if ! certain fungi. Mushrooms are said 
not removed thus early in the autumn, | never to rise in two successive seasons 



they are bes't left until the following 
March. They may be either grown 
in rows two feet apart each way, or 
trained in a fan form against a wail. 

ROSE OF HEAVEN. Lychnis Cali- 
Rosa. 

ROSE OF JERICHO. Anastatica. 

ROSE OF THE WORLD. Camel- 
lia japonica Rosa-mundi. 

ROSE SNOWBALL TREE. Vibur- 
num Opulus roseum. 

ROSMARINUS officinalis. See 
Rosemary. 

ROTATION IN CROPS. There are 
three circumstances to be regarded in 
regulating the order in which crops 
should follow each other: — 1. Each 
crop should be as dissimilar as possible 
from its predecessor. 2. The exuviae 
of the preceding crop should not be 
offensive to its successor. 3. A fusi- 
form-rooted crop should succeed a 
fibrous-rooted crop, or vice versa. 

1. Dissimilarity in the following crop 
is desirable, because, so far as the sa- 
line constituents of the soil are con- 
cerned, every tribe of plants in some 
measure takes from it distinct food. 
Sir H. Davy truly observed upon this 
point, that, " though the general com- 
position of plants is very analogous, 
yet the specific differences in the pro- 
ducts of many of them, and other well 
ascertained facts, prove that they must 



on the same spot; and the production 
of the phenomena called fairy-rings, 
has been ascribed by Dr. Wollaston,to 
the power of the peculiar fungus which 
forms it to exhaust the soil of the nu- 
triment necessary for the growth of the 
species. The consequence is that the 
ring annually extends, for no seeds 
will grow where their parents grew 
before them, and the interior part of the 
circle has been exhausted by preceding 
crops ; but where the fungus has died, 
nourishment is supplied for grass which 
usually rises within the circle, coarse 
and of a dark green colour." 

Again, exhausting crops should never 
be grown successively; and the follow- 
ing observations of one of the best of 
modern gardeners, the late Mr. G. 
Sinclair, afford much light npon this 
point : — 

" If we take the weight of nutritive 
matter which a plant affords from a 
given space of ground, the result will 
be found to agree with the daily expe- 
rience in the garden and the farm ; and 
the following figures represent the pro- 
portion in which they stand to each 
other with respect to the weight of nu- 
tritive matter they contain, with their 
having exhausted the land : — 
"Potatoes .... 63 

Cabbage .... 42 

Mangold wurzel ... 21 



ROT 



523 



RUB 



Carrots .... 24 
Kohl-rabi .... 17 
Swedish turnip ... 16 
Common turnip . . . 14" 

2. It is important that the exuviae of 
a preceding crop should not be offen- 
sive to its successor. 

Thus, brassicas will not grow health- 
ily upon soil where the immediately 
previous crop was of the same tribe ; 
but if the ground be pared and burnt, 
they will grow luxuriantly; and the 
same occurs to ground exhausted by 
strawberries : if it be burned and ma- 
nured, strawberries will grow as vigor- 
ously as upon fresh ground, but they 
will not do so if manure only is applied. 

It has also been observed that the 
roots of plants placed in water give out 
their characteristic flavours to the liquid; 
but on this, as evidence that they emit 
excrements, no great reliance can be 
placed, for some of the roots, during 
removal from the soil, must be wound- 
ed. The fact that the roots of plants 
do give out peculiar and varying mat- 
ters to the soil which sustains them, 
aids to explain why one rotation of crops 
is superior to another. 

3. As fusiform-rooted crops should 
precede or follow a fibrous-rooted crop, 
because the one draws its chief supply 
of food from a greater depth than an- 
other, and, consequently, exhausts a 
different portion of pasturage ; founded 
upon these considerations, and sanc- 
tioned by practice, the following rota- 
tions are recommended : — 

Onions. Turnips. 

Lettuce. Celery. 

Cabbage. Peas. 

Carrots. Potatoes. 

Manure. Manure. 

Mr. Kelly, of Airthrey Castle, Scot- 
land, says, that " on poor ground the 
rotation he finds best is celery : second 
season, cauliflowers and red beet; third, 
onions ; fourth, German green, or peas. 
By digging deep, and manuring abun- 
dantly, for celery, the ground is brought 
into such fine tilth, that the whole rota- 
tion is often gone through without any 
further addition, and without failing in 
any of the crops. Another good rota- 
tion is strawberries, celery, cauliflow- 
ers." — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Errington, gardener at Oulton 
Park, Cheshire, recommends the fol- 
lowing as good successions : — 



" Brassicas after raspberries or straw- 
berries ; peas after brassicas; celery 
after peas ; celery after asparagus ; 
beans and brocoli after celery ; carrots 
or parsnips or beet after brocoli." — 
Gard. Mag. 

The writer of the Kitchen Garden 
Calender in the Gardener's Chronicle for 
1844, (p. 72,) says, "the chief rule is 
never to have two crops of the same 
class directly following each other." 
He adds, that "celery is a good pre- 
paration for carrots, turnips, parsnips, 
onions, and early cauliflowers, or for 
peas, with potatoes and winter greens 
or brocoli between the rows. Autumn- 
sown onions, followed by spinach, let- 
tuce, &c, and early cauliflowers by au- 
tumn onions. Spring-sown onions are 
well succeeded by cabbages in beds, 
and scarlet runners between ; and if the 
cabbages remain through the summer 
and next winter, the ground will be for 
celery, potatoes, and peas in the spring." 
In gardens of limited extent it is not al- 
ways practicable to observe a system- 
atic rotation of crops, even though it 
were as important to successful culture 
as some writers declare. For all prac- 
tical purposes deep tillage will suffice, 
and there can be little doubt that if the 
land be deeply dug or ploughed after 
each crop, and the exhaustion supplied 
by manure, that the same description of 
vegetable growth may be successfully 
produced for successive seasons — in- 
deed the only inmate of the garden 
which we have seen tire the land, as it is 
termed, is the pea. Some market gar- 
deners, whether from habit, or an idea 
that particular localities answer better 
for certain vegetables, invariably use 
them for such, and year after year the 
same crop may be seen growing there- 
on. 

ROTPIIA trifoliata. Hardy trailing 
annual. Seeds. Common soil, and a 
warm situation. 

ROXBURGHIA. Two species. 
Stove evergreen climbers. Suckers. 
Light turfy loam. 

ROYAL BAY. Laurus nobilis. 

ROYENA. Eleven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

R Y L E A elegans. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
soil. 

RUBIA. Five species. Hardy herb- 



RUB 



524 



RUI 



aceous perennials, and half-hardy ever- 
green shrubs. Seeds or division. Com- 
mon soil. 

RUBUS. [Bramble.] Seventy-three 
species, and some varieties. Hardy de- 
ciduous trailers and shrubs, and a few 
green-house and stove evergreens, as 
well as herbaceous perennials. Rubus 
Idceus is the Raspberry. Suckers or cut- 
tings. Rich loam. 

RUDBECKIA. Thirteen species, 
chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials. 
R. anvplesifolia is a hardy annual. R. 
radula, a biennial. Division, seeds, 
and common soil. R. napifolia is a 
green-house perennial, succeeding best 
in peat and loam. 

RUDOLPHIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Suckers. Light 
turfy loam. 

RUE, or HERB GRACE. Ruta 
graveolens. Thrives best in a poor 
clayey loam, mixed with calcareous 
rubbish, in an open situation. It is 
propagated by slips and cuttings, as well 
as from seeds ; the first two modes be- 
ing usually practised as being the most 
easy. It may be planted or sown at any 
time during the spring. The seed in 
drills six inches apart, and one deep. 
The seedlings are not long in making 
their appearance, and only require to 
be thinned to a similar distance in the 
rows, and kept free of weeds. The 
rooted slips, or cuttings, may be planted 
on a poor, shady border, and watered 
occasionally until taken root. 

In the autumn, the plants may be 
removed to their final compartment. 
During their after-growth, they must be 
kept pruned in a shrubby form, and 
never be allowed to produce seed. 
The decayed branches, &c, may be 
removed in the spring and autumn, and 
the surface of the bed stirred. 

RUINS, are a class of buildings 
beautiful as objects, expressive as cha- 
racters, and peculiarly calculated to 
connect with their appendages into ele- 
gant groups : they may be accommo- 
dated with ease to irregularity of ground, 
and their disorder is improved by it; 
they may be intimately blended with 
trees and with thickets, and the inter- 
ruption is an advantage ; for imperfec- 
tion and obscurity are their properties ; 
and to carry the imagination to some- 
thing greater than is seen, their effect. 

They may for any of these purposes 



be separated into detached pieces; con- 
tiguity is not necessary nor even the 
appearance of it, if the relation be pre- 
served, but straggling ruins have a bad 
effect, when the several parts are equal- 
ly considerable. 

There should be one large mass, to 
raise an idea of greatness, to attract the 
others about it, and to be a common 
centre of union to all; the smaller pieces 
then mark the original dimensions of 
one extensive structure; and no longer 
appear to be the remains of several little 
buildings. 

All remains excite an inquiry into 
the former state of the edifice, and fix 
the mind in a contemplation on the use 
it was applied to ; besides the characters 
expressed by their style and position, 
they suggest ideas which would not 
arise from the buildings, if entire. 

The purposes of many have ceased ; 
an abbey, or a castle, if complete, can 
now be no more than a dwelling ; the 
memory of the times, and of the man- 
ners to which they were adapted, is 
preserved only in history and in ruins ; 
and certain sensations of" regret, of ve- 
neration, or compassion, attend the re- 
collection ; nor are these confined to 
the remains of buildings which are now 
in disuse ; those of an old mansion raise 
reflections on the domestic comforts 
once enjoyed, and the ancient hospital- 
ity which reigned there. Whatever 
building we see in decay, we naturally 
contrast its present to its former state, 
and delight to ruminate on the compari- 
son. It is true that such effects pro- 
perly belong to real ruins ; but they are 
produced in a certain degree by those 
which are fictitious ; the impressions are 
not so strong, but they are exactly sim- 
ilar; and the representation, though it 
does not present facts to the memory, 
yet suggests subjects to the imagination ; 
but in order to affect the fancy, the sup- 
posed original design should be clear, 
the use obvious, and the form easy to 
trace ; no fragments should be hazarded 
without a precise meaning, and an evi- 
dent connexion ; none should be per- 
plexed in their construction or uncertain 
as to their application. Conjectures 
about the form, raise doubts about the 
existence of the ancient structure ; the 
mind must not be allowed to hesitate; 
it must be hurried away from examining 
into the reality by the exactness and 



RUI 



525 

— ♦ — 



SAG 



the force of the resemblance. — Whate- 
ley. 

RUIZIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat and sand. 

RUN. A plant advancing to seed is 
said by gardeners to have "run." Also, 
when the dark colouring of a carnation, 
or other flower, becomes confused or 
clouded with its lighter ground colour, 
they say it is " a run flower." Abund- 
ance of moisture and a rich soil promote 
the development of leaves, and, con- 
sequently, check running, or producing 
seed. A suitably fertile soil also pre- 
serves the colours of a flower pure and 
distinct — over-fertility or poverty of soil 
will equally cause the colours to run. 

RUNNERS are young shoots issuing 
from the collar or summit of the root, 
and creeping along the surface of the 
soil, but producing a newrootand leaves 
at the extremity, and forming a new in- 
dividual, by the decay of the connect- 
ing link. This takes place in a. great 
variety of herbs, but particularly the 
strawberry, which is a good example. 

They afford very ready and unfailing 
means of increasing the species or va- 
riety, all the care required being to see 
that the plantlet is well rooted before 
the connecting string is divided. 

RUSCUS. Butcher's Broom. Five 
species. Chiefly hardy evergreen shrubs. 
Suckers. Common soil. R.androgynus 
is a green-house evergreen climber. 
Division. Rich soil. 

RUSSELIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Light rich 
soil. 

RUST. A disease of the berries of 
the grape. It appears in the form of a 
rough, rusty appearance of their skins, 
which have, in fact, become thick and in- 
durated. Some think it arises from their 
being handled, or the hair of the head 
touching them ; but the disease is often 
too general to admit of this topical 
explanation. I believe it to arise from 
an over-heating of the vinery, however 
unintentional, whilst the grapes were 
young, and thus tending to force them 
to a premature rapidity of growth. Any 
excessive pressure upon the cuticle, 
whether from within or from without, 
causes its thickening. 

RUSTIC STRUCTURES are pleas- 
ing in recluse portions of the pleasure 
ground, if this style be confined to the 
formation of either a seat, or a cottage; 



but it is ridiculous and disgusting to 
good taste, if complicated and elegant 
forms are constructed of rude materials. 
Thus we have seen a flower-box, in- 
tended to be Etruscan in its outlines, 
formed of split hazel stakes — a combi- 
nation of the rude and the refined, giv- 
ing rise to separate trains of ideas to- 
tally unassociable. 

RUTA. Two species. Hardy and 
half-hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Light rich soil. See Rue. 

RUYSCHIA clusicefolia. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
vegetable mould. 

RYANCEA speciosa.. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

RYTIDOPHYLLUM auricula- 
turn. Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

SxlBAL. Five species. Stove palms. 
Suckers. Light loamy soil. 

SABBATIA. Five species. Hardy 
biennials, except S. paniculata, an 
herbaceous perennial. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

SACCOLABIUM. Ten species. 
Stove orchids. Peat, potsherds, and 
wood. 

SACRED BEAN. Nelumbium. 

SAFFRON. Crocus sativus. 

SAGE. Salvia officinalis. 

Varieties. — The Common Green; 
Wormwood ; Green, with variegated 
leaves; Red, with variegated leaves; 
Painted or Parti-coloured : Spanish or 
Lavender leaved ; and Red. 

Soil and Situation. — A dry mode- 
rately fertile soil is best suited to their 
growth, in a sheltered situation. 

Propagation. — By Cuttings. — These 
may be either of the preceding or same 
year's growth ; if of the first, plant in 
April, but if of the latter, not until the 
close of May or middle of June. The 
shoots of the same year are usually em- 
ployed, as they more readily emit roots, 
and assume a free growth. The out- 
ward and most robust shoots should be 
chosen, and cut from five to seven 
inches in length. All but the top 
leaves being removed, insert by the 
dibble almost down to these, in rows 
six inches apart each way, in a shady 
border, and during moist weather, 
otherwise water must be given imme- 
diately, and repeated occasionally, until 
they have taken root. When the plants 
thus raised have an appearance of spind- 



SAG 



526 



SAL 



ling, or run up to flower, they are to be | finest plants of two years' growth must 



be left, not nearer to each other than 
four feet, and when the plants begin to 
flower, a plentiful watering given, and 
repeated every other day until the seed 
has attained its full growth. When 
perfectly ripe, the plants being pulled 
up, and completely dried, they easily 
shed their seed if struck on the floor. 

SAGITTARIA. Fifteen species. 
Hardy, half-hardy, stove and green- 
house aquatic perennials. Division. 
Loamy soil. 

SAGUS. Four species. Stove palms. 
Sandy loam and a strong moist heat. 

ST. ANDREW'S CROSS. Ascyrum 
Crux Andrea. 

ST. BARNABY'S THISTLE. Cen- 
taurea solstitialis. 

SAINTFOIN. Onobrychis. 
ST. JOHN'S WORT. Hypericum. 
ST. MARTIN'S FLOWER. Als- 
trcemeria Flos-Martini. 

ST. PETER'S WORT. Hypericum 
Ascyron. 

SALADING. See the following : 
American Cress. Horse Radish. 
Beet Root. Lettuce. 

Borage. Mint. 

Mustard. 
Onions. 
Purslane. 
Radishes. 
Rape. 

Scurvy Grass. 
Dandelion. Succory. 

Endive. Water Cress. 

Finochio. Wood Sorrel. 

Garden Rocket. 

SALICORNIA. Six species. Hardy 
d green-house evergreen shrubs and 
annuals and half- 
Seeds or division. 



topped to induce laterals. In the au 
tumn, if they have attained a tolerably 
shrubby growth, otherwise not until the 
succeeding spring, remove to their final 
stations; being taken up with as little 
injury as possible to the roots, and 
planted, if in a bed in rows two feet 
apart each way. 

By Slips. — When there are rooted 
slips, they may be taken off separately, 
with their fibrous roots still pertaining, 
or the whole plant may be taken up and 
divided into as many separate slips as 
can be furnished with roots. These 
may be planted both in spring and au- 
tumn, but the first season is to be pre- 
ferred. Set out at once where they are 

to remain. 

By Seed is the most preferable mode, 
the plants affording finer flavoured, 
larger and greater abundance of leaves, 
than those raised by other modes. Sow 

in April, in a bed of rich light earth, in 

drills half an inch deep, and six inches 

apart. The plants soon make their ap- 
pearance, and when two or three inches 

high, thin to half afoot apart, and those 

removed prick out at a similar distance. 

In the autumn or succeeding spring, as Burnet 

the plants are strong or weak, remove Celeriac. 

them to their final stations. Celery. 

After- Culture. — During their future I Chervil. 

existence, keep constantly clear of Corn Salad. 

weeds. The decayed flower-stalks, Cress. 

stunted branches, &c, remove in early 

winter and spring, and the soil of the 

beds slightly turn over. All irregular 

growth may be corrected during the 

spring and summer. When the plants 

have continued two or three years, a 

little dry, well putrefied dung may be ! creepers. Hardy 

turned in during early spring with con- I hardy perennials. 

siderable advantage. A due attention Common soil. 

to the mode of gathering has no small | SxiLISBURIA adiantifolia. Maiden 

influence in keeping the plants healthy ] Hair Tree. Hardy deciduous tree. 

and vigorous. The tops ought never to I Layers. Common soil. "The Salis- 

be cropped too close, so as to render j buria is a native of Japan and China, 

the branches naked or stumpy. This j and forms a large tree in its native 

should be especially attended to in au- I country. Bunge, who accompanied the 

tumn and winter. During this last sea- j Russian mission to China, states, that 



son, they are less liable to be injured 
by severe frost, if kept with a full re- 
gular head. If appearance is consider- 
ed, fresh plants must be raised every 
three or four years. For drying, the 



he saw one with a trunk nearly forty 
feet in circumference. Mr. Loudon 
says, the tree grows with considerable 
rapidity in the climate of London, and 
has attained the height of forty or fifty 



shoots and leaves may be gathered any feet, in as many years. The longevity 

time in summer before the plants flower, of the Salisburia promises to be great, 

which they do in July. as the largest trees in England continue 

To obtain Seed. — Two or three of the j to grow with as much vigour, as when 



SAL 



527 

— ♦ — 



SAL 



newly planted. The highest tree there, 
planted in 1767, was, in 1838, above 
sixty feet. 

" It was introduced into the United 
States, by Mr. Hamilton, in 1784, and 
the tree now growing at the Woodlands, 
near Philadelphia, is, doubtless, the 
one then imported. A specimen at the 
Landreth Nurseries, when planted is 
unknown, has attained the height of 50 
feet and continues in fine health. There 
is also one of considerable size in the 
Mall, at Boston." — Comp. Florist. 

SALIX. The Willow. One hundred 
and eighty-five species. Hardy decidu- 
ous shrubs and trees. Cuttings. Swampy 
soil. 

SALMEA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Young cuttings. 
Light rich soil. 

SALPIGLOSSIS sinuata, and its va- 
rieties. Hardy and green-house annuals 
and biennials. Seeds. Peat and loam. 

S ALS AF Y. Tragopogon porrifolius. 

Soil. — This should be light and mode- 
rately fertile. At the time of sowing 
trench it, turning in a little manure with 
the bottom spit only. 

Sow in March and April, in an open 
situation to remain, in shallow drills, 
nine inches asunder, scatter the seeds 
thinly, and cover them half an inch 
deep. When the plants are up two or 
three inches high, thin and weed them, 
leaving them ten inches asunder, re- 
peating the weeding as may be required 
during the summer and during very dry 
weather, watering occasionally very 
plentifully, and if half an ounce of guano 
is added to each gallon of water it will 
be very beneficial. This is all the cul- 
ture they require. They will have large 
roots by September or October; when 
you may begin taking them up for use; 
and in November, when the leaves be- 
gin to decay, a quantity may be pre- 
served in sand for use in time of severe 
frost; but those left in the ground will 
not be injured. In spring, when those 
remaining in the ground begin to vege- 
tate, the shoots when a few inches high 
may be cut for use as asparagus, being 
excellent when quite young and tender. 
Suffer, however, always a few plants to 
run up to stalk every spring to produce 
seed. 

The best mode of cooking the roots 
is to boil and mash them, form them 
into cakes and fry them in butter. The 



flavour is that of oyster patties. — Aber- 
crombie. Hovey's Mag. 

SALTPETRE. See Salts,— Nitrate 
of Potash. 

SALTS. The day has long passed 
when it was disputed whether any saline 
bodies are promotive of the growth of 
plants. It is now determined that some 
plants will not even live without the 
means of procuring certain salts. Bo- 
rage, the nettle, and parietaria will not 
exist except where nitrate of potash is 
in the soil ; turnips, lucerne, and some 
other plants will not succeed where 
there is no sulphate of lime. These 
are facts that have silenced disputation. 
Still there are found persons who main- 
tain that salts are not essential parts of 
a plant's structure ; they assert that 
such bodies are beneficial to a plant by 
absorbing moisture to the vicinity of its 
roots, or by improving the staple of the 
soil, or by some other secondary mode. 
This, however, is refuted by the fact 
that salts enter as intimately into the 
constitution of plants as do phosphate 
of lime into that of bones, and carbo- 
nate of lime into that of egg-shells. 
They are part of their very fabric, uni- 
versally present, unremovable by edul- 
coration however long continued, re- 
maining after the longest washing, and 
always to be found in the ashes of all 
and of any of their parts, when sub- 
jected to incineration. Thus Saussure 
observes that the phosphate of lime is 
universally present in plants.— Sur la 
Veget. c. 8. s. 4. 

The sap of all trees contains acetate 
of potash ; Beet-root contains malate 
and oxalate of potash, ammonia and 
lime; Rhubarb, oxalate o£ potash and 
lime; Horse-radish, sulphur; Aspara- 
gus, super-malates, chlorides, acetates, 
and phosphates of potash and lime ; 
Potatoes, magnesia, citrates and phos- 
phates of potash and lime ; Jerusalem 
Artichoke, citrate, malate, sulphate, 
chloride, and phosphate of potash ; 
Garlic, sulphate of potash, magnesia, 
and phosphate of lime ; Geraniums, 
tartrate of lime, phosphates of lime and 
magnesia ; Peas, phosphate of lime ; 
Kidney Beans, phosphate of lime and 
potash ; Oranges, carbonate, sulphate, 
and muriate of potash ; Apples and 
Pears, malate of potash ; Grapes, tar- 
trate of lime ; Capsicums, citrate, mu- 
riate, and phosphate of potash ; Oak, 
carbonate of potash ; and the Lilac, 



SAL 



528 

— ♦ — 



SAL 



39.8 



nitrate of potash. Let no one fancy 
that the salts are a very trivial propor- 
tion of the fabric of plants. In the 
Capsicum, they constitute one-tenth of 
its fruit ; of carrot juice, one-hundredth 
of Rhubarb, one-eleventh ; of Potatoes, 
one-twentieth; whilst of the seed of the 
Lithospermum officinale, they actually 
constitute more than one-half. Their 
constituents are as follows . — 

Carbonate of lime . . . 43.7 

Silica 16.5 

Vegetable matter, phos-) 
phate of lime, &c. . 5 
These amounts are nearly as much 
of earthy saline matters as exist in hu- 
man bones ; but if we turn to the mar- 
row, it only contains one-twentieth of 
saline matters; the blood only one- 
hundredth; muscle, only one-thirty- 
fourth ; yet no one will argue that these 
saline constituents, though smaller than 
those in vegetables, are trivial and un- 
important. 

Saline manures are generally bene- 
ficial, and often essential. An import- 
ant consideration, therefore, is con- 
tained in the answer to the query — so 
often put. How should saline manures 
be applied ? Our answer is, that, when 
practicable, they ought to be in very 
small quantities and frequently, during 
the time of the plant's growth. No 
plan can be worse than soaking seed in 
a saline solution, for the purpose of 
giving such salt to the plant of which it 
will be the parent. It is soddening the 
embryo with a superfluity totally use- 
less to it, and if it does not injure the 
germination, it will be most probably 
washed away before the roots begin to 
absorb such nutriment. For the mode 
in which salts are beneficial to plants, 
see Manures. 

Common Salt. — Chloride of sodium, 
applied in the spring at the rate of 
twenty bushels per acre, has been found 
very beneficial to asparagus, broad 
beans, lettuces, onions, carrots, pars- 
neps, potatoes, and beets. Indeed its 
properties are so generally useful, not 
only as promoting fertility, but as de- 
stroying slugs, &c, that 'it is a good 
plan to sow the whole garden every 
March with this manure, at the rate 
above specified. The flower garden is 
included in this recommendation ; for 
some of the best practical gardeners 
recommend it for the stock, hyacinth, 
amaryllis, ixia, anemone, colchicum, 



narcissus, ranunculus, &c. ; and in the 
fruit garden it has been found beneficial 
to almost every one of its tenants, espe- 
cially the cherry and apple. On lawns 
and walks it helps to drive away worms, 
and to destroy moss. 

Ammonia. — The salts of ammonia 
are highly stimulating, and afford by 
their ready decomposition, abundant 
food to plants. The dungs of animals 
are fertilizing exactly in proportion to 
the amount of ammonia in them. The 
only care required is not to apply them 
too abundantly. Half an ounce to each 
gallon of water, given at the most twice 
a week, is a good recipe for all the am- 
moniacal salts. The ammoniacal gas 
liquor at the rate of one pint to two 
gallons of water, is highly beneficial to 
spinach and grass. — Gard. Chron. 

Phosphate of Ammonia has been ap- 
plied with advantage to cress. 

Sulphate of Ammonia. — This, and the 
nitrate of ammonia, have proved bene- 
ficial to potatoes in Scotland. A writer 
in the Floricultural Cabinet says, that 
having obtained a pailful of gas liquor, 
he diluted it with water, and added 
some sulphuric acid, thus forming a 
solution of sulphate of ammonia, and 
watered with it in October, a bed (twen- 
ty feet long by four feet two inches 
wide) destined to be planted with Ra- 
nunculuses. They bloomed very strong 
in this bed, some of the flower-stems 
were two feet high ; the blooms averag- 
ing between three and four inches in 
diameter; the roots also lifted large 
and clean. — Flor. Cab. 

Chalk may be applied in large quan- 
tities, twenty or thirty tons per acre, to 
render a light siliceous soil more re- 
tentive or a heavy soil more open. Its 
basis, lime, enters into the composition 
of most plants in some state of combi- 
nation. It is very far from immaterial 
where this mineral is obtained from to 
improve the staple of our soils. Those 
chalks which are merely carbonate of 
lime, with a trace of oxide of iron, are 
unexceptionable ; but there are some 
which contain phosphate of lime, and 
these are very much to be preferred. 
Mr. Brande states the chalk of Brighton 
to be thus constituted. 

Carbonate of lime . . 98.57 

■ magnesia . 0.38 

Phosphate of lime . . 0.11 
Oxides of iron and manganese 0.14 
Alumina and silica . . 0.80 



SAL 



529 

— ♦ — 



SAL 



If the chalk is to be burnt into lime 
before it is applied, care should be 
taken that it does not contain, like some 
of the Yorkshire chalks, a large propor- 
tion of carbonate of magnesia. Mag- 
nesia remains long in a caustic state, 
and has been found injurious to the 
plants to which it has been applied. 

Chloride of Lime gradually gives out 
a portion of its chlorine, and is con- 
verted into muriate of lime, a very de- 
liquescing salt, which can hardly exist 
in any soil, however light, without 
keeping it moist; and its nauseous 
odour may be found to keep off the 
attacks of the fly, and other vermin. A 
solution containing one ounce in five 
gallons of water, is said to destroy the 
aphis and the caterpillar, if poured over 
the trees they infest. 

Gas Lime is a hydro-sulphuret of lime, 
with a little ammonia. It is an excel- 
lent manure, especially to cabbages, 
turnips, cauliflowers, and brocoli, dug 
in at the time of planting or sowing. 
If sown over the surface at the time of 
inserting the crop, at the rate of twenty 
bushels pe^ acre, it will effectually 
drive away the turnip-fly, slug, &c. 

Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris, is sul- 
phate oflime, composed of 

Sulphuric acid ... 43 

Lime ..... 33 

Water .... 22 

It has been found very useful as a 
top dressing to lawns, and' dug in for 
turnips and potatoes. Three hundred 
weight per acre is abundance. 

Nitrates of Potash (Saltpetre), and of 
Soda (Cubic Petre), have been found 
beneficial to carrots, cabbages, and 
lawns. One pound to a square rod of 
ground is a sufficient quantity. Both 
these nitrates have been found bene- 
ficial to potatoes in Scotland. Mr. 
Murray says that, from 1810 down to 
the present time, he has been in the 
habit of watering pinks and carnations 
with solutions of these two nitrates, 
and the benefit has been uniform and 
eminent in promoting their luxuriance. 
— Gard. Gaz. 

They have also been given in solu- 
tion with great benefit to lettuces, 
celery, fuchsias, and dahlias. One 
pound to twelve gallons of water. 
Nitrate of Soda destroys slugs. 

Phosphate of Lime. — The importance 
of bones and other manures containing 
phosphoric salts as a general manure, 
34 



is further sustained by the experiments 
of Dr. Jackson, the American chemist. 
He found phosphates in peas and beans 
of various kinds, in pumpkin seeds, 
chestnuts, potatoes, raspberries, and 
turnips. See Bones. 

Super- Phosphate of Lime. — Chrysan- 
themums were much increased in vi- 
gour when watered with a solution of 
this salt in the Chiswick Garden, at the 
end of July. It is thought, if the appli- 
cation had been made earlier, the be- 
nefit would have been still more marked. 
Professor Lindley says this salt seems 
to have a beneficial effect on most 
plants, and that it may be applied in 
different proportions without the least 
risk of injuring the plants. — Gard. 
Chron. 

Heaths appear to like it. The best 
practical mode of obtaining super-phos- 
phate of lime for manure, is to pour 
one pound of sulphuric acid, mixed 
with one pound of water, upon each 
two pounds of bone dust, allowing the 
mixture a week to complete the decom- 
position. Sulphate of lime and super- 
phosphate of lime are the result. The 
Duke of Richmond and others have 
tried this with very great success upon 
turnips. It being in a liquid form, it 
must be mixed with earth to facilitate 
its application, or else be applied 
through the rose of a watering-pot. 

SALT TREE. Halimodendron. 

SALVIA. See Clary and Sage. 
One hundred and five species. The 
shrubby, stove, and green-house kinds, 
increase by cuttings ; the herbaceous, 
by division ; the annuals and biennials, 
seeds. Common soil suits them ail. 
S. patens makes a splendid bed. The 
flower-spikes should be cut off for a 
time, and the young shoots regularly 
pegged down till they nearly cover the 
bed, when the flowers will be produced 
so numerously as to form one mass of 
intense blue. — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Vaux, of Ryde, in the Ise of 
Wight, says, that there " it ripens seeds 
perfectly in the open air. Sow it in 
pots in autumn ; put the pots in a cool 
frame protected from frost, where they 
may remain during the winter. In the 
spring, place in the green-house when 
the seedlings come up ; and in the early 
part of May, bed them out ; they bloom 
beautifully during the summer and au- 
tumn. For beds they are superior to 



SAM 



530 



S A V 



cuttings, as they grow dwarf and more 
bushy." — Gard. Chron. 

SAMBUCUS. Elder. Seven spe- 
cies and many varieties. All hardy. 
The deciduous shrubby kinds are in- 
creased by cuttings ; the herbaceous 
perennials, by division. They will 
grow in any soil. See Elder. 

SAMOLUS. Three species. Green- 
house or hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Common soil, and a rather 
moist situation. 

S AMPHI RE. Crithmum maritimum, 
though a native of the sea-shore, may 
be cultivated successfully in the garden. 

Soil. — It requires a sandy or gravelly 
soil, and the north side of a wall. 

Propagation. — The roots may be 
planted, or the seed sown, in April ; 
the only cultivation required being to 
keep the plants free from weeds, and to 
•water it about twice a week with water 
containing half an ounce of guano and 
one ounce of salt per gallon. 

SAMYDA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

SAND is one of the agents most fre- 
quently employed by the gardener in 
the culture of potted plants. The kind 
most suitable to his purpose, is either 
silver sand, or drift river-sand, both of 
which are silica nearly in a state of 
purity. These sands being very slow 
conductors of heat, and affording a 
ready escape for superfluous moisture, 
are admirably adapted for promoting 
the rooting of cuttings, and preventing 
the damping-off of seedlings. See Pot- 
ting, Soil, and Damping-off. 

SAND WOOD. Bremontiera am- 
moxylon. 

SANGUINARIA. Two spe- 
cies. Hardy tuberous-rooted peren- 
nials. Division or seeds. Sandy loam 
or peat. 

SANGUISORBA. Burnet. Eight 
species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division, seeds. Common soil. See 
Burnet. 

SA.NSEVIERA. Fourteen species. 
Stove herbaceous perennials. Suckers. 
Sandy loam. S. carnea is hardy. 

SANTOLINA. Five species. Hardy 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Common 
soil. 

SANVITALIA procumbens. Hardy 
trailing annual. Seeds. Common soil. 

SAPONARIA. Soapwort. Thirteen 
species. Hardy annuals and biennials, 



hardy and half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials and creepers. Division, seeds, 
and also by young cuttings of the 
branching species. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

SARACHA. Three species. Hardy 
trailing annuals. S. viscosa, a green- 
house deciduous shrub, is increased by 
cuttings, the others by seeds. Common 
soil. 

SARCANTHUS. Six species. Stove 
orchids. Cuttings. Moss, potsherds, 
and wood, and a moist atmosphere. 

SARCOCAPNOS enneaphylla. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Seeds or cut- 
tings. Common soil, rock work. 

SARCOCAULON. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat, leaf-mould, and sand. 

SARCOCEPHALUS esculentus. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

SARCOLOBUS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Rich 
mould. 

SARCOPHYLLUM carnosum. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

SARCOSTEMMA. Two species. 
Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

SARRACENIA. Side Saddle 
Flower. Five species. Half-hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Divisions. Peat 
and sphagnum. They require a close 
damp atmosphere. 

SASSAFRAS. Laurus sassafras. 

SATUREIA. Savory. Seven spe- 
cies. Hardy and half-hardy evergreen 
shrubs, and herbaceous perennials. S, 
hortensis is an annual. Division, slips, 
cuttings, seeds. Dry light sandy soil. 
See Savory. 

SATYRIUM. Eight species. Green- 
house tuberous-rooted orchids. Divi- 
sion. Sandy loam and peat. 

SAURAUJA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

SAUROGLOSSUM elatum. Stove 
orchid. Division. Sandy peat. 

SAUSSUREA. Twelve species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
or seeds. Common soil. 

SAUVAGESIA. Two species. Stove 
annuals. Seeds. Peat and loam. 

SAVORY. Satureia. 

S. montana, winter or perennial sa- 
vory. S. hortensis, summer or annual 
savory. 






SAW 



531 

— • — 



SCH 



They may be sown in the open 
ground in spring. In the latter end 
of March or in April, sow the seed in 
a light rich soil, moderately thick, and 
rake them in evenly ; the seedlings 
soon come up; give occasional weed- 
ing, and thin them moderately, and they 
may either remain where sown, or may 
be transplanted. Observe, however, 
of the Winter Savory, that when the 
seedlings are about two or three inches 
high, it is eligible to plant out a quan- 
tity of the strongest, in moist weather, 
in nursery rows six inches asunder, to 
remain till September or spring follow- 
ing, then to be transplanted with balls 
where they are finally to remain, in 
rows a foot asunder. But the Annual 
or Summer Savory may either remain 
where sown, thinning the plants to six 
or eight inches' distance, or when two 
inches high may be pricked out in beds, 
in rows the above distance ; in either 
case the plants will become useful in 
June or July, and until winter. Or 
when designed to have the Winter or 
Summer Savory remain where sown, 
the seeds may be sown in shallow drills, 
either in beds, or along the edge of any 
bed or border by way of an edging. 

By Slips, 8fC — In the spring or early 
part of summer, the Winter Savory may 
be increased plentifully by slips or cut- 
tings of the young shoots or branches, 
five or six inches long; plant them with 
a dibble, in any shady border, in rows 
six inches asunder, giving occasional 
waterings, and they will be well rooted 
by September, when they may be trans- 
planted. 

SAW-DUST mixed with dung of any 
sort speedily decays, and forms a very 
valuable manure. In one instance, the 
dung of four rabbits and their young 
ones, saw-dust in their hutches being 
used instead of straw, was the only 
manure used upon one-quarter of an 
acre. — Gard. Chron. 

SAW-FLY. See Athalia. 

SAWS for garden pruning must have 
a double row of teeth, to obviate the 
tendency to nip, that the dampness of 
green wood and the leverage of the 
branch occasions. One with a very 
narrow blade, and one with a handle 
six feet long, will be found convenient. 
The face of the wound made by a saw 
should always be cut smooth with the 
knife, otherwise the wet lodging on its 



rough surface occasions decay. See 
Bill. 

SAW-WORT. Serratula. 

SAXIFRAGA. Saxifrage. Ninety- 
two species, and some varieties. Chief- 
ly hardy herbaceous perennials; a few 
are annuals, and some half-hardy. — 
Seeds. Division. Light sandy soil. 

SCABIOSA. Seven species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

SCABIOUS. Scabiosa. 

SCJEVA. Hawk Fly. Of this genus 
there are several species, of which the 
most common are S. ribesii and S. py- 
rastri. Wherever aphides are abun- 
dant, whether on the cabbage, hop, or 
elsewhere, there is a fleshy green mag- 
got. This is the larva of a hawk-fly, 
and should be left undisturbed, as it is 
a voracious destroyer of plant lice. — 
Gard. Chron. 

SC^VOLA. Eight species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials, or stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy 
loam, peat, and sand. 

SCALLION. See Ciboule, 

SCARES are but very inefficient pro- 
tections ; for birds soon sit on the very 
branches which bear the malkin. To 
frighten them effectually, it is best to 
employ boys, for the short time scaring 
is required. Over seed beds a net is 
the best protection ; but threads taut- 
ened across the beds, are said to be 
equally efficacious. 

SCARLET POMPONE. Lilium pom- 
ponium. 

SCEPTRANTHES Drummondi. Half- 
hardy tuberous-rooted perennial. Off- 
sets. Rich mould. 

SCHELHAMMERA. Two species. 
Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Peat and loam. 

SCHIMIDELIA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen tree. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

SCHINUS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen tree and shrub. Ripe cut- 
tings. Common soil. 

SCHIZ^EA. Five species. Stove, 
green-house, and hardy herbaceous 
perennials. Division or seeds. Peat 
and loam. 

SCHIZANDRA coccinea. Green- 
house evergreen trailer. Ripe cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

SCHIZANTHUS. Six species. Har- 
dy annuals. Seeds. Light soil. 

SCHIZOMERIA ovata. Green-hous 



SCH 



532 

— • — 



S CI 



evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
sandy peat. 

SCHIZOPETALON Walkeri. Half- 
hardy annual. Seeds. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

SCHOMBURGHIA. Three species. 
Stove orchids. Division. A block of 
wood, or turfy heath mould and pot- 
sherds. 

SCHOTIA. Five species. Stove or 
green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

SCHRADERA cephalotes. Stove 
evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

SCHRANKIA. Two species. Stove 
and half-hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Young cuttings or division. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

SCHUBERTIA graveolens. Stove 
evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

SCIARA. A genus of Midges. S. 
pyri, Small Pear Midge. S. Schmid- 
bergeri, Large Pear Midge. When a 
fallen pear is cut open, it is often found 
core-eaten, and with a brown powder 
marking the progress of the assailant. 
This is caused by the larva of these 
insects. The midges appear early in 
July. M. Kollar says, that the small 
pear midge has club-shaped halteres, 
the club dark brown, and the stem 
whitish. When alive, the abdomen is 
of a lead colour, with black wings. 
The head and thorax are black, as are 
also the antennae; the palpi are of a 
pale yellow, the feet whitish, and the 
tarsi black. 

The Large Pear Midge appears 
about the same time as the preceding. 
M. Kollar thus describes it: "The 
female is little more than a line long, 
and half a line thick, also much larger 
than the smaller pear midge ; the male is 
more slender, and somewhat shorter. 
The antenna? are blackish, and not so 
long as the body. The head is black 
and shining, as is also the thorax ; the 
proboscis ash-gray, the abdomen of the 
male a deep black, that of the female 
browner, with black wings ; the anal 
point, however, is quite black. The 
feet ash-gray, and the tarsi and wings 
black. They both survive the winter, 
and deposit their eggs in the blossom, 
when it opens in early spring. The 
larva eats its way into the core of the 
young fruit, and again eats its way out 
at one side, when the time arrives for 



it to bury itself in the ground, and pass 
into the chrysalis form." — Kollar. 

SCILLA. Squill. Thirty-one species, 
and many varieties. All bulbous per- 
ennials, and chiefly hardy. S. brevi- 
folla is a green-house, S. indica is a 
stove species. Offsets. Light soil. 

SCIODAPHYLLUM. Seven species. 
Stove or green-house evergreen trees, 
shrubs, and climbers. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

SCION is the portion of the branch 
selected for insertion in the stock, and 
destined to become the future plant. 
The following directions, given by Mr. 
Loudon, embrace all the information 
generally applicable to the subject. 
All particular directions will be found 
under the title of the plant to be graft- 
ed from : — 

" Scions are generally the shoots of 
last summer's growth, from the outside 
lateral branches of healthy trees, be- 
cause in them the shoots are not so 
robust and apt to run to wood as in the 
centre and top of the tree, nor so weak 
as those which are at its base, and uc- 
der the shade and drip of the rest. An 
exception to this rule is to be found in 
the case of debilitated trees, where the 
scions should be taken from the strong- 
est shoots. The middle part of each 
shoot makes always the best scion ; but 
long shoots, and especially where the 
scion is of a rare variety, may be cut 
into several scions of four or six inches 
in length, reserving not fewer than two 
nor more than five eyes to form the 
future head of the tree. 

" Scions should be cut several weeks 
before the season for grafting arrives; 
the reason is that grafting may most 
successfully be performed by allowing 
the stock to have some advantage over 
the graft in forwardness of vegetation. 
It is desirable that the sap of the stock 
should be in brisk motion at the time 
of grafting ; but by this time the buds 
of the scion, if left on the parent tree, 
would be equally advanced ; whereas, 
the scions being gathered early, the 
buds aTe kept back, and ready only to 
swell out when placed on the stock. 
Scions of pears, plums, and cherries 
are collected in the end of January or 
beginning of February. They are kept 
at full length, sunk in dry earth, and 
out of the reach of frost, till wanted, 
which is sometimes from the middle 
of February to the middle of March. 



SCI 



533 



SCO 



Scions of apples are collected any time 
in February, and put on from the mid- 
dle to the end of March. The Scions 
are used as gathered." — Enc. Gard. 

It is quite true that the scion " over- 
rideth the stock ;" — a peach scion pro- 
duces its peculiar foliage, fruit, &c, 



SCOP ARIA dulcis. Stove annual. 
Seeds. Sandy loam. 

SCOPOLIA carniolica. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennial. Division. Light dry 
soil. 

SCOPUL A forficalis, Garden Pebble 
Moth, is thus accurately described by 



though grafted upon a plum stock ; yet Mr. Curtis :— " The perfect insect mea 



Fig. 151. 




the stock influences the habits and pro 
duce of the scion. Thus an apricot is 
said to have been worked on a green- 
gage plum, and a quince upon the au- 
tumn bergamot pear; the apricot be- 
came as juicy as the green-gage, and 
far more delicate ; the quince was much 
more tender, and less gritty. See 
Stocks and Grafting. 

SCISSORS of vari- 
ous sizes are required 
by the gardener. A 
pair with very sharp 
and pointed blades is 
required for cutting 
away the anthers of 
flowers in hybrydiz- 
ing. Stouter pairs 
are used for removing 
flower stalks, when 
the petals have fallen 
from roses, &c. Slid- 
ing pruning scissors 
(Fig. 151) are em- 
ployed for cutting the 
shoots ofshrubs; they 
are powerful instru- 
ments for the pur- 
pose. See Shears. 
SCLEROTHAMNUS microphyllus. 
Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

SCOLOPENDRIUM. Two species, 
and many varieties. Ferns. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Seeds and di- 
vision. Rock work. 

SCOLYMUS. Three species. S. 
maculatus is a hardy annual, the others 
hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
or seeds. Common soil. 

SCOLYTUS. A genus of Beetles. 
S. hmnorrhous, small Bark Beetle, at- 
tacks apple trees in May, making fur- 
rows into the inner bark and alburnum, 
where it deposits its eggs. The larvae 
continue feeding there until late in au- 
tumn. 

S. destructor, elm-destroying Scoly- 
tus, does not confine its ravages to the 
elm, but often attacks fruit trees, as the 
plum. — Kollar. 



res rather more than an inch across, 

when its wings are expanded. The 
upper pair are hazel-coloured, with 
four stripes, two of which are distinct, 
and the other faint; the under wings 
as well as the body are whitish, and 
on the former, near the centre, there 
is a curved brown streak and another 
black on the margin. The first brood 
of caterpillars occurs in May, and the 
second in the autumn; and when very 
numerous they do considerable injury 
to cabbages and plantations of horse- 
radish. The caterpillar is eight or ten 
lines long, with the head of a light 
brown colour, and the body is yellowish 
green, with black longitudinal stripes. 
Almost the only method of destroying 
these caterpillars, is to hand-pick them, 
which, from their small size, will be 
very tedious; if, however, a mat or 
piece of linen be laid under the infest- 
ed plants, they may be shaken into it, 
and thus a great number be collected 
in a short time." — Gard. Chron. 
SCORPION. Genista scorpius. 
SCORPION GRASS. Myosotis. 
SCORPION SENNA. Coronilla 
emerus. 

SCOR-ZONERA. Seventeen species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. S. villosa 
is a biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 

S. hispanica. Common Scorzonera. 
Though a perennial, yet, for general 
use, it should be treated as an annual. 
Sow annually in any open light spot of 
ground, the latter end of March or be- 
ginning of April, not earlier, lest the 
plants run to seed. Trench the ground, 
and with the bottom spit turn in a little 
dung; sow in shallow drills, twelve 
inches asunder, raking the mould even- 
ly over them half an inch deep. The 
plants will rise in two or three weeks. 
When they are a little advanced in 
growth, let them be thinned and clean- 
en from weeds by hoeing. Thin the 
plants to ten inches' distance; they 
will grow freely, and their roots con- 
tinue increasing in size till September, 
when they will have acquired their full 



SCO 



534 

— ♦ — 



SCR 



size, discoverable by their leaves be- 
ginning to decay. 

The roots may either remain in the 
ground, to be drawn as wanted, or 
taken wholly up in autumn when their 
leaves decay, and preserved in sand all 
winter. 

To save seed. — Let some of the plants 
remain where sown, when they will 
shoot up in the spring, and produce 
plenty of seed in autumn. — Abercr ombre. 

SCOTCH ASPHODEL. To; 
fieldia alpina. 

SCOTCH LABURNUM. Cytisus al- 
pinus. 

SCOTTIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

SCREEN. All cooling is occasioned 
either by the heat being conducted from 
a body by a colder, which is in contact 
with it, or by radiating from the body 
cooled, though circumstances accelerate 
or retard the radiation ; and whatever 
checks the radiation of heat from a body 
is a screen, and keeps it warmer. 

For example, a thermometer, placed 
upon a grass plot, exposed to a clear 
sky, fell to 35° ; but another thermo- 
meter, within a few yards of the pre- 
ceding, but with the radiation of the 
rays of heat from the grass checked by 
no other covering than a cambric pocket 
handkerchief, declined no lower than 
42°. No difference of result occurs 
whether the radiating surface be paral- 
lel or perpendicular to the horizon ; for 
when the mercury in a thermometer, 
hung against an openly exposed wall, 
fell to 38°, another thermometer, against 
the same wall, but beneath a web of 
gauze stretched tightly, at a few inches 
distance, indicated a temperature of 
43°. 

These results explain the beneficial 
operation of apparently such slight 
screens to our wall-fruit when in blos- 
som. A sheet of canvas or of netting 
prevents the direct radiation of heat 
from the wall ; the cooling goes on 
more slowly, and is not reduced to that 
of the exterior air at night, before the 
return of day begins to re-elevate the 
external temperature. 

The colder the body surrounding 
another body, the more rapid the radia- 
tion from the latter ; for it is a law of 
heat that it has a constant tendency to 
be diffused equally ; and the greater 



two bodies in contact with each other, 
the greater is the rapidity with which 
the progress towards equilibrium goes 
on. This is one reason why a tempera- 
ture of 32°, with a brisk wind attending 
it, will injure plants to a far greater 
extent than a temperature many de- 
grees lower, with a still atmosphere ; 
but it is aided by the operation of ano- 
ther law of heat, viz., that aeriform bo- 
dies convey it from a cooling body, as 
a wall or a tree, by an actual change 
in the situation of their own particles. 
That portion of the air which is nearest 
to the cooling body is expanded, and 
becoming specifically lighter, ascends, 
and is replaced by a colder portion. 
This, in its, turn, becomes heated and 
dilated, and gives place to another 
colder portion. And thus the process 
goes on, until the cooling body is re- 
duced to the same temperature as the 
air. 

In a still atmosphere, this goes on 
slowly ; the air in contact with the 
wall and tree rises very gradually as it 
imbibes warmth from them ; but if there 
be a brisk wind, a constant current of 
air at the lowest temperature then oc- 
curring, is brought in constant contact 
with them, and the cooling is rapid, in 
accordance with the law of equilibrium 
just noticed. A shelter of netting, or 
even the sprays of evergreens, are of 
the greatest service in preventing the 
sweeping contact of cold air at such 
times. Snow is a good shelter; it pre- 
vents heat radiating from plants ; pro- 
tects them from the chilling blasts ; and 
is one of the worst conductors of heat. 
I have never known the surface of the 
earth, below a covering of snow, colder 
than 32°, even when the temperature 
of the air above has been 28°. 

Strange as it may appear, yet it is 
nevertheless true, that a screen is more 
beneficial in preserving the tempera- 
ture of trees, when from three to sis 
inches from them, than when in imme- 
diate contact with their surfaces. When 
a woollen net was suspended four in- 
ches from the wall on which a peach 
tree was trained, the thermometer fell 
very slowly, and the lowest degree it 
reached was 38°; when the same screen 
was twelve inches off, it fell to 34°; 
and when drawn tightly over the tree, 
it barely kept above 32°, the tempera- 
ture of the exterior air. When at 



the diversity of temperature between | twelve inches from the wall, it permit- 



SCR 



535 

♦ 



scu 



ted the too free circulation of the air; 
and when in immediate contact with 
the polished bark of the peach, perhaps 
another law of cooling came into ope- 
ration. The law is, that polished sur- 
faces radiate heat slowest. Thus, if 
two glass bottles, equal in size and 
thickness of glass, and of the same 
shape, be filled with warm water, and 
one of the bottles be covered with an 
envelope of fine muslin, this bottle will 
give out heat to the surrounding air 
with much greater rapidity than the 
other bottle; so that, in a given time, 
the bottle with the envelope will be 
found colder than the one which has 
no covering. 

Screens, such as the preceding, or 
the slighter agents, sprays of ever- 
greens, placed before the branches of 
wall-trees or other plants, as already 
noticed, operate beneficially in another 
way, checking the rapid passage of the 
air over them: such passage is detri- 
mental in proportion to its rapidity, for 
the more rapid it is, the greater is the 
amount of evaporation, and, conse- 
quently, of cold produced. Mr. Daniell 
says, that " a surface which exhales 
one hundred parts of moisture when 
the air is calm, exhales one hundred 
and twenty-five parts when exposed to 
a moderate breeze, and one hundred 
and fifty parts when the wind is high." 

During all high winds, but especially 
when blowing from points varying be- 
tween the east and the south, for they 
are the driest in this country, the gar- 
dener will always find shelter is bene- 
ficial to his plants, whether in blossom, 
or with fruit in its first stages of growth, 
for these winds cause an evaporation 
much exceeding in amount the supply 
of moisture afforded by the roots. 

In March, such shelters are much 
required, for the winds are then violent 
and dry even to a proverb ; but it is 
during the days of its successor, April, 
that sets in the only periodical wind 
known in this island. It comes inter- 
mittingly, and with a variable force 
from points ranging from east to north- 
east, and is one of the most blight- 
ing winds we have. It continues until 
about the end of the second week in 
May, though often until its close ; and 
it is a good plan to have the tree, dur- 
ing the whole period, by day as well 
as by night, protected. This periodical 
wind is occasioned, probably, by Swe- 



den and Norway remaining covered 
with snow, whilst England is some 20°, 
or more, warmer; and an upper cur- 
rent of warm air is consequently flow- 
ing hence to those countries, whilst a 
cold undercurrent is rushing hither to 
supply its place. This wind, and its 
consequent cold weather, is so regular 
in its appearance, that in Hampshire, 
and some other parts of England, the 
peasantry speak of it as the black thorn 
winter, that bush being in blossom dur- 
ing a part of its continuance. — Princ. 
of Gard. 

Not only are screens required for 
out-door plants, but for those under 
glass ; and Mr. Paxton is quite right in 
saying, that '* one of the things which 
should be constantly borne in mind, 
and more especially in the forcing sea- 
son, is the most effectual means of keep- 
ing up the requisite temperature in the 
hot-houses with least fuel ; and that, in 
all cases where practicable, the use of 
external coverings, if properly used, 
will render strong fires in a great mea- 
sure unnecessary. Some coverings are 
used at Chatsworth constantly at night, 
which makes from ten to fifteen degrees 
difference in the temperatures of the 
houses where they are. applied, and to 
maintain which, without them, would 
consume three times the quantity of 
fuel now necessary." — Gard. Chron. 

For wall-trees, now that glass is be- 
come so much cheaper, the best of all 
screens may be employed, viz., glazed 
frames, of a length extending from the 
coping of the wall, to the surface of 
the soil, about two feet from the stems 
of the trees. 

SCREW PINE. Pandanus. 

SCREW TREE. Helicteres. 

SCROPHULARIA. Figwort. Seven 
species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
8. vernalis, a biennial. Seeds. Light 
soil, and a moist situation. 

SCRUBBY OAK. Lophira africana. 

SCURVY GRASS. Cochlear ia offici- 
nalis. " This vegetable grows sponta- 
neously on the sea shores of England, 
and is also found in the interior. It is 
used like the Cress, and occasionally 
mixed with corn salad. 

" Sow in autumn and manage as di- 
rected for winter spinach; it is used 
during the winter and spring." — R. Reg. 

To obtain Seed. — A few plants must 
be left ungathered from in the spring. 
They will run up to flower about May, 



scu 



536 



SEA 



and perfect their seed in the course of i dung must be added ; but decayed 



the two following months 

SCUTELLARIA. Twenty-seven 
species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
8. humilis is a half-hardy. S. havenen- 
sis, a stove herbaceous perennial. Seeds 
and division. Common soil. The shrub- 
by species increase by young cuttings. 

SCYPHANTHUS grandiflorus and 
elegans. Hardy twining annuals. Seeds. 
Sandy loam. 

SCYTHE. This mowing implement 
being confined, in the garden, to cut- 
ting the fine short grass of lawns, re 



leaves are preferable, and sea-weed 
still more so. Common salt is a very 
beneficial application, either applied 
dry, in the spring, in the proportion of 
twenty or thirty bushels per acre, or by 
occcasional waterings, with a solution, 
containing four ounces in the gallon, 
round every stool during the spring. 
The situation cannot be too open and 
free from trees. 

Propagation is both from seed and 
slips of the root. The first is the best 
mode ; for, although from slips it may 



quires to be much sharper than that be obtained with greater certainty, yet 



used in cutting the coarser grasses, 
which stand up more firmly to the 



the plants arising from seed are the 
strongest and longest lived. Sow from 



scythe. It is also necessary that the i October to the commencement of April; 
mowers should not score the grass, that but the best time for inserting it is 



is, snould not leave the mark of each 
stroke of the scythe, which has a very 
unsightly appearance; to prevent which, 
have the scythe laid out rather wider, 
an inch or two beyond heel and toe, 
especially for very short grass; and in 
mowing, keep the point rather out, and 
do not draw that part too fa,st toward, 
gathering the grass neatly to the left in 
a range; and having mowed to the end 
of the swaith,mow it lightly back again, 
to trim off all scores, and other irregu- 
larities, unavoidably left the first time. 
— Abercrombie. 

SEA-BUCKTHORN Hippophte. 

SEAFORTHIA elegans. Stove palm. 
Seed. Turfy loam and sand. 

SEA-HEATH. Frankenia. 

SEA-HOLLY. Eryngium. 

SEA-KALE. Crambe Maritima. 

Soil and Situation. — A light mode- 
rately rich soil, on a dry substratum, 
suits it best, though in any dry soil it 
will succeed. Abed may be. composed 
for it of one-half drift sand, one-third 
rich loam, and one-third small gravel, 
road stuff or coal-ashes; if the loam is 
poor, a little well-rotted dung or de- 
cayed leaves being added. The soil 
must be deep, so that the roots can 
penetrate without being immersed in 
water, which invariably causes their 
decay. The depth should not be less 
than two feet and a half; and if not so 
naturally, worked to it by trenching. 
If at all tenacious, this opportunity may 
be taken to mix with it drift or sea-sand, 
so as to reduce it to a friable texture. 
If wet it must be drained, so that water 
never shall stand within three feet of 
the surface. If poor, well putrefied 



during January or February. Leave 
the plants where raised ; and, to guard 
against failure, insert the seed in patch- 
es of six or twelve seeds, each six 
inches apart, and the patches two feet 
asunder. If intended for transplanting, 
the seed may be sown in drills twelve 
inches asunder; in either case it must 
not be buried more than two inches be- 
low the surface ; and it is a good prac- 
tice, previous to inserting it, to bruise 
the outer coat of the seed, without in- 
juring its vegetating power, as by this 
treatment the germination is accele- 
rated. The plants will in general 
make their appearance in four or five 
months, never sooner than six weeks ; 
but, on the other hand, the seed will 
sometimes remain twelve months be- 
fore it vegetates. 

The best time for increasing it by 
slips is in March. Rooted suckers may 
be detached from established plants ; or 
their roots, which have attained the 
thickness of the third finger, be cut into 
lengths, each having at least two eyes. 
The cuttings must be inserted in an up- 
right position, two or three inches be- 
neath the surface. It is best to plant 
two together, to obviate the danger of 
failure, at two feet apart, to remain. 
Some persons, from a desire to save a 
year, recommend yearling plants to be 
obtained and inserted in February or 
March ; but as the shoots ought not to 
be cut for use the first season after 
planting, the object is not attained, for 
seedlings may be cut from the second 
year. 

The beds should be laid out three 
feet wide, and a two feet alley between 



SEA 



537 



SEA 



every two, in preference to the plan 
sometimes recommended of planting 
three rows in beds seven feet wide. If 
the months of June and July prove dry, 
the beds should be plentifully watered. 
The seedlings require no other atten- 
tion, during the first summer, than to 
be kept free from weeds, and to be thin- 
ned to five or six in each patch. When 
their leaves have decayed and are clear- 
ed away, about November, they must 
be earthed over an inch or two with dry 
mould from the alleys, and over this 
about six inches depth of long litter 
spread. In the following spring the 
litter is to be raked off, and a little of 
the most rotten dug into the alleys. 
"When the plants have perfectly made 
their appearance they must be thinned, 
leaving the strongest plant, or, as Mr. 
Maher recommends, the three strong- 
est, at each patch, those removed being 
transplanted at similar distances if re- 
quired ; but it must be remarked, that 
those transplanted never attain so fine 
a growth, or are so long lived. In the 
second winter the earthing must be in- 
creased to five or six inches deep over 
the crowns, and the covering of litter 
performed as before. In the third 
spring, the litter being removed, and 
some dug into the alleys, as before, 
about an inch depth of drift sand or 
coal-ashes must be spread regularly 
over the surface. The sprouts may 
now be bleached and cut for use ; for, if 
this is commenced earlier, the stools 
are rendered much less productive and 
much shorter lived. In November, or 
as soon as the leaves are decayed, the 
beds being cleared of them, the coating 
of sand or ashes removed, and gently 
stirred with the asparagus-fork, they 
must be covered with a mixture of three 
parts earth from the alleys, and one part 
of thoroughly decayed leaves, to the 
depth of three or four inches. The 
major part of this is to be removed in 
the following spring, the beds forked, 
and the covering of sand renewed, this 
routine of cultivation continuing during 
the existence of the beds. 

The above course is the one also pur- 
sued if the plants are raised from off- 
sets or cuttings, as it is by much the 
best practice not to commence cutting 
until they are two years old. 

Blanching may commence the second 
spring after sowing. The most simple 
mode is that originally adopted, namely, 



to cover over each stool sand or ashes 
to the depth of about a foot ; the shoots, 
in their passage through it, being ex- 
cluded from the light, are effectually 
bleached. Dry clean straw may be 
scattered loosely over the plants to 
effect the same purpose. But pots are 
by much to be preferred to any of these 
coverings. Common flower-pots, of 
large dimensions, may be employed, 
care being taken to stop the hole at 
the bottom with a piece of tile and clay, 
so as to exclude every ray of light ; but 
those suggested by Mr. Maher are ge- 

Fig. 152. 




nerally adopted. They are of earthen- 
ware, twelve or eighteen inches in 
diameter, and twelve high. Mr. Sabine 
improved upon them by making the top 
moveable, which prevents the trouble 
arising from the escape of the spread- 
ing shoots, or the entire removal of the 
dung at the time of forcing. Frames of 
wicker are sometimes employed,' being 
covered with mats more perfectly to 
exclude the light. See Rhubarb. 

Previously to covering the stools with 
the pots, &c.,the manure laid on in the 
winter must be removed ; and the ope- 
ration should commence at the close of 
February, or at least a month before 
the shoots usually appear, as the shel- 
ter of the pots assists materially in 
bringing them forward. In four or six 
weeks after covering the plants should 
be examined, and as soon as they ap- 
pear three or four inches high, they 
may be cut; for if none are taken until 
they attain a fuller growth, the crop 
comes in too much at once. In order 
to prolong the season of production, 
Mr. Barton recommends plants to be 
raised annually, so that every year a 
cutting may be had from a yearling 
crop, which come in much later, and 
consequently succeed in production the 
old established roots. The shoots 
should be cut whilst young and crisp, 
not exceeding five or six inches in 
height; the section to be made just 



SEA 



538 

— ¥— 



SEA 



within the ground, but not so as to in- 
jure the crown of the root. Slipping 
off the stalks is much preferable to cut- 
ting. The plants may be gathered 
from until the flower begins to form, 
when all covering must be removed. 
If, when arrived at the state in which 
brocoli is usually cut, the flower is em- 
ployed as that vegetable, it will be 
found an excellent substitute. When 
the cutting ceases, all covering must 
be removed, and the plants be allowed 
to grow at liberty. 

To obtain Seed. — A stool, which has 
not been cut from, or even covered at 
all for blanching, must be allowed to 
run in spring. It flowers about June, 
and produces abundance of seed on 
every stem, which ripens about the 
close of July, or early in August. 

Forcing. — To force sea-kale, some 
established plants, at the end of Oc- 
tober or early in November, being 
trimmed as directed above at that sea- 
son, and the bed covered with a mixture 
of moderately sifted light earth, and 
sand or coal ashes, two or three inches 
deep, each stool must be covered with 
a pot, set down close, to keep out the 
steam of the dung ; or, bricks or planks 
may be placed to the height of eight or 
ten inches on each side of the row to 
be forced, and covered with cross spars, 
having a space of about an inch between 
them. The dung employed must be 
well tempered and mixed for three 
weeks before it is required, or for four, 
if mingled with leaves, otherwise the 
heat is violent, but transient. When 
thus prepared, each pot is covered ten 
inches thick all round, and eight inches 
at the top. The heat must be constant- 
ly observed ; if it sinks below 50°, more 
hot dung must be applied ; if above 
60°, some of the covering should be 
removed. Unless the weather is very 
severe, it is seldom necessary to renew 
the heat by fresh linings ; when the 
thermometer indicates the necessity, a 
part only of the exhausted dung should 
be taken away, and the remainder mixed 
with that newly applied. In three or 
four weeks from being first covered, 
the shoots will be fit for cutting, and 
they will continue to produce at inter- 
vals for two or three months, or until 
the natural crops come in. To have a 
succession, some should be covered 
with mulch, or litter that is little else 
than straw; this, by sheltering the 



plants from cold, will cause them to be 
forwarder than the natural ground ones, 
though not so forward as those under 
the hot dung ; and by this means it may 
be had in perfection from Christmas to 
Whitsuntide. 

It also may be forced in a hot-bed. 
When the heat moderates, a little light 
mould being put on, three or four year 
old plants, which have been raised with 
as little injury as possible to the roots, 
are to he inserted close together, and 
covered with as much earth as is used 
for cucumbers. The glasses must be 
covered close with double matting to 
exclude the light, and additional cover- 
ing afforded during severe weather. 
Sea-kale, thus forced, will be fit for 
cutting in about three weeks. Instead 
of frames and g'asses, any construc- 
tion of boards and litter that will ex- 
clude the light, would undoubtedly 
answer as well. A common melon 
frame will contain as many as are capa- 
ble of being produced in two drills of 
twenty yards each, and with only one- 
third the quantity of dung. To keep up 
a regular succession until the natural 
ground crop arrives, two three-light 
frames will be sufficient for a large 
family; the first prepared about the 
beginning of November, and the second 
about the last week in December. 
Another mode is, on each side of a 
three-foot bed to dig a trench two feet 
deep, the side of it next the bed being 
perpendicular, but the outer side slop- 
ing, so as to make it eighteen inches 
wide at the bottom, but two feet and a 
half at the top. These trenches being 
filled with fermenting dung, which of 
course may be renewed if ever found 
necessary, and frames put over the 
plants, the light is to be completely 
excluded by boards, matting, &c. 

Unlike the generality of vegetables, 
the shoots of forced sea-kale are always 
more crisp and delicate than those pro- 
duced naturally. Those plants will not 
do for forcing a second time which have 
been forced in frames ; consequently a 
small bed should be sown every year 
for this purpose, so that a succession of 
plants may be annually had, they not 
being used until three years old. Some- 
times a plant will send up a flower- 
stalk; this must be immediately cut 
away, it will then be as productive as 
the others. But those plants which are 
forced by whelming dung over the pots, 



SEA 



539 



SEN 



are not much detrimented for the na- 
tural ground production of the succeed- 
ing year. When, therefore, they have 
done producing, all covering must be 
removed, and the ground dressed. 
SEA-LAVENDER. Statice. 
SEASIDE GRAPE. Coccoloba. 
SEASIDE LAUREL. Xylophylla la- 
tifolia. 

SEATS require to be in unison with 
the portion of the pleasure-grounds in 
which they are placed. In shady re- 
tired spots, they may be made of the 
limbs of trees, (see Rustic,) but near the 
house, or among the parterres, where 
trimness is the prevailing characteristic, 
more art is desirable to be apparent in 
their construction. They may be made 
of wood, and so constructed as to shut 
up, so that the seat is never wet; and 
if painted annually they last for many 
years. Made of iron, 
they are more light 
in appearance, and if 
painted yearly' will 
not iron-mould dress- 
es which rest upon 
them. Being made 
of open work, the 
wet does not rest 
upon them, and they 
are soon dry even 
after heavy rains. 
The following (Figs. 
153, 154) are made 
by Messrs. Dean, King William Street, 
London. 

Fig. 154. 





SEA-WEED. See Green Manure. 

S E B M A. Four species. Green- 
house annuals. Seeds. Peat and loam 
or common soil. 

SECAMONE. Three species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam. 

SECURIDACA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

SECURIGERA coronilla. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. 



SEDUM. Sixty-four species. Chiefly 
hardy herbaceous perennials; with a 
few annuals and biennials. These lat- 
ter grow well on rock work, and in- 
crease by seeds. The green-house spe- 
cies increase by partly ripe cuttings; 
the rest by cuttings or division. Sandy 
loam, or loam and brick rubbish. A 
few are evergreen shrubs and creepers. 

SEED ROOM. All that has been said 
relative to the Fruit Room, is applica- 
ble to this : everything promotive of 
decay or germination is to be avoided ; 
and if one relative direction more than 
another requires to be urged upon the 
gardener, it is comprised in these words 
— keep it as dry as possible : the room 
may be even hot, so that it is not damp. 
Mr. Forsyth says, that " a dry room, 
hot room, or something very nearly re- 
sembling a slow corn-kiln, is essentially 
necessary in every garden, not only for 
seeds, but also for all other articles re- 
quiring drought, or liable to injury from 
damp, such as the nets and bunting for 
wall-trees and the like ; garden-mats ; 
glazed lights in wet weather, or when 
washed previous to painting ; and last, 
though not the least necessary, the 
proper drying of pot-herbs, a process 
seldom, if ever properly done." — Gard. 
Chron. 

In such a room should be a nest of 
very shallow drawers or trays, divided 
into compartments, each holding a tin 
box three inches in diameter, and on 
the lid of each a label, inscribed with 
the name of the seed. Such an ar- 
rangement not only saves the seed, but 
saves the gardener's time, especially if 
the seeds are arranged alphabetically 
in the drawers. 

SELAGO. Eighteen species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Loam, peat and sand. 

SELFHEAL. Prunella. 

SEMPERVIVUM. House-leek. 
Thirty species. Green-house evergreen 
shrubs, annuals, and biennials ; and 
hardy and half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials. The green-house evergreens in- 
crease by partly ripened cuttings, and 
require a mixture of sandy loam and 
brick rubbish. The hardy kinds increase 
by offsets, and grow on rocks or walls. 
The annuals and biennials increase by 
seed. 

SEN AC I A. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripened cuttings. 
Light rich soil. 



SEN 



540 

— ♦ — 



SEP 



SENECILLIS. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
rich soil. 

SENECIO. Fifty-eight species. Har- 
dy herbaceous perennials and annuals, 
and green-house evergreen shrubs. The 
latter increase by cuttings, and require 
a light rich soil. The hardy kinds in- 
crease by division, the annuals and 
biennials by seed. Common soil suits 
both the last-named species. 

SENSITIVE FERN. Onoclea Sensi- 
bilis. 

SENSITIVE PLANT. Mimosa. 
There are several plants, however, be- 
sides the mimosa which give evidence 
of being sensitive. The Venus Fly Trap 
(Dioncea muscipula) has jointed leaves, 
which are furnished on their edges with 
a row of strong prickles. Flies, attract- 
ed by honey which is secreted in glands 
on their surface, venture to alight upon 
them. No sooner do their legs touch 
these parts than the sides of the leaves 
spring up, and locking their rows of 
prickles together, squeeze the insects 
to death. The well-known sensitive 
plant (Mimosa sensitiva), shrinks from 
the slightest touch. Oxalis sensitiva 
and Smithia sensitiva are similarly 
irritable, as are the filaments of the 
stamens of the berberry. One of this 
sensitive tribe, Hedysarum gyrans, has 
a spontaneous motion ; its leaves are 
frequently moving in various directions, 
without order or co-operation. When 
an insect inserts its proboscis between 
the converging anthers of a dog's bane 
(Apocynum androsscemifolium), they 
close with a power usually sufficient to 
detain the intruder until death. 

SEPT AS. Two species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. Division. 
Peat, loam and sand. 

SEPTEMBER is a month of decay, 
yet much has to be done to the living. 

KITCHEN GARDEN. 

Angelica, sow. — Aromatic pot-herbs, 
finish gathering. — Artichokes, break 
down. — Balm, plant. — Beans, earth up, 
&c, e. — Borage, sow ; thin advancing 
crops. — Burnet, plant. — Cabbages, sow, 
for autumn and spring plants ; earth 
up advancing ; (Red), are ready for 
pickling. — Cardoons, earth up. — Car- 
rots, advancing, thin. — Flowers, sow 
for plants to preserve under glass dur- 
ing winter. — Celery, earth up. — Chervil, 
mw. — Coleworts, plant out. — Cori- 



ander, sow. — Corn Salad, sow. — 
Cress (American), sow, b. ; (Water), 
plant. — Bill, sow. — Earthing-up, at- 
tend to. — Endive, plant ; attend to ; 
blanch, &c. — Fennel, plant. — Finochio, 
earth up. — Herbary requires dressing, 
b. — Hoeing, attend to. — Hyssop, plant. 
— Jerusalem Artichokes, take up as 
wanted, e. — Kidney Beans, earth up 
advancing, b. — Leeks, plant, b; attend 
to advancing. — Lettuces, sow for autumn 
and spring planting. — Mint, plant. — 
Mushroom-Beds, make; Spawn, collect. 
— Nasturtium-berries, gather as they 
become fit. (Potato), take up for stor- 
ing. — Orach, sow. — Parsley, cut down. 
— Peas, hoe, &c. — Pennyroyal, plant. 
— Pot Marjoram, plant. — Radishes, 
sow, b. — Rhubarb, sow. — Sage, plant. 
— Savory, plant. — Seeds, gather as they 
ripen. — Small Salading, sow. — Sorrel, 
plant. — Spinach, sow, b. — Tansy, plant. 
— Tarragon, plant. — Thyme, plant. — 
Turnips, sow, b. ; hoe advancing. 

ORCHARD. 

Composts, prepare. — Dress borders 
by forking, so soon as fruit is gather- 
ed. — Gathering of Apples and Pears to 
store commence, e. — Grapes, bag, to 
protect from wasps, &c. — Layers and 
cuttings may still be inserted. — Leaves, 
be careful not to injure or remove from 
Wall Trees. — Nets, spread over fruit 
trees, to protect from birds. — Planta- 
tions, intended, prepare ground for, by 
trenching, &c. — Planting may be com- 
menced, e., in some kinds of Apricots, 
Peaches, &c. — Strawberries, plant in 
moist weather ; clean old beds ; pot for 
forcing. — Stones of fruit save, to sow 
for stocks. — Vines, remove straggling 
useless shoots. — Wall-trees, generally, 
look over and train as required. — 
Wasps, entrap in bottles, &c. 

FLOWER GARDEN. 

Aconite (Winter), plant, e. — Ane- 
mones, plant best, e. ; sow, b. — An- 
nuals (Hardy), sow, b. — Auriculas not 
shifted in August, now remove ; water 
and shade ; prepare awning to protect, 
in autumn and winter; sow, b. — Bulb- 
ous roots, plant for early blooming, e. ; 
sow, b. — Carnation layers remove, b. — 
Chrysanthemums, plant cuttings, &c, 
b. — Dress borders assiduously. — Edg- 
ings, trim; plant. — Evergreens, plant, 
make layers. — Fibrous-rooted peren- 
nials, propagate by slips, parting roots, 



S ER 



541 

— ♦— 



SET 



&c. — Fork over vacant compartments. — 
Grass, mow and roll; sow, b. — Gravel, 
weed and roll. — Guernsey Lilies , pot. — 
Heartsease, plant cuttings ; trim old. — 
Hedges, clip, e. — Mignonette, sow in 
pots to shelter in frames. — Pipings of 
Pinks, &c, plant out for blooming. — 
Polyanthuses, plant. — Ranunculuses, 
plant best, e. ; sow, b. — Seedlings, plant 
out. — Seeds, gather as ripe. — Transplant 
perennials, e. — Tuberous rooted plants, 
transplant. — Turf, lay. — Water annuals 
and other plants every day in dry 
weather. 

HOT-HOUSE. 

Air, admit freely every day. — Bark- 
beds, renew. — Bulbs, plant, b. — Com- 
posts, prepare. — Dress the plants regu- 
larly. — Earth, give where required. — 
Leaves, wash ; remove decayed, &c. — 
Pines, shift, if neglected before, b.; 
attend to bottom heat; water every 
third day. — Propagate by offsets, seeds, 
slips, and suckers. — Shifting neglected 
before, complete, b. — Succulents, re- 
place under glass. — Watering gene- 
rally is required two or three times 
weekly. 

GREEN-HOUSE. 

Air, give very freely to plants re- 
turned into house. — Camellias, bud. — 
Earth, give fresh. — Geraniums and 
Myrtles planted in borders, return into 
pots, b. ; cuttings, plant, b. — Glass, 
Flues, 8/-C, repair, before the plants are 
moved in. — Oranges and Lemons, re- 
move into house, e.; thin fruit. — Prune 
and dress as the plants are removed. — 
Roses, pot for forcing. — Seedlings and 
other young plants, if well rooted, 
transplant, b. — Succulents, remove into 
house, b.; shift into larger pots. — 
Suckers, layers, cuttings, &c, may be 
planted. — Tender plants, generally 
remove into house, e. — Water is not 
required so freely. 

SERAPIAS. Three species. Stove 
orchids. Division. Light sandy soil. 

SERINGIA platyphylla. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. — 
Sand, loam, and peat. 

SERISS A fatida. Green-house ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

SERPICULA repens. Green-house 
herbaceous creeper. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

SERRATULA. Saw-wort. Twenty- 



ennials, annuals, and biennials. The 
former, seeds or division; the latter, 
seeds only. Common soil suits them all. 

SERRURIA. Thirty-four species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings, taken off at a joint. Light 
turfy loam, with a little sand. 

SERSALISIA sericea. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

SERVICE. Pyrus Sorbus. There 
are three varieties. P. S. maliformis, 
apple-shaped; P. S. pyriformis, pear- 
shaped ; P. S. bacciformis, berry- 
shaped. 

Propagation. — By Grafting on the 
apple, medlar, and hawthorn. 

By Cuttings. See Apple. 

By Seed. — The berries ripen abund- 
antly in autumn, which is the proper 
time for sowing them when perfectly 
ripe. Sow them as soon after they are 
gathered as possible, selecting a spot 
of lightish ground, and dividing it into 
four-feet- wide beds, in which sow the 
berries in drills an inch deep. Some of 
them will rise the following spring ; 
they, however, frequently remain till 
the second spring before they come up; 
observing in either case, that in the 
spring following, when the seedlings 
are a year old, they should be planted 
out in nursery rows, to remain till they 
acquire a proper size for final trans- 
plantation at thirty feet apart. 

By Layers. — Having some of the 
trees while young cut down near the 
ground, they will throw out lower 
shoots, which being layered in the 
common way in autumn and spring, 
will readily emit roots, and be fit to 
transplant in nursery rows in one year. 

Soil. — Clayey loam well drained suits 
it best. 

Culture. — They are best trained as 
dwarf standards or espaliers. See 
Medlar. 

Gather the fruit in autumn, and treat 
it like that of the medlar. 

SESBANIA. Twelve species. Stove 
annuals, biennials, or evergreen shrubs. 
The latter increase by cuttings; the for- 
mer by seeds. Loam and peat suits 
them all. 

SESUVIUM. Four species. Stove 
annuals and herbaceous perennials. 
Partly dried cuttings. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

SETHIA indica. Stove evergreen 



nine species. Hardy herbaceous per- I tree. Cuttings. Turfy loam and peat 



SET 



542 



S H A 



SETS are the tubers, or portions of 
tubers, employed for propagating tube- 
rous-rooted plants. It may be accepted 
as a rule universally applicable to them, 
that a moderately-sized whole tuber is 
always to be preferred to a cutting of a 
tuber. The latter are invariably more 
subject to failure, but if employed, it is 
a good plan to roll them in gypsum 
powder. This checks the escape of 
their sap, and is friendly to vegetation. 

SEYMERIA. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Peaty soil. 

SHADING deserves more attention 
than it usually obtains, for there is not 
a plant when in blossom that is not pro- 
longed in beauty and vigour by being 
shaded from the midday sun. Nor 
should shading be attended to merely 
with regard to blooming plants ; for 
they are benefited by it during all 
periods of their growth. Every plant 
transpires at a rate great in proportion 
to the elevation of the temperature : 
the greater the transpiration the more 
abundant is the absorption of moisture; 
and the moment the roots fail in afford- 
ing a supply equivalent to the transpi- 
ration, the leaves flag, or become ex- 
hausted of moisture, and if this be 
repeated often, decay altogether. — 
Shades, properly managed, prevent 
this injurious exhaustion. Those used 
at Sion House deserve particular atten- 
tion, not only because they are appli- 
cable to hot-houses, pits, and hot-beds 
of every description, but because they 
may be rendered available in the cover- 
ing of fruit walls, to exclude the frost 
from the blossom, and the birds or flies 
from ripe fruit; and also in the cover- 
ing of flower beds, hay ricks, harvested 
corn, temporary structures for public 
assemblages, &c. 

Fig. 155. 




" The length of these rolls at Sion 
House is between fifty and sixty feet, 
but we have no doubt they might be 
made longer, since this depends on the 
diameter of the pole or rod, a, and the 
toughness of the timber employed, or 
its power to resist torsion. On one end 
of this rod, and not on both, as is usual, 
a ratchet wheel, b, is fixed, with a plate 
against it, c, so as to form a pulley 
groove between, d, to which a cord is 
fastened, and about three inches further 
on the rod is fixed a third iron wheel, 
about six inches in diameter, and half 
an inch thick, e. This last wheel runs 
in an iron groove, /, which extends 
along the end rafter or end wall of the 
roof to be covered. 

" The canvas or netting being sewed 
together of a sufficient size to cover the 
roof, one side of it is nailed to a slip of 
wood placed against the back wall, that 
is, along the upper ends of the sashes; 
the other side is nailed to the rod, a. 
When the canvas is rolled up, it is held 
in its place under a coping, g, by a 
ratchet, h, and when it is let down, the 
cord,i, of the roll is loosened with one 
hand, and the ratchet cord, /c, pulled 
with the other, when the canvas un- 
rolls with its own weight. The process 
of pulling it up again needs not be de- 
scribed. The most valuable part of 
the plan is, that the roll of canvas, 
throughout its whole length, winds up 
and lets down without a single wrinkle, 
notwithstanding the pulley-wheel is 
only on one side. This is owing to 
the weight of the rod, and its equal 
diameter throughout. By this plan a 
house 100 or 150 feet long, might be 
covered with two rolls, the two pulleys 
working at the two ends ; but if it were 
thought necessary, the two rods might 
be joined in the middle, and by a little 
contrivance, the pulley and groove 
placed there, so as to work both of the 
rolls at once from the inside of the 
house, from the back shed, or from the 
front." — Gard. Mag. 

SHALLOT. See Eschalot. 
SHANKING is the technical term 
for a gangrene which attacks the foot- 
stalks of grapes and the stems of cab- 
bages which have vegetated through 
the winter. The shanking of the grape 
appears to be occasioned by the tem- 
perature of the soil being too much 
below that in which the branches are 
vegetating ; and, consequently, the sup- 



SH A 



543 



S HR 



ply of sap to the grapes is too much 
diminished, and the parts which thus 
fail of support immediately begin to 
decay; this is an effect always the con- 
sequence of a diminished supply of sap, 
apparent either in the leaves, flower, 
or fruit. The disease, like every other 
putrefaction, does not advance rapidly | 
unless there be much moisture in the 
atmosphere. Shanking never appears 
in the grape if the roots of the vine are 
within the house. Shanking in the 
cabbage arises from a very different 
cause, viz., the freezing of the stalk of 
the cabbage just where it comes in con- 
tact with the soil. The best preventive 
is dressing the soil with salt, about five 
bushels per acre, late in the autumn. 

SHARP CEDAR. Acacia oxycedrus 
and Juniperus oxycedrus. 

SHEARS are of various kinds, dif- 
fering in form according to the purpose 
for which they are intended. Hedge- 
shears for clipping hedges are the most 
common. 

Sliding Pruning Shears withamove- 
able centre so as to make a drawing 
cut when used as when the pruning 
knife is employed. See Averruncator. 
The drawing shows the 
smaller size, used with one 
hand. See Scissors. The 
large size, which has wood 
handles, will, when em- 
ployed with both hands, 
cut through a bough full 
three inches in circum- 
ference, with the greatest 
ease. 

Verge Shears are merely 
the hedge shears set near- 
ly at a right angle on long 
handles for the conveni- 
ence of the gardener in 
clipping the sides of box 
edging, and the verge of 
grass plots. 
Turf Shears are set also at an angle, 
but in a different direction for cutting 
the tops of edgings, and grass growing 
in corners unapproachable by the scythe. 
SHEEP LAUREL. Kalmia angusti- 
folia. 

SHELLS. See Animal Matters. 
SHELTER. See Screen. 
SHEPHERD I A. Two species. 
Hardy deciduous trees. Layers. Peat 
and loam, or common soil. 
SHEPHERD'S BEARD. Amopogon. 



Fig. 156. 




SHEPHERD'S CLUB. Verbascum 
Thapsus. 

SHIFTINC. See Potting and One- 
shift System. 

SHREDS for fastening trees to walls 
are best made of the list or selvage torn 
from black or blue cloth, and may be 
obtained of any tailor. The smallest 
possible number of shreds, and the nar- 
rowest consistent with strength should 
be employed ; for wherever the shred 
envelops the branch, the wood beneath 
is never so well ripened as those parts 
exposed to the light and air, which are 
so essential to enable the bark to as- 
similate and separate from the sap those 
secretions which are required for the 
next year's growth. Shreds should 
always be long enough to permit the 
ends to be doubled over, so that the 
nail may pass through four thicknesses 
of the cloth, otherwise theylook ragged 
and are liable to tear away from the 
nail. If old shreds are re-used, they 
should be previously boiled for a few 
minutes to destroy any insect-eggs, or 
larvae they may contain. 

SHRIVELLING of the berries of the 
grape in stoves arises from the roots of 
the vine not supplying a sufficiency of 
sap. This occurs if the roots are in a 
cold heavy soil, or are vegetating in an 
outside border, the temperature of 
which is too low compared with that of 
the stove. In the first case, thorough 
draining and the incorporation of cal- 
careous rubbish ; and in the second 
case, protection to the border and stem, 
will remove the evil. 

SHRUBBERY is a garden, or portion 
of a garden, devoted to the cultivation 
of shrubs. It is not necessary, as Mr. 
Glenny observes, " That there should 
be any flowers or borders to constitute 
a shrubbery, but there should be great 
taste in forming clumps, and grouping 
the various foliages and styles of growth. 
The groundwork in such a garden con- 
sists of gravel walks and lawn. If flow- 
ers be intermixed, or, which is very 
generally adopted, there be a space left 
all round the clumps to grow flowers 
in, it becomes a dressed or pleasure 
ground, rather than a shrubbery. — 
Though any part of a ground in which 
shrubs form the principal feature, is 
still called a shrubbery. — Gard. and 
Prac. Flor. 

SHRUBS are trees of a dwarf growth, 
not exceeding in height twelve or fif- 



SHU 



544 



SLI 



teen feet, unless they are climbers, and 
having, if permitted, branches and fo- 
liage clothing the entire length of their 
stems. 

SHUTERIA bicolor. Stove ever- 
green twiner. Seeds. Rich light loam. 

SHUTTLECOCK. Peripetera 
punicea. 

SIBBALDIA. 



Four species and 
some varieties. Hardy herbaceous pe- 
rennials, or evergreen trailers. Divi- 
sion. Loam, peat and sand. 

SIBERIAN CRAB. Pyrus pruni- 
folia. 

SIBERIAN PEA TREE. Cara- 
gana. 

SIBTHORPIA europcea. Hardy 
herbaceous creeper. Division. Peaty 
soil, and a moist situation. 

SIDA. Sixteen species. Hardy an- 
nuals, biennials, and herbaceous pe- 
rennials; and stove evergreen shrubs, wood has been cut 
Seeds. Rich soil. The shrubby kinds 
are also increased by cuttings. 

SIDERITIS. Eighteen species. 
Hardy annuals and herbaceous peren- 
nials, and hardy, half-hardy and green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, 
seeds, and division. Dry sand or chalk. 

SIDERODENDRON trifiorum. 
Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

SIDESADDLE FLOWER. Sarra- 
cenia. 

SIEGESBECKIA. Six species. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

SIEVE. See Measures. 

SIEVERSIA. Seven species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Seeds or divi- 
sion. Light soil. 

SILENE. Catch Fly. One hundred 
and fifty-one species. Chiefly hardy 
annuals, biennials, and herbaceous pe- 
rennials. Seeds. Light rich soil. The 
shrubby kinds increase by young cut- 
tings also. A few are green-house bi- 
ennials. 

SILK COTTON TREE. Bombax. 

SILK TREE. Acacia Julibrissin. 

SELPHIUM. Three species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
mon soil.- 

SILVER TREE. Leucadendron se- 
riceum. 

SIM ABA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Turfy 
loam and peat. 

SINAPIS. Mustard. Six species. 
Chifly hardy annuals. S. frutescens is 
a green-house evergreen shrub. S. me- 



dicaulis a perennial. Seeds. Common 
soil. 

SINNINGIA. Six species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

SIPHOCAMPHYLUS. Four 
species. Stove and hardy evergreen 
shrubs. Cuttings. Light sandy soil. 

SIREX gigas. This fly pierces the 
fir, and other growing timber, deposit- 
ing its eggs in the alburnum. M. Kol- 
lar says that: — 

"In the seventh week after the eggs 
are laid, the maggot has attained its 
full size, and then generally buries it- 
self six inches deep in the wood, where 
it is transformed in a cavity into a pupa, 
covered with a thin transparent skin. 
It remains in this state a long time ; and 
examples are given of the perfect insect 
only making its appearance when the 
up for useful pur- 
poses." 

SIR JOSEPH BANKS' PINE. 
Araucaria imbricata. 

SISYMBRIUM millefolium. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
soil. 

SISYRINCHIUM. Twenty-seven 
species. Hardy, half-hardy, green- 
house and stove herbaceous perennials. 
Seed, or offsets. Light soil. 

SIUM. Two species. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennials. Division or seeds. 
Moist soil. 

SKIP-JACK. See Elater. 

SKIRRET. Siflro Sisarum. 

Propagation. — By Seed. — Sow at the 
end of March, or early in April, in 
drills one inch deep, and twelve inches 
apart. The seedlings will be up in 
five weeks. Weed and thin to twelve 
inches apart. In autumn, they will be 
fit for use like parsneps. 

By Offsets. — Old roots throw off these 
in the spring, when they may be slip- 
ped off, and planted in rows a foot 
apart each way. 

Soil. — A light loam is best, trenched, 
with a little manure dug in with the 
bottom spit. 

To save Seed, let a few of .the old 
roots run up in spring; they will flower 
in July, and ripen their seed in the au- 
tumn. 

SKULL-CAP. Scutellaria. 

SLIPPER PLANT. Pedilanthes. 

SLIPPER WORT. See Calceolaria. 

SLIPS are employed for increasing 
the number of an established variety or 



SLO 



545 



SNA 



species. In the woody kinds, the young i 
shoots are slipped off from the sides of 
the branches, &c, with the thumb and 
finger, instead of cutting them off with 
a knife, but is more commonly practised I 
to the lower ligneous plants, such as 
sage, southernwood, rosemary, rue, and 
lavender. The best season of the year 
for effecting the work is generally in 
spring and beginning of summer, though 
many sorts will grow if planted at al- 
most any time of the year. 

Select the young shoots, chiefly of 
but one year's growth, and in many 
sorts the shoots of the year will grow 
the most readily, even if planted the j 
summer they are produced, especially J 
the hard wooded kinds ; but in the more | 
soft wooded plants, the slips will also 
often readily grow when a year or two I 
old, being careful always to choose the j 
most robust shoots, situated on the out- | 
ward part of the plants, from three to 
sjx, or eight, or ten inches long, slip- 
ping them off close to the branches. 
Clear off the lower leaves, then plant 
them two parts in the ground, giving 
occasional shade and water, if in sum- 
mer, till properly rooted ; and towards 
autumn transplant them where they are 
to remain. 

Many shrubby plants growing into 
large branches from the root, such as 
roses, spicas, and raspberries, may be 
slipped quite to the bottom, into sepa- 
rate plants, each furnished with roots, 
and may be planted either in nursery 
rows, or at once where they are to re- 
main. 

Herbaceous plants may be slipped 
into many separate plants, and it is 
effected by slipping off the increased 
suckers, or offsets of the root; some 
sorts, by the offsets from the sides of 
the heads of the plants ; and some few J 
sorts by slips of their stocks or branches, j 

Slipping should generally be per- 
formed in the spring, or early part of j 
autumn, which may be effected either | 
by slipping the outside offsets with, 
roots, as the plants stand in the ground, | 
or, to perform it more effectually, you I 
may take the whole plants up, and slip i 
them into several separate parts, each 
slip being furnished also with roots, 
planting them, if small, in nursery rows 
a year, to gain strength ; or such as are 
strong, may be planted at once in the 
borders, &c. — Abercrombie. 

SLOANEA. Two species. Stoveever- 
35 



green trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

SLOE TREE. Prunus spinosa. 

SLUGS are of many species, and the 
smaller are much more injurious to the 
gardener than those of a larger size, 
because they are much less discernible, 
and their ravages being more gradual, 
are not at once detected. They are 
effectually destroyed by either salt or 
lime; and to secure its contact with 
their bodies, it is best first to water 
the soil where they harbour with lime 
water, in the evening, when they are 
coming out to feed, sprinkling the sur- 
face also with dry lime ; and at the end 
of a week, applying a surface dressing 
of salt, at the rate of five bushels per 
acre. If cabbage leaves are spread 
upon the surface of land infested by 
slugs, they will resort to their under 
sides, and thus they may be trapped ; 
but lime and salt are most efficacious. 
Lime-water may be poured over wail- 
trees infested with them, and they may 
be syringed with it as well as with 
water in which gas liquor has been 
mixed, about half a pint to a gallon. 
If lime be sprinkled along the top, and 
at the base of the wall, renewing it 
weekly, the slugs cannot get to the 
trees. 

SMALL CARDAMOM. Amomum 
cardamomum. 

SMALL LUPINE. Lupinus nanus. 

SMALL MONARDA. Pycnanthe- 
mum monar delta. 

SMALL PALM. Sabal Palmetto. 

SMALL PEPPERMINT. Thymus 
Piperella. 

SMEATHMANNIA laevigata. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Half-ripened cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

SMILACINA. Nine species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
soil. 

SMITHIA. Three species. Stove 
trailing annuals. Seeds. Peat, sand, 
and loam. 

SNAILS. See Slugs. 

These marauders are said to be very 
fond of bran, and that they are readily 
trapped if this be put in heaps under 
flower pots, with one side propped up 
to admit them. The common garden 
snail, Helix hortensis, is thus noticed 
by Mr. Curtis: — 

" Snails are said to be hermaphro- 
dites, and, consequently, they are all 
capable of laying eggs ; and there have 



SNA 



546 

— ♦ — 



SOI 



been found eighty in one heap. They 
are globular, whitish, shining, and not 
larger than swan-shot. If kept in a 
damp place, they readily hatch, at 
once-becoming little, thin, transparent, 
and nearly colourless shells. In a short 
time, they increase to twice the size, 
even when they have had nothing to 
feed upon. They are then of a dark, 
ochreous colour, with three imperfect 
rings, composed of brownish dots and 
streaks, and a transverse line of the 
same colour next the pale lip or mar- 
gin ; and these spots seem to vary as 
the animal withdraws or extends itself, 
owing to the dark tints shining through 
the semi-transparent shell. 

As the snail grows, it has the faculty 
of enlarging the shell, from its own se- 
cretions ; and, when full grown, it is as 
large as a small plum. It is convo- 
luted obliquely, striated of an ochreous 
colour, variegated with pitchy spots, 
giving it a marbled appearance, and 
forming two or three transverse bands ; 
the lip is ochreous, the margin slightly 
reflexed, the under side is smooth and 
white, with a pinkish tint. 

" There are various ways of reducing 
the numbers of this pest — the simplest 
is, by searching amongst the leaves of 
wall-fruit in April, when the snails first 
leave their winter quarters, to satisfy 
their long abstinence, and they con- 
tinue feeding until August or Septem- 
ber. 

" To protect seedling plants, a thick 
dusting of lime and soot round the 
stem will keep the snails away in dry 
weather. 

" In August, the eggs may be found 
at the roots of pot-herbs, in the cavities 
of muck heaps, at the rotten foot of 
paling, &c. These should be diligently 
sought for and destroyed; for they 
nearly all will hatch. 

" Salt and urine are destructive to 
snails ; but it is difficult to apply either 
to them with much advantage. Lime, 
soot, and wood ashes are excellent 
checks.; but the first loses its efficacy 
as soon as it becomes wet, and even 
the dews of the evening will frequently 
exhaust its caustic properties. Cabbage 
leaves are not an invariable decoy for 
the old snails: young ones, however, 
are very fond of them, especially when 
wet and withering." — Gard. Chron. 

SNAIL FLOWER. Phaseolus cara- 
calla. 



SNAKE GOURD. Trichosanthes. 

SNAKE ROOT. Aristolochia ser- 
pentaria. 

SNAPDRAGON. Antirrhinum and 
Silene antirrhina. 

SNAP TREE. Judicia hysopifolia. 

SNEEZEWORT. Achillea Ptarmica. 

SNOW is one of the gardener's best 
shelters, and should never be removed 
from his out-door crops. It prevents 
heat from radiating from them ; pro- 
tects them from freezing, drying blasts ; 
and, being a bad conductor of heat, 
thus prevents its escape from them. 
I have never known the surface of the 
earth, below a covering of snow, colder 
than 32°, even when the temperature 
of the air above has been 28°. — John- 
son's Principles of Gardening. 

SNOWBALL TREE. Viburnum 
Opulus. 

SNOWBERRY. Chiococca. 

SNOWDROP. Anemone sylvestris, 
and Galanthus. 

SNOWDROP TREE. Halesia. 

SNOWFLAKE. Leucojum. 

SOAP-BOILERS' ASHES. See Ashes. 

SOAPWORT. Saponaria. 

SOBOLEWSKIA lithophila. Hardy 
annual. Seed. Common soil. 

SOIL. However varying in the pro- 
portions, yet every soil is composed of 
silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, oxide 
of iron, salts, and animal and vegetable 
remains. The most important conside- 
ration is, what proportions those are 
which constitute a fertile soil ? 

The beau ideal of a fertile soil is one 
which contains such a proportion of de- 
composing matter and of moisture as to 
keep the crop growing upon it always 
supplied with food in a state fit for 
introsusception, yet not so superabun- 
dantly as to render the plants too 
luxuriant, if the object in view is the 
production of seed ; but for the pro- 
duction of those plants whose foliage 
is the part in request, as spinach, or of 
edible bulbous roots, as onions, which 
have a small expanse of leaves, so as 
to be almost entirely dependent upon 
the soil for nourishment, there can 
scarcely be an excess of decomposed 
matter presented to their roots. 

Spinach, on rich soils, will yield suc- 
cessive cuttings, the same as asparagus ; 
the latter especially demands abundant 
applications of nourishment to its roots, 
since, like the onion, it has little foliage 



SOI 



547 



SOI 



and slightly fibrous roots, at the same 
time that, like the spinach, it has to 
afford repeated cuttings; and thus, re- 
quiring a repeated development of 
parts, it needs abundant food in its im- 
mediate neighbourhood. A soil with a 
just proportion of decomposing matter 
will be capable of absorbing moisture, 
during the droughts of summer, from 
the atmosphere; for the most fertile 
soils are always the most absorbent. 
Yet it must not be too retentive of 
moisture, which is the case in such 
soils as contain too much alumina; 
neither must it too easily part with 
moisture, a fault which is a character- 
istic of those soils which contain an 
excess of silica. 

A subsoil of gravel, mixed with clay, 
is the best, if not abounding in oxide 
of iron ; for clay alone retains the moist- 
ure, on the arable surface, in too great 
an excess; and sand or chalk, on the 
contrary, carries it away too rapidly. 
It is, however, evident, that to insure 
these desiderata in any soil, at all sea- 
sons, is impossible; and it is manifest 
that a soil that would do so in one cli- 
mate would fail in another, if the mean 
annual temperature of them should dif- 
fer, as well as the amount in inches o 
rain which fall during the same period- 
Thus, in the western parts of England, 
more than twice as much rain occurs 
as in the most eastern counties, or in 
the proportion of forty-two to nineteen ; 
a soil in the east of England, for any 
given crop, therefore, may be richer 
and more tenacious than the soil re- 
quired for it on the western coast. 

Alumina, or clay, imparts tenacity to 
a soil when applied ; silica, or sand, 
diminishes that power ; whilst chal k and 
lime have an intermediate effect. They 
render heavy soils more friable, light 
soils more retentive. These simple 
facts are important ; two neighbouring 
gardens, by an interchange of soils, 
being often rendered fertile, which be- 
fore were in the extremes of tenacity 
and porosity. 

From these statements it is evident 
that no universal standard or recipe can 
be given for the formation of a fertile 
soil; but a soil, the constituents of 
which approach in their proportions to 
those of the following, cannot be un- 
productive in any climate. It is a rich 
alluvial soil, which Mr. Sinclair, in his 
invaluable Hortus Gramineus Woburn- 



ensis, gives as being the most fertile 
for the grasses : — 

" Fine sand, 115; aluminous stones, 
70; carbonate of lime, 23; decompos- 
ing animal and vegetable matter, 34 ; 
silica, 100; alumina, 28; oxide of 
iron, 13; sulphate of lime, 2; soluble 
vegetable and saline matter, 7 ; loss, 8 ; 
total 400." 

I have already stated what forms a 
fertile soil ; it may be added, that, to 
constitute it eminently such, its earthy 
particles must be in a minute state of 
division; the more so the more fertile it 
will be. 

In the above analysis 185 parts only 
were separable by sifting through a fine 
sieve; 215 parts were impalpable; 
whereas poorer soils will often have 
300 parts coarse matter to every 100 of 
finely pulverized constituents. 

In affording warmth to plants the 
earth is of considerable importance, 
and the power of accumulating and re- 
taining heat varies as much in soils as 
the proportions of their constituents. 
Sir Humphrey Davy found that a rich 
black mould, containing one-fourth of 
vegetable matter, had its temperature 
increased in an hour, from 65° to 88° 
by exposure to the sunshine, whilst a 
chalk soil was heated only to 69° under 
similar circumstances. But the first} 
when removed into the shade, cooled 
in half an hour 15 e ; whereas the latter 
lost only 4°. This explains why the 
crops on light-colored tenacious soils 
are in general so much more backward 
in spring, but are retained longer in 
verdure, during autumn, than those on 
black light soils. The latter attain a 
genial warmth the more readily, but 
part from it with equal speed. Different 
plants affect different soils. Every 
gardener must have observed that there 
is scarcely a kitchen garden but has 
some particular crop which it sustains 
in luxuriance, far superior to any other 
garden in its neighborhood, or to any 
other crop that can be grown on it. A 
garden I once cultivated would not 
produce, without the preparation of an 
artificial soil, the common garden-cress 
(Lepidium sativum), whilst the raspberry 
was remarkably luxuriant; and we- 
have seen that the composition of a soil 
has a main influence in these peculiari- 
ties. It is certain that a soil is often 
considered unproductive, and the un- 
productiveness attributed to some de- 



SOI 



548 

— ♦ — 



SOL 



ficiency in its staple, when, in truth, 
the defect arises from erroneous man- 
agement. 

I have before stated an instance of 
tap-rooted plants being produced, of 
superior size and form, by means of ap- 
plying the manure deep below the sur- 
face. In another instance, some pars- 
neps being of necessity sown in a poor 
soil, having turned in some manure by 
trenching full twelve inches deep, I 
would not allow any to be applied to 
the surface, but, at the time of thinning 
I set half the bed out at an average of 
twelve inches' distance between each 
plant, the other half at nine inches. 
When taken up for storing, the whole 
were alike perfectly, fusiform ; but those 
grown at twelve inches apart were the 
finest, as four and a half is to three. If 
manure had been applied to the surface, 
the fibrous roots, I calculated, would 
be multiplied at the expense of the 
caudex, to its much greater detriment 
than by making the few usually pro- 
duced by this root extend in length, 
thus enlarging the circuit of their pas- 
turage. 

Again, a more silicious, darker co- 
lored soil should be employed for the 
growth of an early crop, of any given 
plant, than is required by the main crop ; 
because such soil will more readily 
get rid of the superfluous moisture, and 
earlier acquire a genial warmth, two 
great desiderata for vegetation in spring. 
On the contrary, in autumn, for a late 
crop of peas, for instance, the soil 
should be more aluminous, that such 
moisture may be retained. 

The quantity of soluble matter ob- 
tainable from a soil, at any one time, 
is very small, seldom exceeding a one- 
thousandth part of its weight; and even 
pure vegetable mould, the debris of 
entirely putrefied plants, was found by 



big and others have most illogically 
concluded, from the smallness of the 
soluble extract contained in a soil, that 
it is of small importance, forgetting 
that as fast as it is taken by the roots of 
the crop, it is generated again by the 
decomposition of the animal and vege- 
table remains. This is one reason why 
fallowing is beneficial ; easily decom- 
posing matters have been exhausted by 
successive crops; and by a year's rest, 
and exposure to the putrefactive agency 
of the air, the more stubborn and more 
slowly decomposing exuviae have time 
to resolve into and accumulate soluble 
compounds in the soil. — Trine, of Gard. 

SOJA hispida. Hardy annual. Seed. 
Common soil. 

SOLANDRA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Turfy 
loam and peat. S. grandiflora. Mr. 
J. Brown, gardener at Whittlebury 
Lodge, near Towcester, says that — 

" After it attains to the height of from 
three to five feet, it must not be shifted, 
but allowed to remain in as small a pot 
as it will grow in until the roots be- 
come matted round the inside. Early 
in autumn keep it in a cool situation, 
and allow it to become perfectly dry, 
when the leaves will drop off. About 
the beginning of November, introduce 
it into heat, and force gently, supply- 
ing it plentifully with water when it 
begins to grow. Being thus excited for 
a short time, the plant grows freely, 
and produces blossom-buds on the 
young wood, and at the end of each 
shoot; these in January and February 
expand. As soon as it has done flow- 
ering, which is generally in March, the 
shoots are to be cut back, and the 
plant, being shifted, put into heat and 
encouraged to grow, stopping the young 
shoots frequently, to induce it to throw 
out laterals, and to keep it dwarfed. 



Saussure to yield only one-eleventh of | By this treatment it very often forms 



soluble matter. This mould was too 
rich for horticultural purposes, peas 
and beans grown in it being too luxuri- 
ant ; and they were more productive in 
a soil containing only one-twentieth of 
organic constituents dissolvable by wa- 
ter. Small in amount, however, as is 
the soluble constituents of the most 
fertile soils, they are necessary for the 
vigorous vegetation of plants; for when 
a soil is deprived of those constituents J 
by frequent washings with boiling water, | 
it is much less fertile than before. Lie- 



spurs similar to a pear or apple-tree, at 
the ends of which, after allowing the 
roots to become matted in the pot, giv- 
ing it a rest, and keeping it dry and cool 
from August till November, blossoms 
are produced in abundance, upon its 
being put again into heat." — Gard. 
Chron. 

SOLANUM. One hundred and thirty- 
six species, and some varieties. Stove 
and green-house evergreen shrubs and 
annuals; hardy annuals, deciduous 
climbers, herbaceous, and a few tuber- 



SOL 



549 



SOR 



ous-rooted perennials. To this latter 
belongs S. tuberosum, the potato. The 
annuals are increased by seeds ; the 
other species by seeds, cuttings, or 
tubers. Light rich soil suits them all. 

SOLDANELLA. Seven species. 
Hardy or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials. Seeds or division. Peat and 
loam. 

SOLDEVILLA setosa. Hardy herba- 
ceous perennial. Seed. Common soil. 

SOLDIER-WOOD. Inga purpurea. 

SOLIDAGO. Golden Rod. Sixty- 
seven species. Hardy herbaceous pe- 
rennials, except S. leucanthemifolia, 
which is half-hardy, and S. spuria, a 
green-house evergreen. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

SOLLYA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

SOLOMON'S SEAL. Convallaria. 

SOOT is the volatilized unconsumed 
portion of common coal. It is thus 
constituted: — 

Charcoal . 

Salts of ammonia 

potash and soda 



371 
427 
24 
50 
65 
31 
31 
2 



Oxide of iron 

Silica 

Alumina . 

Sulphate of lime 

Carbonate of magnesia 

It is an excellent manure for peas, 
onions, carrots, and probably all garden 
crops. An excellent liquid manure is 
soot mixed with rain water, in the pro- 
portion of one tablespoonful of soot 
to a quart of water, for plants in pots ; 
but for asparagus, peas, &c, six quarts 
of soot to a hogshead of water. It 
must never be applied to plants in a 
state of rest. It succeeds admirably 
with bulbs. — Gard. Chron. 

S P H R A. Fourteen species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials and deci- 
duous trees; stove and green-house ever- 
green shrubs and trees. The latter in- 
crease by cuttings, the former by divi- 
sion. S. chinensis and S. japonica, 
hardy deciduous trees ; by layers or 
seeds. Light loamy soil. 

SOPHRONITIS. Three species. 
Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood with 
a little moss on the roots. 

SORINDEIA madagascariensis. 
Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

SOROCEPHALUS. Seven species. 



Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings taken oif at a joint. Turfy 
loam and sand. 

SORRELS. These are Oxalis Aceto- 
sella, Wood Sorrel ; Rumex acetosa, 
Garden Sorrel ; R. scutatus, French or 
Roman Sorrel. 

Soil and Situation. — They thrive best 
in any garden soil that tends to light- 
ness rather than tenacity, and is not 
too poor. The situation must be open. 
Propagation. — The rumexes are pro- 
pagated by seed, and all of them by 
parting the roots, both which modes 
may be practised from the middle of 
February until the same period in May, 
and by the latter also in September 
and October. The finest plants are 
raised by seed, but those from portions 
of the roots are soonest in production. 
The seed is best sown in drills, six 
or eight inches apart, and half an inch 
in depth. When two or three inches 
high, the seedlings must be thinned to 
three or four inches apart, and those 
removed, if required, pricked out at 
similar distances. In September or Oc- 
tober, or in the March and April of the 
succeeding year, they may be removed 
into their final stations, in rows twelve 
inches apart, each way, or, if the 
French, eighteen inches. The only 
attention they require down to this 
state of their growth, is to be kept clear 
of weeds, and to have water given in 
moderate quantities after each removal, 
until established. 

When divisions of the root are em- 
ployed, they must be set at once where 
they are to remain, at the final dis- 
tances above mentioned ; and the same 
attention paid in weeding and watering 
them. Established plants must in a 
like manner be kept constantly free 
from weeds. In summer, as they run 
up to seed, the stalks must be cut down 
as often as is required, to encourage 
the production of leaves. In autumn 
and spring, the surface of the ground 
should be gently stirred, and in the 
former season, a little manure, or in 
preference, a similar proportion of de- 
cayed leaves, turned in. Some garden- 
ers raise fresh seedlings annually, but 
a fresh plantation is seldom necessary 
oftener than every fourth year ; before 
which, however, it must be made, if the 
plants dwindle or produce diminutive 
leaves. 



S OR 



550 

— ♦ — 



SPA 



To obtain Seed. — Some plants must 
not be gathered from, and allowed to 
run up unchecked. They flower in the 
course of June, July, and August, per- 
fecting their seed in autumn. Wood- 
sorrel never produces seed. See Ox- 
alis. 

SORREL TREE. Andromeda arbor ea. 

SOULANGIA. Twelve species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy peat. 

SOURSOP. Anona muricata. 

SOUTHERNWOOD. Artemisia ar- 
bor ea. 

SOUTH SEA TEA. Ilex vomitoria. 

SOWERBiEA juncea. Green-house 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

SOWING. See Germination. In 
addition a few practical directions may 
be given. Let all sowing be done in 
drills. For small seeds, such as let- 
tuce, cabbage, &c, the drills may be 
sunk by pressing the handle of the hoe 
into the freshly dug soil ; but for larger 
seeds, as parsneps, beet, and onions, 
the drills must be struck with the hoe. 

All sowing should be performed in 
dry weather, more particularly all early 
sowing in winter and spring ; but in hot 
weather, in summer and autumn, it 



evenly, the depth required, the earth 
remaining close along the side of the 
drill, ready for turning in again over 
the seeds ; but where flat or shallow 
drills are required for smaller seeds, it 
may in many cases, be more eligible to 
draw the drill with the hoe flatwise, 
holding the edge in a horizontal position. 

Bedding in Sowing. — In this method 
the ground being dug and formed in 
four or five feet wide beds with alleys, 
a spade width or more between bed 
and bed, and the earth being drawn off 
the top of the bed with a rake or spade, 
half an inch or an inch deep into the 
alleys, the seed is then sown all over 
the surface of the bed, which being 
done, the earth in the alleys is immedi- 
ately drawn or cast over the bed, again 
covering the seeds the same depth, and 
the surface is raked smooth. 

The method of bedding in sowing by 
sifting, is sometimes practised for very 
small or light seeds of a more delicate 
nature, that require a very light cover- 
ing of earth when sown, so in order to 
bury them as shallow as possible, cover 
them in by sifting fine earth over them 
out of a wire sieve. — Abercrombie. 

SOY. See Soja. 

SPADE. This most important of the 



ay often be eligible to take advantage ! gardener's tools, varies in its form and 



of sowing immediately after a shower 
or moderate rain. 

The drills being at some distance 
from one another, not only admit the 
sun, air, and rain more effectually to 
the plants, and give them a greater 
scope, than such as are sown broadcast, 
but admit more readily the hoe between 
the drills to cut down weeds and loosen 
the soil. 

The general method of forming drills 
for the reception of seeds, is with a 
common drawing-hoe, sometimes with 
a large hoe, and sometimes a middling 



size. 

The Common Digging Spade is of the 
largest size, being generally from four- 
teen to sixteen inches long in the plate, 
and nine or ten broad, narrowing half 
an inch to the bottom. 

The Middling Spade is about a foot 
long in the plate, and seven or eight 
inches broad, and is useful in digging 
any narrow compartments and between 
rows of small plants, also in flower- 
beds and borders ; and in stirring and 
fresh earthing the surface of beds occa- 

onally, between close placed plants 



or small hoe, according to the size of ; of long standing; planting and trans- 



the drill required, and size and nature 
of the seeds ; drawing the drill some- 
times with the corner of the hoe, espe- 
cially for larger seeds, and sometimes 
with the edge of the hoe flatwise or 
horizontally; but large seeds, such as 
peas, kidney beans, many of the nut 
kinds, and other large seeds, both of 
trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, 
require a deep angular drill, drawn 
with the corner of the hoe, turning the 
face or edge close to the line, so draw 



planting many sorts, both in the ground 
and in the pots. 

The Small Spade. — Size ten or twelve 
inches long in the plate, and five or six 
wide. It is convenient in pointing-up 
or slight digging, and fresh earthing 
the surface between close rows of 
small plants, in beds and borders, &c, 
where neither of the two former spades 
can be readily introduced ; likewise in 
planting and potting many sorts of small 
plants, taking up small roots and for 



the drill along with an angular bottom 1 other light purposes. Proper garden 



SPA 



551 

— ♦ — 



SPH 



spades have the plate wholly of iron, 
not above a quarter of an inch thick 
upwards, growing gradually thinner 
from the middle downward, the tree or 
handle being generally of ash, about 
two feet and a half long and an inch 
and a half thick, with a firm open han- 
dle at top, formed out of the solid wood, 
just big enough to admit of taking ready 
hold, one hand at top and the other be- 
low, and with an iron rivet through it 
to prevent it splitting. 

Semicircular or Scooped Spade, has 
the plate made semicircular like a gar- 
den trowel, and is very useful in taking 
up plants with balls of earth to preserve 
them more firmly about the roots. — 
Abercrombie. 

Foster of Stourbridge, and Lyddon 
of Birmingham, make very improved 
spades, wearing with a good edge 
throughout. 

SPANISH BROOM. Sparcium jun- 
ceum. 

SPANISH CRESS. Lepidium cala- 
mines. 

SPANISH ELM. Cordia Geraschan- 
thus. 

SPANISH GARLIC. See Rocam- 
bole. 

SPANISH NUT. Morcea Sisyrin- 
chium. 

SPANISH VIPER'S GRASS. Scor- 
zonera. 

SPARAXIS. Ten species and some 
varieties. Green-house and half-hardy 
bulbous perennials. Offsets or seeds. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

SPARMANNIA africana. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

SPARROW WORT. Erica passe- 
rina. 

SPARTIUM. Broom. Two species, 
and two varieties. Hardy deciduous 
shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. Common 
soil. 

SPATALANTHUS spsciosus. Har- 
dy bulbous perennial. Offsets. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

SPATALLA. Nine species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Seeds, ripe 
cuttings. Light sandy loam. 

SPATHODEA. Eight species. 
Stove evergreen trees, shrubs, and 
climbers. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 

SPATHOGLOTTIS fortunatus. 
Green-house tuber. Division. Sandy 
loam. 

SPAWN is the white filamentous mat- 



ter produced in the soil by mushrooms, 
and by which they are propagated. It 
is doubtful whether it arises from their 
seed, or whether it is a mass of under- 
ground runners. See Mushroom. 

SPECKLINIA. Five species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Wood, with a 
little moss on the roots. 

SPECULARIA. Six species, and a 
few varieties. Hardy annuals. Seeds. 

SPERMACOCE. Five species. Har- 
dy annuals and stove annuals and bien- 
nials. Seeds. Light soil. 

SPERM AXYRUM strictum. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

SPHACELE. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Light rich soil. 

SPH51RALCEA. Eight species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs and herb- 
aceous perennials ; a few, hardy annu- 
als ; the latter increase by seeds, the 
others by cuttings. Rich soil. 

SPH^ROLOBIUM. Two species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Loam and peat. 

SPH^ROPHYSA caspica. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Seeds, common 
soil ; it should be watered sometimes 
with salted water. 

SPHMROTEMA propinquum. Stove 
evergreen climber. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat and loam. 

SPH^ROSTIGMA. Three species. 
Hardy annuals and biennials. Seeds. 
Common soil. 

SPHAGNUM is a white spongy moss, 
found only in bogs, and used for grow- 
ing orchidaceous plants, or covering 
the drainage in flower pots. 

SPHENOGYNE. Ten species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs, and 
green-house and hardy annuals; the 
latter increase by seeds, the former by 
cuttings. Loam and peat. 

SPHINX. S. tipaliformis. Currant 
Sphinx is thus mentioned by Mr. Cur- 
tis : 

« Towards the end of May, and in 
June, we see the beautiful little cur- 
rant sphinx sporting in the morning and 
noonday sun, about the flowers of the 
Persian Lilac, the Common Syringa, 
and other plants; at this time the fe- 
males also resort to the currant trees to 
deposit their eggs in the crevices of the 
twigs, and as soon as the larva emerges 
from its tiny shell, it penetrates to the 
centre to feed upon the pith, proceed- 



SPI 



552 

— ♦ — 



SPO 



ing downward until it has arrived at ! cold weather give a light covering of 
its full growth ; it then changes to a straw, cedar brush, or anything that 
pupa serrated with transverse short will lay lightly, and partially protect 
spines, which enable it to ascend to an 
opening previously prepared by the 
larva, from which the sphinx escapes, 



leaving the pupa case half protruding 
from the branch. 

" The caterpillar is fleshy and whitish, 
with an obscure dorsal line: the head 
and four homy spots upon the first 
thoracic segment are bright brown ; it 
has six pectoral, eight abdominal, and 
two anal feet, which are of a similar 
colour, and a few fine longish hairs are 
scattered over its body. The moth is 
of a brilliant chalybeon black, inclining 
to purple, which is beautifully contrast- 
ed with the golden wings encircling its 
body when glittering in the sunshine. 
The black currants appear to be the 
most subject to these attacks of the 
currant sphinx caterpillar, and the first 
indication of its presence is the wither- 
ing of the leaves and branches." — 
Gard. Chron. 

SPIDER OPHRYS. Ophrys 
aranifera. 

SPIDER WORT. Tradescantia. 

SPIELMANNIA africana. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
rich soil. 

SPIGELIA anthelmia, a stove an- 



it; otherwise the finest and most suc- 
culent leaves become discoloured by 
the frost." — Rural Reg. 

To obtain Seed. — A sowing of each 
variety may be made in February or 
March, according to the openness of 
the season, or of the round-leaved va- 
riety some plants of a regular crop may 
be allowed to run up in April or May ; 
and of the triangular-leaved, some 
plants of the winter standing crops may 
be suffered to remain. Keep them clear 
of weeds. Spinach is dioecious, and 
many ignorant persons, perceiving 
some of the plants to have no appear- 
ance of bearing seed, advise these to 
be pulled up, but these are the male- 
bearing plants, without which the 
others would be unfruitful. If, how- 
ever, they are very numerous, some of 
them may be removed with benefit to 
those that remain, care being taken that 
some are left in every part of the bed. 
When the seed is set the male plants 
may be entirely removed, which allows 
more room for the fruitful. When the 
seed is ripe, which is known by its be- 
ginning to shed, in July or August, the 
plants ought to be pulled up and laid to 
dry thoroughly on a cloth, previously 



nual, and S. marilandica, a hardy herb- j to its being beaten out and stored 



aceous perennial. Seeds and cuttings 
Loam and peat. 

SPINACH. Spinacea oleracea. 

" The Spinage or Spinach has been 
long cultivated, and is supposed to have 
come originally from Western Asia. Its 
use is well known. 

" The principal varieties are the round 
seeded Savoy-leaved and Prickly-seed- 
ed. The former is best for spring and 
summer use, the latter is preferred 
for autumn sowing, being considered 
hardier. 

" It may be sown broad cast or in 
drills. When drilled, it is easier kept 
clean, and more readily gathered for 
use. The drills should be twelve inches 
apart, the plants four inches apart in 
the rows. If sown thicker, thin out 
when young, as 

at proper distances. For spring and 
early summer use, sow early in spring, 
and occasionally afterward; for the 
early autumn supply, sow at close of 
summer, and for the main winter crops 
about middle of autumn. Before very 



S P I R JE A . Forty-one species and 
many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
shrubs or herbaceous perennials, a few 
are tuberous-rooted. Layers or young 
i cuttings, and the herbaceous species by 
| division. Peat and loam, or common 
j soil. 

SPIRALEPIS. Four species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. S. squar- 
\ rosa, an evergreen shrub. Seeds, cut- 
I tings, and division. Sandy peat and 
I loam. 

SPIRANTHERA odoratissima. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Half ripened cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

SPIRANTHES. Four species. Stove 
, green-house and half-hardy orchids. Di- 
! vision. Peat and loam. 

SPIRONEM A /ragmns. Stove herb- 
anted : leaving plants ' aceous perennial. Division. Light rich 
loam. 

SPONGE TREE. Acacia farnesiana. 
SPOT, a disease occurring on the 
leaves of the pelargonium, is a dry gan- 
grene, occasioned by an irregularity in 
the supply of moisture and vicissitudes 



SPR 



553 

— ♦— 



S T A 



of temperature, but especially if one of 
the extremes is much below the degree 
of heat most favourable to the healthy 
growth of that plant. The reason of 
this is very obvious. If a pelargonium, 
or any other plant, be placed in a highly 
stimulating heat, and is abundantly sup- 
plied with root moisture, it immediately 
increases its surface of leaf to elaborate 
and digest the large amount of sap for- 
warded from the roots. If this amount 
of sap is subsequently suddenly re- 
duced, by lowering the temperature 
and adding water to the soil less freely, 
the increased surface of leaf is no longer 
required, and it is a law pervading all 
the vegetable creation that the moment 
any of the parts of a plant are unneces- 
sary to it, that moment it begins to de- 
cay. I placed a plant of the Marvel of 
Peru, or Heliotrope, in a high tempera- 
ture and abundant moisture ; these were 
then much reduced, and the leaves in 
a kw days were completely decayed 
round their edges, and in spots upon 
their surfaces. The extent of* leaf was 
accommodated to the amount of sap to 
be elaborated. — Princ. of Gard. 

SPREKELIA cybister and its varie- 
ties. Stove bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
Sandy loam. 

SPRENGELIA incarnata. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. San- 
dy peat. 

SPRUE, a market name for the small- 
est sprouts of asparagus. 

SPUR, is a lateral branch cut back, 
or shortened to a length of about two 
inches. 

SPURGE LAUREL. Daphne laure- 
ola. 

SPURLESS VIOLET. Erpetion. 

SQUASH. Cucurbita melopepo. See 
Gourd. 

STAAVIA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy peat. 

STACHYS. Thirty species. Hardy 
and green-house herbaceous perennials 
and evergreen shrubs, hardy annuals 
and biennials. The latter increase by 
seeds. The perennials by division, and 
the green-house species by cuttings. 
Common soil suits them all. 

STACHYTARPHETA. Nine species. 
Stove or green-house annuals, biennials, 
herbaceous perennials, and evergreen 
shrubs. The latter increase by cuttings, 
the former by seeds. Light rich mould 
suits them all. 



STACKHOUSIA Unaricefolia. 
Green-house evergreen shrub. S. mono- 
gyna, hardy herbaceous perennial. Cut- 
tings. Sandv loam and peat. 

STADMANNIA australis. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Ripe cuttings, 
with the leaves on. Loam and peat. 

STAFF TREE. Celastrus. 

STALAGMITIS. Seven species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Turfy 
loam and peat. They require a strong 
heat. 

STANDARD. A tree unsupported by 
a wall or trellis. 

Full Standards are such trees as are 
trained with tall straight stems six or 
seven feet high, clear of branches, and 
are then suffered to branch out. All 
trees designed as full standards should 
be trained accordingly in their minor 
state, by trimming all lower laterals 
gradually as the stems advance in height, 
suffering the leader always to remain 
entire, especially in all forest trees; or 
if it should happen to fork, taking off 
the worst, and leaving the straightest 
shoot to run up, to continue the pro- 
longation of the stem ; and having thus 
run them up with clean stems six or 
seven feet in height, to force out laterals 
in that part to form a regular spreading 
head of but moderate height, for the 
greater convenience of gathering the 
fruit; but of forest tree standards never 
reduce the tops, but permit the leader to 
remain ever entire to run up in height, 
for the beauty and worth of such con- 
sists in their lofty stature. All fruit trees 
designed for full standards, are raised by 
grafting, &c, on the freest strong shoot- 
ing stocks, and are trained with straight 
clean stems full five to six feet high, 
either the stock trained up to that sta- 
ture, and so grafted or budded at the 
desired height, or the graft or bud is 
trained up for a stem to the height afore- 
said, then suffered to send forth branch- 
es; observing in either method, it is to 
be considered whether you intend the 
tree shall form a spreading open head 
or assume a more erect and aspiring 
growth : in the former case, if you top 
the leading shoot of the graft or bud, at 
six or seven feet from the ground, it will 
force out lateral shoots at that height, 
and commence a spreading head open 
in the middle; suffering, however, the 
whole afterwards to take their own 
growth ; and, in the second instance, 
that by permitting the leading shoot to 



ST A 



554 

— ♦ — 



STE 



remain entire, it will rise in height, and i 
the whole head will assume a more up- 
right and lofty stature. In both methods 
the heads will afterwards naturally 
branch out abundantly, and furnish 
themselves sufficiently with bearing 
wood, producing fruit in two or three 
years from the grafting or budding; suf- 
fering them generally to take their own 
growth, without shortening, and very 
little other pruning, except the regu- 
lating any great irregularities. 

Half Standards are trees trained with 
short stems only three or four feet high, 
then suffered to branch out at that height 
to form heads; having low heads the 
fruit is more easily gathered. Concave 
dwarfs have the middle hollow, and the 
branches all round in a cup form. Hori- 
zontal dwarfs, having the branches ex- 
tended all round in a flat or horizontal 
position, but the concave dwarf is in 
most esteem. — Abercrombie. 

STANHOPE A. Eleven species. 
Stove orchids. Division. Peat and pot- 
sherds. 

STANLEYA pinnatifida. Hardy her- 
baceous perennial. Division or seeds. 
Vegetable mould. 

STAPELIA. Thirty-three species. 
Green-house and stove evergreen shrubs; 
partly dried cuttings. Sandy loam and 
brick or lime rubbish. 

STAR APPLE. Chrysophyllum. 

STAR FISH. Stapelia asterias. 

STAR OF BETHLEHEM. Ornitho- 
galum . 

STAR THISTLE. Centaurea calci- 
trapa. 

STAR WORT. Aster. 

STATICE. Sea Lavender. Sixty- 
four species. The hardy herbaceous 
perennials increase by division or seeds. 
The green-house and half-hardy species 
by cuttings. Annuals and biennials by 
seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

S. Arborea, a green-house evergreen 
shrub. 

" When practicable, this plant should 
be turned out in the border of a con- 
servatory. It may, however, be grown 
to great perfection in a pot, if the roots 
are allowed plenty of room. 

"The soil should consist of equal 
parts of turfy loam and peat, or vegeta- 
ble mould." — Gard. Chron. 

STAUROCANTHUS aphyllus. Hardy 
evergreen shrub. Young cuttings or 
seeds. Peat and loam. 

STEEPING. See Germination. It is 



a very unfounded idea, that by steeping 
seeds in certain solutions the vigour and 
fecundity of the plants to which they 
give birth might be promoted. A cer- 
tain degree of heat, oxygen gas, and 
water, are all the requisites for germi- 
nation, — and until this process has com- 
menced, no liquid but water at common 
temperatures will pass through the in- 
teguments of a seed. So soon as germi- 
nation has commenced, this power to 
exclude foreign fluids ceases, but the 
organs starting into activity — the radicle 
and the plumule — are so delicate, that 
the weakest saline solutions are too 
acrid and offensive for them. So utter- 
ly incapable are the infant roots of im- 
bibing such solutions, that at first they 
are absolutely dependent, themselves, 
for their very existence upon the seed- 
leaves, and if these are removed the 
plant either makes no further advance, 
or altogether perishes. Many years 
since I tried various menstrua to facili- 
tate the germination of seeds, but, with 
the exception of those which promoted 
the decomposition of water, and the 
consequent more abundant evolution of 
oxygen, I found none of any efficiency. 
As to keeping the seeds in saline solu- 
tions until they germinated, I never, 
certainly, carried the experiments so far 
as that, and I shall be most astonished 
if any other effect than injury or death 
to the plant is the consequence. Such 
has been the result in the Horticultural 
Society's gardens, where the seeds of 
Lupinus Hartwegii were made to ger- 
minate in a weak solution of phosphate 
of ammonia. — Johnson's Gardeners' Al- 
manack. 

STENACTIS speciosa. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennial. Division or seeds. 
Common soil. 

S TEN ANTHER A pinifolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Very 
sandy peat and loam. 

STENIA pallida. Stove epiphyte. 
Division. Wood, with a little moss on 
the roots. 

STENOCARPUS salignus. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

STENOCHILUS. Five species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

STENOMESSON. Three species. 
Stove or green-house bulbous peren- 
nials. Offsets. Sandy loam. 

STEPHANIA cleomoides. Stove ever- 



STE 



green shrub. Young cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

STEPHANOTIS floribunda. Stove 
climber. Cuttings. Light rich loam. 

STEPTOCARPUS rexii. Mr. M'ln- 
tyre, of* Hillsborough, gives the follow- 
ing ^directions for the culture of this 
green-house evergreen : — 

" The seed should be sown in the 
month of April, in pans, in a mixture of 
peat and loam ; then place the pans in 
a hot-bed, frame or pit, until the plants 
are fit for potting off. The seed should 
be sown very thin; if not, the greater 
portion of the plants will rot off for want 
of air and room to their stalks, as they 
grow with their foliage prostrate. As 
soon as the plants are large enough for 
potting off, fill a quantity of pots with a 
mixture of leaf-mould, loam, and sand ; 
place a plant in each pot, and give a 
little water. 

"Afterwards remove them into the 
frame or pit; when they have got es- 
tablished in their pots, they may be 
removed to a cold frame or green- 
house. 

" In June, they may be placed in the 
open air, and regularly watered during 
the summer. 

" Towards the end of October, re- 
move them to a frame, to protect them 
from frost. In May or June following 
they may be planted out where required. 
As soon as frost is apprehended, take 
up the plants, with a ball of earth at- 
tached to the roots, repot them and 
place them in a green-house or frame, 
till again required." — Gard. Chron. 

STERCULIA. Eighteen species. 
Stove evergreen trees and shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings, with the leaves left on. Light 
turfy or peaty loam. 

STERIGMA. Two species. Hardy 
biennials. Seeds. Sandy loam. 

STERILE is a term applied to unpro- 
ductive land and flowers. For some 
observations on the first, see Barren. 
Sterile flowers are the male flowers on 
monoecious and dioecious plants. They 
occur on the cucumber, melon, gourd, 
asparagus, &c. They must not be de- 
stroyed, for without the pollen produced- 
by their stamens, the fertile or female 
blossoms will not produce fruit. If 
planls are grown in too high a tempera- 
ture, there is reason to believe they 
produce an excess of these sterile or 
male blossoms. 

STERNBERGIA. Four species. 



555 

-♦ — 



STO 



Hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. Rich 
loam. 

STEVENIA. Two species. Hardy 
annual and biennial. Seeds. Common 
soil. 

STEVIA. Thirty-one species. Hardy, 
half-hardy, or green-house herbaceous 
perennials. Cuttings, divisions and 
seeds. Peat and loam. 

STE WARTIA virginica. Hardy de- 
ciduous tree. Layers or ripe cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

STIFTIA insignis. Green-house de- 
ciduous shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

STIGMAPHYLLON. Four species . 
Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings . 
Peat and sandy loam. 

S TIL AGO. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

STITCHWORT. Stellaria. 

STOB51A pinnata. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
Light rich soil. 

STOCK. Mathiola. This genus was, 
until lately, united with the wall-flower, 
under the generic name Cheiranthus. 
Some of the following are species, but 
others only very distinct varieties. 

M. acaulis. (Stemless Stock.) Hardy 
annual. Red. Flowers in June. 

M. alpina. (Alpine Stock.) Hardy 
evergreen. Yellow. May. 

M. annua. (Ten-week Stock.) Hardy 
annual. Various colours. August. 
Many varieties. 

M. coronopifolia. Hardy biennial. 
Purple. June. 

M.fenestralis. Hardy biennial. Pur- 
ple. July. 

M. glabrata. Half-hardy evergreen. 
White. August. 

M. graca. Hardy annual. White. 
August. 

M. helvetica. (Swiss Stock.) Hardy 
evergreen. Yellow. June. 

M. incana. (Brompton and Twick- 
enham Stock.) Hardy evergreen shrub. 
Crimson. August. Many varieties. 

M. livida. Hardy annual. Purple. 
July. 

M. longipetala. Hardy annual. Red. 
June. 

M. maritima. (Virginia Stock.) Hardy 
annual. Red and white. June. 

M. mutabilis. (Changeable Stock.) 
Green-house evergreen. Yellow and 
purple. May. 



S TO 



556 



STO 



Hardy annual. Crim- 
Hardy annual. Pur- 
Half-hardy evergreen. 
Lilac. 



ill. odoratissima. Green-house ever- 
green. Crimson. June. 

M. oxyceras. 
son. July. 

M. parviflora. 
pie. July. 

M. purpurea. 
Purple. August 

ill. sicula. Hardy biennial. 
July. 

M. simplicicaulis. Hardy biennial. 
Purple or white. July. 

M. sinuata. Hardy biennial. Red. 
July. 

M. tartarica. Hardy biennial. Red. 
or yellow. July. 

M. tenella. (Five-leaved Stock.) 
Hardy annual. Brown. July. 

M. tortuosa. Green-house evergreen. 
Purple. July. 

M. tricuspidata. Hardy annual. Pur- 
ple. July. 

M. tristis, M. varia. (Night-smell- 
ing or Dark-flowered Stock.) Green- 
house evergreen. Crimson. June. 

Sowing Annuals. — Best time, end of 
August, in pans filled with a soil of 
equal parts peat and loam, and placed 
in a cold frame; water frequently; 
when they have got six leaves prick 
singly into pots three inches and a half 
diameter, in same kind of soil. Keep 
in frames through the winter, and shel- 
ter from frost. Remove without dis- 
turbing the roots into beds and borders, 
at the end of May. 

Spring sowings in May, June, and 
July, will succeed the autumn sown ; 
if sown in a hot-bed during April, they 
will be nearly as forward as the autumn 
sown, but not bloom so strong. 

Sowing Biennials. — This may be 
done in any moderately rich border in 
June; to be transplanted where they 
are to remain, when of a moderate 
size. 

Cuttings may be planted in May, of 
any very good double variety, cutting 
them off with a portion of the stern's 
bark, in a shady border, watering, and 
covering with a hand-glass until esta- 
blished. Select robust shoots of the 
same year's growth ; strip off the leaves 
from the bottom half of their length. 
Water frequently, and by September 
they will form dwarf bushy plants. I 
know of no means of promoting the 
production of double flowers, except 
applying abundance of liquid manure 
so soon as the flower buds appear. The 



weakest seedlings are most likely to 
produce double flowers. 

STOCK-GILLIFLOWER. See Wall- 
flower. 

STOCKS are young trees or shrubs 
raised from seed, suckers, layers, and 
cuttings, for the reception of buds or 
grafts from other trees or shrubs of a 
kindred species. 

Although the sap increases in specific 
gravity, and, consequently, obtains most 
accession of solid matter during its pro- 
gress up the stem, yet the matter thus 
obtained is not of paramount import- 
ance, nor absolutely controlling the 
subsequent changes to be effected ; for, 
in such case, the green-gage would be 
altered by its plum stock, and the non- 
pareil by its crab stem. So far from 
this being the case, the old gardener's 
maxim, ' the graft overruleth the stock 
quite,' is consonant with truth, though 
it is to be taken with some reservation. 
The graft prevails, and retains its quali- 
ties, yet the stock has the power of in- 
fluencing its productiveness, as well as 
the quality of the fruit. Thus, a tree 
having an expansive foliage, and robust 
growth, indicative of large sap vessels, 
and vigorous circulation, should never 
be grafted upon a stock oppositely cha- 
racterized, for the supply of sap will 
not be sufficient. Illustrations are af- 
forded by the codlin never succeeding 
so well on a crab, nor a bigoureau on a 
wild cherry, as they do on freer grow- 
ing stocks. Indeed I have no doubt 
that every tree and shrub succeeds 
best, is most productive, and freest 
from disease, if it be supplied with sap 
from roots, and through a stem, of its 
own particular kind. This is evident 
to common sense ; nor would any fruit 
scion be grafted upon a stock of another 
species or variety, if it were not that 
such stocks are most easily obtainable. 
For example, our choicest cherries are, 
for the reason assigned, grafted or bud- 
ded upon the wild cherry ; and every 
one must have noticed the frequently- 
occurring consequence, an enlarge- 
ment, appearing like a wen, encircling 
the tree just above where the graft and 
the stock joined, the growth of the 
former having far outstripped that of the 
latter. If a tree could be nourished 
from its own roots, from organs as- 
signed by its Creator, as those best 
suited to supply the most appropriate 
quantity and quality of sap, there can 



STO 



557 

— ♦ — 



STO 



be no doubt that it would be productive 
of benefit; and this desideratum seems 
to be secured by the plan suggested by 
M. Aibrett in the instances of apples 
and pears ; and I see no reason forbid- 
ding its adoption to any other grafted 



hours ; a birch tree, a quantity equal to 
its own weight, during the bleeding 
season; and a moderate sized maple, 
about two hundred pints, during the 
same period. 

The habit of the stock, also, is of 



tree. He recommends the grafts always much more importance than is usually 
to be inserted close to the surface of considered. If it grows more rapidly, 



the ground, or they might be even 
rather below the surface, by scooping 
out the earth around the stems of the 
stocks. When planted out, the lowest 
extremity of the graft should be about 
four inches below the surface. 



or has larger sap vessels than the scion 
or bud, an enlargement occurs below 
these; but if they grow more rapidly 
than the stock, an enlargement takes 
place just above the point of union. In 
either case, the tree is usually rendered 



After two or three years, at the close temporarily more prolific ; but in the 



of June, the soil should be removed, 
and just above the junction of the graft 



case where the stock grows more slow- 
ly, the productiveness is often of very 



and stock, with a gouge, one fourth of j short duration, the supply of sap annu- 



the bark removed by four cuts on op 
posite sides of the stem. 



ally becoming less and less sufficient to 
sustain the enlarged production of blos- 



The cuts being deep enough to re- sora and leaves. This very frequently 
move the inner bark, and the wounds occurs in the freer growing cherries, 



covered immediately with rich soil, 
formed of one part putrescent cow- 
dung, and two parts maiden loam, if 
kept constantly moist with water, and 
occasionally with liquid manure, roots 
will usually be speedily emitted, espe- 
cially if the place where a bud once 
was formed be thus kept moist beneath 
the soil. 

But the stock has some other influ- 
ence over the sap, besides limiting the 
quantity supplied to the scion, an in- 
fluence not only arising from the size of 
its vessels, but upon its susceptibility to 
heat. It has a further influence over 
the scion, by the sap becoming more 
rich, indicated by its acquiring a great- 
er specific gravity in some stocks than 
in others, during its upward progress. 
The specific gravity of the sap of a 
black cluster vine stock, on which a 
black Hamburgh had been grafted, was, 
when obtained six inches from the 
ground, 1003 ; and at five feet from the 
ground, 1006 ; but the same black Ham- 
burgh, growing upon its own roots, 
had specific gravities at corresponding- 
heights of 1004 and 1009. 

This increase is of great importance 
to a tree's growth, when the quantity 
of sap passing annually through its ves- 
sels is considered. The exact amount 
of this it is, perhaps, impossible to dis- 
cover; but its extent may be appreciated 
by the quantity of moisture their roots 
are known to imbibe, and by the facts 
that a small vine branch has poured out 
sixteen ounces of sap in twenty-four 



when inserted upon the wild species ; 
and still more frequently to the peach 
and apricot upon stocks of the slow 
growing plums. It is highly important, 
therefore, to employ stocks, the growth 
of which is as nearly similar as may be 
to the parent of the buds or scion. 

The earlier vegetation of the stock 
than of the bud or graft is also import- 
ant ; for, if these are earliest in develop- 
ment, they are apt to be exhausted and 
die before the flow of sap has enabled 
granulation and union between the faces 
of the wounds, at the junction, to occur. 
Mr. Knight's observations upon this 
point are the results of experience, and 
are so consonant with the suggestions 
of science, that I will quote them in his 
own words, without comment : — 

" The practice of grafting the pear 
on the quince stock, and the peach and 
apricot on the plum, when extensive 
growth and durability are wanted, is 
wrong; but it is eligible whenever it 
is wished to diminish the vigour and 
growth of the tree, and where its dura- 
bility is not thought important. The 
last remark applies chiefly to the Moor- 
park apricot, the abricot peche, or abri- 
cot de Nancy, of the French. 

" When great difficulty occurs in 
making a tree, whether fructiferous or 
ornamental, of any species or variety, 
produce blossoms, or in making its 
blossoms set when produced, success 
probably will be obtained by budding 
or grafting upon a stock nearly enough 
allied to the graft to preserve it alive 



STO 



558 



STO 



for a few years, but not permanently. 
The pear tree affords a stock of this 
kind to the apple, and I have had a 
heavy crop from a graft inserted in a 
tall pear stock, only twenty months 
previously, when every blossom of the 
same variety of fruit in the orchard was 
destroyed by frost. The fruit thus ob- 
tained was perfect externally, and pos- 
sessed all its ordinary qualities ; but 
the cores were black, without seed; 
and every blossom would have fallen 
abortively, if growing upon its native 
stock. The graft perished the winter 
following. 

" My own experience induces me to 
think very highly of the excellence of 
the apricot stock for the peach or 
nectarine ; but whenever that or the 
plum stock is employed, I am confident 
the bud cannot be inserted too near the 
ground, if vigorous and durable trees 
are required. 

"The form and habit which a peach 
tree, of any given variety, is disposed 
to assume, is very much influenced by 
the kind of stock on which it is budded. 
If upon a plum or apricot stock, its 
stem will increase in size considerably 
as its base approaches the stock, and it 
will be much disposed to emit many 
lateral shoots, as always occurs in 
trees whose stems taper considerably 
upwards ; consequently, such a tree 
will be more disposed to spread itself 
horizontally, than to ascend to the top 
of the wall, even when a single stem is 
suffered to stand perpendicularly. On 
the contrary, where a peach is budded 
upon a stock of some cultivated variety 
of its own species, the stock and the 
budded stem remain very nearly of the 
same size at the point of function, as 
well as above and below. No obstacle 
is presented to the ascent or descent 
of the sap, which appears to rise more 
abundantly to the summit of the tree. 
It appears, also, to flow more freely 
into the slender branches, which have 
been the bearing wood of preceding 
years? and these extend, consequently. 



but I have ample reason to believe that 
this opinion is wholly erroneous, and 
this kind of hardiness in the root alone 
never can be a quality of any value in 
a stock, for the branches of every spe- 
cies of tree are much more easily de- 
stroyed by frost than its roots. 

" Many believe also that a peach 
tree, when grafted upon its native 
stock, very soon perishes; but my ex- 
perience does not further support this 
conclusion than that it proves seedling 
peach trees, when growing in a very 
rich soil, to be greatly injured, and 
often killed, by the excessive use of the 
pruning-knife upon their branches, 
when these are confined to too narrow 
limits. I think the stock, in this in- 
stance, can only act injuriously by sup- 
plying more nutriment than can be 
expended ; for the root which nature 
gives to each seedling plant must be 
well, if not best, calculated for its sup- 
port; and the chief general conclusions 
which experience has enabled me to 
draw safely are, that a stock of species 
or genus different from that of the fruit 
to be grafted upon it, can be used rare- 
ly with advantage, unless where the 
object of the planter is to restrain and 
debilitate ; and where stocks of the 
same species with the bud or graft are 
used, it will be found advantageous, 
generally, to select such as approxi- 
mate in their habits and state of change, 
or improvement from cultivation, those 
of the variety of fruit which they are 
intended to support." 

The only situation in which I can 
believe that the stock of another spe- 
cies can be advantageously employed, 
is where the soil happens to be un- 
friendly to the species from which the 
bud or scion is taken. This is justified 
by my observing that, in a garden so 
low lying as to be very subject to an 
overflow of water, the only pear trees 
which were at all productive were those 
grafted upon quince stocks, and the 
quince is well known to endure water 
much better than either the apple or 



very widely compared with the bulk of pear. — Trine, of Gard. 



the stock and large branches. 

" When a stock of the same species 
with the graft or bud, but of a variety 
far less changed by cultivation, is em- 
ployed, its effects are very nearly allied 



Stocks for general use may be used 
for grafting or budding, when from the 
size of a good goosequill to half an 
inch, or not more than an inch in the 
part where the graft or bud is to be in- 



to those produced by a stock of another serted. Stocks of two or three inches, 
species or genus. Some think the stock or more, diameter, either the stems or 
influences the hardiness of the scion ; ' branches, are also occasionally grafted 



S TO 



559 



S TO 



or budded with success, but are not 
proper for general practice. 

Crab Stocks are all such as are raised 
from seeds, &c., of any wild ungrafted 
trees, particularly if the fruit-tree kind, 
such as the wild crab-apple of the 
woods and hedges, wild pears, plums, 
wild cherry, and of such other trees as 
have not been grafted or budded. 

Free Stocks are such as are raised 
from the seed, layers, &c, of any of 
the cultivated varieties of fruit-trees, 
and others. 

Paradise or Doucin stocks are raised 
from layers or suckers, from a dwarf 
variety of apple, the roots of which are 
produced nearer to the surface than 
those from crab stocks. 

The French Paradise stock is dis- 
tinguished from all others by its very 
dwarf growth, clear chestnut-coloured 
shoots, and small fibrous roots, which 
spread near the surface. 

The English Paradise may be either 
referred to as the Doucin of the French 
or the Dutch Paradise; for in English 
nurseries, trees propagated on either 
are said to be on paradise stocks. Of 
these two, the Doucin has the darkest 
shoots. Their effects on the growth of 
the trees worked upon them are simi- 
lar, being intermediate between the 
very dwarf habit induced by the French 
Paradise, and the luxuriant growth in- 
duced by the crab or free stocks. — 
Gard. Chron. See Scion, Grafting, 
and Budding. 

STffiBE. Four species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

STOKESIA cyanea. Green-house 
herbaceous perennial. Seeds or divi- 
sion. Common soil. 

STONECROP. Sedum. 

STONE PINE. Pinus Pinea. 

STOPPING is pinching or nipping off 
the extremity of a branch to prevent its 
further extension in length. It is fre- 
quently done either to promote its 
robustness, or to promote the produc- 
tion of laterals. 

STORAX. Styrax. 

STORK'S BILL. Pelargonium. 

STOVES, as they are usually called 
in England, or hot-houses, as distinct- 
ive from green-houses, are variously 
constructed in accordance with the ha- 
bits of the plants for which they are 
intended. Those especially adapted to 
one tribe of plants will be particularly 



described under the name of that tribe, 
as Pine Apple, Orchidaceous Plants, 
Peach, &c. 

Before giving a plan of each general 
kind, a few observations may be pre- 
fixed applicable to all. 

Glass. — This should be of the best 
manufacture, for just in proportion to 
its goodness of quality is the freedom 
with which the rays of light pass 
through, and a plant performs its di- 
gestive and assimilating processes the 
nearer to the vigour with which it effects 
them in a state of nature, just in pro- 
portion as the light it basks in is similar 
to that of its native habitant. But this 
is not the only reason why good glass 
should be employed in our garden 
structures ; for whilst panes of common 
crown glass readily break from frost or 
the slightest twist of the wood-work, 
good sheet glass will remain uninjured 
by much greater violence and by the 
fiercest hailstorms. Some injury from 
the last, however, will always arise, 
and this leads me to observe, that no one 
having green-houses or stoves should 
fail to have them insured by the " Hail- 
storm Insurance Company." Good 
glass is of little value unless kept clean, 
and for this purpose it should be 
cleansed on both sides twice annually, 
early in February and October, and on 
the outside only in June. 

The angle formed by the glass roof 
of the hot-house is of very considerable 
importance, because rays of light are 
reflected in proportion to the obliquity 
with which they fall upon any given 
surface : those which fall upon it per- 
pendicularly from the source of light 
pass through with very slight diminu- 
tion, but those falling upon it in a slant- 
ing or oblique direction are reduced in 
number in proportion to the obliquity 
of that direction. To ascertain how a 
glass roof may be constructed, so as to 
receive the greatest number of rays of 
light from the sun perpendicularly, or 
near to perpendicularity, at any given 
time of the year, it is necessary to know 
the latitude of the place where the hot- 
house is erected, and the sun's declina- 
tion at the period when most light is 
required. The latter information may 
be obtained from most almanacks, and 
if it be subtracted from the latitude, the 
remainder will- be the angle desired. 
If London be the place, and May the 
6th the time about when the most light 



ST 



560 



S TO 



is desired, the latitude being 51° 31\ 
and the sun's declension then 16° 36^ 
north, therefore the roof ought to slope 



at an angle of 34° 55' 

Fig. 157. 




In latitude 52°, Mr. Knight found 
from lengthened experiments, that the 
best angle is about 34°, considering the 
services of a hot-house through the year, 
and to illustrate this, he gave the" pre- 
ceding diagram. About the middle of 
May, the elevation of the sun at noon 
corresponds nearly with the asterisk 
a; in the beginning of June and early 
in July it will be vertical at b, and at 
midsummer at c. only six degrees from 
being vertical. The asterisk d points 
out its position at the equinoxes, and e 
its position at midwinter. If the best 
glass be employed, it is an excellent 
plan to have it put double in each sash, 
an interval of half an inch being left 
between the two panes, and a small 
hole at the corner of the inner one to 
prevent the glass being broken by the 
expansion or contraction of the air be- 
tween. This confined air is one of the 
worst possible conductors of heat, keep- 
ing the house from being rapidly cooled 
during the coldest weather, and thus is 
effected a very great economy of fuel, 
whilst little or no interruption is caused j gal 
to the entrance of light. — Trine 
Gard. 

Glazing, or the mode in which the 
glass is inserted in the frames, is a very 
important consideration ; for if done 
imperfectly, moisture from rain, dew, 
or vapour condensed within the house 
penetrates between the rebate of the 
frame-work and the glass, or between 
the laps of the panes themselves, and 
expanding in the act of freezing unfail- 
ingly cracks them. Again, if the panes 
fit tightly into the rebates, any sudden 
expansion causes a similar fracture. 



Mr. Seymour, gardener to the Count- 
ess of Bridgewater, at Ashridge Park, 
has these sensible remarks upon the 
subject: — 

" There ought to be three or four 
sizes of panes used in horticultural struc- 
tures ; suppose, for example, the largest 
size for vineries, peach, and fig-houses ; 
the next for pits for growing pines, 
melons, and cucumbers; a third size 
for frames; and the smallest for hand- 
glasses. If the sizes are so arranged, 
they will be found economical by the 
saving of glass. When there is a gene- 
ral repair going on with the hot-houses, 
the glazier ought to begin with that in 
which the largest sized panes are first, 
and work down to the smallest, and not, 
as is frequently the case, cut a large 
piece of glass away to replace a small 
one. In my opinion, there are no better 
sized panes for hot-houses than seven 
inches wide, by four and a half deep ; 
for pits, by three inches deep ; for 
frames, five and a half by two and a 
half inches deep, &c, with a lap of one- 
eighth of an inch. The glass should be 
clear, stout, and selected as flat as pos- 
sible, so that the panes may lie perfectly 
level one upon the other, and so cut 
that they may not fit too tightly against 
the ribs, (which is frequently practised 
by some glaziers,) but room should be 
left for the ribs to swell and expand. 
Before a light is glazed, all the panes 
should be laid in loose, to see that they 
fit easy and are quite level, as well as 
range one with the other; when that is 
done, the panes must be taken out and 
some well worked putty laid in the re- 
bate, the panes must then be replaced 
and pressed firmly down, and the bot- 
tom frame bedded in the putty, so as 
not to leave a vacancy. When the glass 
is bedded in the putty along the astra- 
the usual way is to < front putty' 
o/l the whole at once; but at Kew, the 
| lights are put by after the glass is bed- 
ded till the bedding putty is dry. The 
astragal then gets a coat of paint, and 
also a strip of the glass, the depth of 
the bedding on the astragal, and when 
this is dry the front putty is put on. 
The coat of paint on the glass will cause 
the front putty to adhere to the glass, 
and it will remain sound many years 
longer than when it is put on without 
this precaution. This is a capital con- 
trivance for lights that slide up and 
down j but for lights that are fixed, the 



S TO 



561 

— ♦ — 



S TO 



Fig. 158. 



best way is to have no front putty at all. 
Instead of overlapping the panes as is 
done in the ordinary way, I cause the 
glazier to cut each with a perfectly 
straight edge, and then to place them 
one before the other, so that they shall 
all fit exactly. When the light is com- 
pleted, the surface of the glass is per- 
fectly level, and there are no interstices 
in which the dust, &c, can accumulate, 
or for the deposit of moisture. By this 
means one cause of considerable break- 
age in frosty weather is entirely avoided; 
and if a pane of glass is accidentally 
broken, as each pane is independent of 
the others, the fracture does not extend 
beyond the single pane. The whole is 
very firm and compact, and the glass is 
not liable to shake out, as frequently 
occurs in opening and shutting sashes." 
—Gard. Chron. 

If lapping be permit- 
ted, its width should not 
exceed one-eighth of an 
inch, and the panes 
should be acutely rhom- 
boid, to throw the con- 
densed vapour down to 
the lower corner, and 
.j: induce it to trickle down 
s^^ the bars instead of drop- 
ping. It is very doubt- 
ful whether it reduces 
the amount of moisture 
taken between the laps 
by capillary attraction. 

Flues are best built of 
bricks set on their 
edges, and the top form- 
ed of a shallow iron 
trough for the purpose 
of holding water, and 
thus keeping the air 
moist as required. At 
night, for retaining heat, 
pantiles may be placed 
along within the trough ; 
the best form is the an- 
nexed. 
Roof. — The framework of this may 
be of iron or of wood, and the com- 
parative merits of the two materials 
are thus fairly stated by Dr. Lindley : — 
" The advantages of iron roofs for 
hot-houses are, that they are more dur- 
able than wood, and allow a far greater 
quantity of light to pass through them 
than wooden roofs, the difference being 
as seven to twenty-eight, or even 
thirty, in favor of iron, and this is a 
36 



Fig. 159. 

r 1 







most important property, when we con- 
sider that the healthy action of plants 
is in proportion to the quantity of light 
which reaches them. The disadvan- 
tages of such roofs are, that they ra- 
pidly heat, and as quickly cool down; 
they are therefore liable to sudden 
changes of temperature, which can 
only be guarded against by great atten- 
tion, which is expensive, and by a large 
consumption of fuel. We should say 
use iron, if you prefer success and 
beautiful form to cost, and can rely 
upon the attention of your people, but 
employ wood if you are obliged to study 
economy." — Gard. Chron. 

Heating. — Flues for imparting heat 
to hot-houses are for the most part su- 
perseded by either tanks or hot-water 
pipes; but where retained, the top 
should be formed of iron plates, these 
admitting the heat most readily into the 
house, and consequently requiring a 
less consumption of fuel. If it be de- 
sirable to have covering for the flues 
that will retain the heat longer, as 
when the fires are made up at night, 
this may be readily accomplished by 
putting a row of the thick square pav- 
ing tiles on the top of the whole length 
of the flue, an hour or two before the 
houses are finally closed. 

The power of retaining heat, or in 
other words of cooling slowly and gra- 
dually, which renders the covering of 
paving tiles desirable, renders the tank 
system of heating by hot-water still 
more efficient. It is a scientific opera- 
tion throughout, and will be best appre- 
ciated by a reference to Mr. Rendle's 
diagram and description at page 500. 

It is a law of fluids that their hottest 
portions rise to the surface of the con- 
taining vessel, and the coldest portions 
as invariably subside to the lowest sur- 
face, because heat makes them expand, 
and consequently diminishes their spe- 
cific gravity; and the abstraction of 
heat makes them contract, and as conse- 
quently increase that gravity. When 
the boiler and tank are filled with 
water, as well as their connecting pipes, 
and a fire is lighted, the hottest portions 
rise to the top, flow along the surface, 
and getting cool, sink to its bottom, and 
passing downward enter again at the 
lower part, to be once more heated and 
pass through the same circulatory sys- 
tem. A very small boiler will speedily 
raise the heat of the water, in a very 



STO 



562 



STO 



large tank, to 180°; and if this heat be 
imparted late in the evening, it will 
retain its N heat but little diminished until 
the morning. The smoke, by means of 
a flue, may be made to impart heat to 
the house, by passing through it, or 
may at once enter the chimney or pipe 
attached to the summit of the boiler. 

Hot water in a tank is superior to the 
same source of heat in pipes, because 
it is not liable to freeze ; and it is pre- 
ferable to steam, because its heating 
power continues until the whole mass 
of water is cooled down to the tempe- 
rature of the house, whereas steam 
ceases to be generated as a source of 
heat the moment the temperature falls 
below 212°. If steam be employed, 
Mr. Tredgold has given the following 
rules for calculating the surface of 
pipe, the size of the boiler, the quan- 
tity of fuel, and the quantity of ventila- 
tion, required for a house thirty feet 
long, twelve feet wide, with the glass 
roof eight feet, length of the rafters 
fourteen feet, height of the back wall 
fifteen feet. The surface of glass in 
this house will be seven hundred and 
twenty feet superficial, viz., five hun- 
dred and forty feet in the front and roof, 
and one hundred and eighty feet in the 
ends. Now, half the vertical height, 
seven feet six inches, multiplied by the 
length in feet, and added to one and a 
half time the area of glass in feet, is 
equal to the cubic feet of air to be 
warmed in each minute when there are 
no double doors. 

That is, 7.5 X 30 -f H X 720 = 1305 
cubic feet. But in a house with wooden 
bars and rafters, about one-tenth of this 
space will be occupied with woodwork, 
which is so slow a conductor of heat, 
that it will not suffer a sensible quan- 
tity to escape, therefore 130 feet may 
be deducted, leaving the quantity to be 
warmed per minute = 1175 cubic feet. 

To ascertain the surface of pipe re- 
quired to warm any given quantity of 
air, multiply the cubic feet of air to be 
heated per minute, by the difference 
between the temperature the house is 
to be kept at, and that of the external 
air in degrees of Fahrenheit's thermo- 
meter, and divide the product by 2-1, 
the difference between 200, which is 
the temperature of the steam pipes, and 
the temperature of the house: the quo- 
tient will be the surface of cast iron 
pipe required. 



Now in the house, the dimensions of 
which are above given, if the lowest 
temperature in the night be fixed at 50°, 
and 10 c are allowed for winds, and the 
external air is supposed to be at zero or 
of Fahrenheit, then 1175 multiplied 
by 60°, and the product divided by 2-1 , 
the difference between 200 and 60, will 
give us the quotient 236 = to the sur- 
face of pipe required. Now the house 
being thirty feet long, five pipes of that 
length, and five inches in diameter, 
will be about the proper quantity. 

If hot water be employed instead of 
steam, the following proportions and 
information, obtained from Mr. Rendle, 
may be adopted confidently as guides. 
In a span roof propagating house, forty 
feet long, thirteen feet broad, seven 
feet high in the centre, and four feet 
high at the two fronts, having a super- 
ficial surface of glass amounting to 
538 square feet, Mr. Rendle has a tank 
eighty-three feet long, running round 
three sides of the house, four feet wide 
and about eight inches deep, and con- 
sequently capable of containing nearly 
300 cubic feet of hot water, though only 
half that quantity is used. This is 
closely approaching to the size pointed 
out, according to Mr. Tredgold's for- 
mula. The mean temperature of a hot- 
water tank, will never be much above 
100°, so that for the sized house men- 
tioned by that skillful engineer, the 
divisor must be 2-1 times the difference 
between 100° and 60 c , which gives as 
the quotient 335 cubic feet. 

The tank in Mr. Rendle's propagating 
house, is built lined with Roman ce- 
ment, and if the temperature at the 
time of lighting the fire be 90°, the tem- 
perature of the atmosphere of the house 
67°, and the temperature out of doors 
50°, the quantity of small coal or 
breeze required to raise the tempera- 
ture of the water to 125°, is 28 pounds. 
In twelve hours, the water cools after 
the fire has been extinguished, from 
125° to 93°. 

When steam is employed, the space 

for steam in the boiler is easily found 

by multiplying the length of the pipe 

in feet, by the quantity of steam in a 

foot in length of the pipe. 

T , . j. Decimal parts of a 

Interior diameter 



of pipe in inches. 



cubic fool of sieam 
in each footof pipe. 

1 .... 0.0545 
H .... 0.1225 



STO 



563 

— ♦— 



STO 



2 .... 0.2185 
2i .... 0.34 

3 .... 0.49 

4 .... 0.873 

5 .... 1.063 

6 .... 1.964 

7 .... 2.67 

8 .... 3.49 

9 .... 4.42 
10 .... 5.45 

In the above noticed house, the 
length of pipe five inches in diameter, 
is 150 feet; and these multiplied by 
1.363=20.5 cubic feet of steam, and 
as the pipe will condense the steam of 
about one cubic foot and one-third of 
water per hour, therefore the boiler 
should be capable of evaporating H 
cubic feet of water per hour, to allow 
for unavoidable loss. In the extreme 
case of the thermometer being at zero, 
the consumption of coals to keep up 
this evaporation will be 12f pounds per 
hour. 

These calculations are all founded 
upon the supposition that the condensed 
water is returned to the boiler whilst 
hot ; but if this cannot be effected, 
then one-twelfth more fuel will be re- 
quired. The boiler for the supply 
either of steam or hot-water, should be 
covered with the best available non-con- 
ductor of heat, and this is either char- 
coal or sand. 

A case of brickwork, with pulverized 
charcoal, between this and the boiler, 
is to be preferred to any other. A 
boiler having a surface of seventy feet 
exposed to the air, in a temperature of 
32°, requires an extra bushel of coals 
to be consumed per day, to compensate 
for the heat radiated and conducted 
from that surface ; and the smaller the 
boiler, the greater is the proportionate 
waste. The surface of the pipes should 
be painted black, because a surface of 
this colour gives out more heat in a 
given time than any other. — Prin. of 
Gardening. 

Ventilation. — The accumulation of 
gaseous matters, such as sulphurous 
acid and ammonia, and the consumption 
of carbonic acid, render ventilation 
essential to the health of plants in forc- 
ing-pits and hot-houses. They cannot 
inhale air overloaded with these con- 
taminations, without being speedily in- 
jured, and the proportions of those 
gases which rapidly cause disease, or 
even death, are much less than the 



gardener usually suspects; for if the 
sulphurous acid amounts to no more 
than one cubic foot in ten thousand of 
the air in a hot-house, it will destroy 
most of its inhabitants in two days. 
To avoid such destruction, for the com- 
fort of visitors, and above all for the 
sake of the plants' vigour, air should be 
admitted as freely as the temperature 
will permit. The foul warm air can 
be easily allowed to escape through 
ventilators in the most elevated parts 
of the roof, and fresh warm air can be 
as readily supplied through pipes made 
to enter near the flooring of the house 
after passing through hot water, or 
other source of heat. 

I am quite aware that Mr. Knight 
has stated that he paid little attention 
to ventilation, and that plants will be 
vigorous for a time in Wardian cases; 
but this does not prove that their Creator 
made a mistake when he placed vege- 
tables in the open air. 

Plants confined in houses or other 
close structures may be made to grow 
in spite of such confinement; but all 
experience proves that other favourable 
circumstances, such as heat, light, and 
moisture being equal, those plants are 
most vigorous and healthy which have 
the most liberal supply of air. 

There have been many modes sug- 
gested for self-acting ventilators, de- 
scriptions of which may be found in 
Loudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening, 
and the Transactions of the London 
Horticultural Society; but there are 
none that can supersede the gardener's 
personal care, directed by the ther- 
mometer and experience. 

The practice of all ventilation is 
founded on the principle that the hot- 
test air rises to the highest part of the 
house, and if there allowed to escape, 
colder air will come in below, if al- 
lowed, to supply its place. To pre- 
vent the hot air escaping too rapidly, 
the ventilators should be fitted with 
doors or caps, capable of regulating the 
size of the orifice ; and the openings 
admitting fresh and colder from with- 
out, should have similar regulators, 
and be made by means of pipes passing 
through the bark-bed, tank of hot water, 
or other source of heat, so that the 
reduction of temperature be not too 
rapid. 

Some guide in constructing venti- 
lators proportioned to the size of the 



S TO 



564 

— ♦ — 



STO 



house to be ventilated, will be found 
in Mr. Hood's following table of the 
quantity of air, in cubic feet, discharged 
per minute, through a ventilator, of 
which the area is one square foot. 





Difference between temperature 


o _c 

bD.2 

B5 


of room and external air. 


5° 


10° 


15° 


20° 


25° 


30° 


10 


116 


164 


200 


235 


260 


284 


15 


142 


202 


245 


284 


318 


348 


20 


164 


232 


285 


330 


368 


404 


25 


184 


260 


318 


368 


410 


450 


30 


201 


284 


347 


403 


450 


493 


35 


218 


306 


376 


436 


486 


521 


40 


235 


329 


403 


465 


51S 


570 


45 


248 


348 j 427 


493 


551 


605 


50 


260 


367 450 


518 


579 


635 



The foregoing table shows the dis- 
charge, through a ventilator of any 
height, and for any difference of tempe- 
rature. Thus, suppose the height of 
the ventilator from the floor of the room 
to the extreme point of discharge to be 
thirty feet, and the difference between 
the temperature of the room and of the 
external air to be 15°, then the dis- 
charge through a ventilator one foot 
square, will be 347 cubic feet per mi- 
nute. If the height be forty feet, and 
the difference of temperature 20°, then 
the discharge will be 465 cubic feet per 
minute. 

Bark or Moist Stove. — Mr. Loudon 
gives the following design and descrip- 
tion of a moist stove, warmed on the 
old plan of deriving heat by the com- 
bined agency of bark and flues. In- 
stead of a stage in the centre it has 
a pit, which may be from two and a half 
to four feet deep, according as bark or 
leaves are to be used, the latter mate- 
rial requiring the greatest depth. It is 

Fig. 160. 




commonly surrounded by a thin brick 
wall : but planks of stone, or plates of 
slate or cast-iron, are to be preferred. 
The roof, when necessary, may be sup- 
ported by iron columns from the middle 
of the pit, a. 

" Shelves may be placed against the 
back wall, b, and occasionally a nar- 
row-leaved creeper run up the roof, c. 
We may add, that houses of this de- 
scription are generally placed east and 
west against walls, on account of the 
shelter thereby obtained during winter, 
when a high degree of heat is kept up 
within, while the cold is excessive with- 
out." — Enc. of Gard. 

But the tank system is far superior to 
the foregoing; and the following de- 
tail, given by the Rev. John Huyshe, is 
so full of information upon the point, 
that I extract it entire from the Gar- 
dener's Chronicle: — 

Fig. 161. 




"a is the boiler, its top level with 
the floor of the house, the fireplace 
being in a back shed. The boiler is 
small and conical; b L and b 2 are the 
tanks ; c is a trap-door opening into the 
tank, to fill the house with steam at 
pleasure. The arrows indicate the 
course of the water through the tanks 
and pipes. The two pipes, though 
drawn side by side, are really one 
above the other; the return pipe being, 
of course, the lower. Above these 
pipes is a stone shelf. Tank b 1 is 
made of oak ; the other, b 2, of elm. 
The wood of each is two inches and a 
half in thickness; and they stand on 
oak blocks, three inches thick, to raise 
them from the floor. This tends to 
prevent their decay, and promotes a 
freer circulation of hot air. The bot- 
tom boards are placed the lengthway 



S TO 



565 
— ♦ — 



STO 



of the tank. The bottom, as well as 
the sides of the tanks, are bolted to- 
gether by iron bars, five-eighths of an 
inch in thickness, passed through the 
wood, and screwed up as tightly as 
possible. Each tank is divided by an 
inch and a half elm board, and is co- 
vered with common roofing-slates — 
those that are generally called ' Prin- 
cesses,' twenty-four inches long and 
fourteen wide; the edges not cut 
square, but used just as purchased, 
and the joints stopped merely with 
wetted clay : there is no fear of too 
much steam escaping into the house. 

" As the divisions of tank b were 
fifteen inches wide, a small strip of oak 
is nailed on the inside of the tank, of 
sufficient thickness to allow the slates, 
which were fourteen inches wide, to 
reach across. Round the edges of the 
tanks is an inch board, eleven inches 
deep; and the plunging material is fine 
sand. The slates carry the weight of 
this sand, though eleven inches deep, 
with ease, not one of them having 
cracked. 

" In a considerable part of tank b 1, 
rich mould is put instead of the sand, 
in which pines are planted without any 
pots, after the French mode. The tank 
holds twenty-two hogsheads; and the 
boiler, though a small one, is fully able 
to heat this quantity. The water, heat- 
ed to 114° or 115° of Fahrenheit, is 
high enough to keep the house at a 
temperature of 70° at night; and a mo- 
derate fire, kept up for five or six hours 



in the twenty-four, is abundantly suffi- 
cient." — Gard. Chron. 

Dry Stove. — Formerly this was heat- 
ed by flues only, a stage for plants oc- 
cupying the place of the bark-pit in the 
moist stove. But modern science has 
suggested the far better mode of heat- 
ing by either steam or hot water. Of 
these two the latter is by far the most 
preferable. The following is the plan 
adopted at Elcot^ and has never been 
much improved :•— 

" Brick flues are subject, from their 
numerous joints and the mortar crack- 
ing, to give out at times a sulphureous 
gas, which is injurious to plants; and 
even with two fireplaces in a house 
forty or fifty feet long, it is impossible 
to keep up an equal temperature in the 
whole length. The houses get over- 
heated in the neighbourhood of the 
fireplace; and it is difficult to maintain 
a proper warmth at the extremities of 
the flues. 

" Steam may do very well on a large 
scale, and where there is constant at- 
tention to the fire, both day and night; 
but the objections are, the great ex- 
pense of a steam-boiler and the appa- 
ratus belonging to it, the frequent 
repairs that are required, and the 
necessary attention to the fire, which 
is as great upon a small scale as upon 
a large one. Besides this, there is a 
greater risk of explosion in a hot-house 
steam-boiler than in that of a steam- 
engine ; for steam-engines generally 
have persons properly instructed to 



Fig. 162. 




S TO 



566 



S TO 



manage them ; but gardeners, or their 
assistants, cannot be so competent. 

" The heating with hot water has 
none of the objections I have men- 
tioned as belonging to flues and steam. 
The apparatus is simple, and not liable 
to get out of order. The boiler has 
only a loose wooden cover, and no 
safety-valves are required. The fuel 
consumed is very moderate, and when 
once the water is heated, very little at- 
tention is wanted ; for it retains its 
heat for many hours after the fire has 
gone out. 

" The house is forty feet long and 
ten feet wide inside, heated by a boiler, 
a, placed in a recess in the centre of 
the back wall ; the fireplace under the 
wall is got at from a back shed, b. The 
boiler is two feet six inches long, one 
foot six inches wide, and one foot eight 
inches deep. From the end of the 
boiler proceed horizontally four cast- 
iron pipes of three inches and a half 
diameter ; two of them are joined to the 
boiler just above the bottom, and the 
other two directly above these, and 
just below the surface of the water. 
The house is divided by glazed parti- 
tions into three compartments, d, e,f, 
for the'convenience of forcing one part 
without the other. 

" The middle compartment is two 
lights in width, and the other two have 
four lights each. 

" The pipes from the boiler go hori- 
zontally to the front of the house, where 
one upper and one lower pipe branch 
to the east compartment, and other 
two pipes to the west, and are carried 



to the ends of the house along the sides 
of the flues, where they unite to cast- 
iron reservoirs at each end of the house, 
g g, which reservoirs are each three 
feet six inches long, one foot six inches 
wide, and one foot eight inches deep, 
having iron covers. These reservoirs 
are filled with water that communicates, 
by means of the pipes, with the water 
in the boiler. 

" When the boiler, pipes, and reser- 
voirs are filled, and a fire lighted under 
the boiler, the heated water, ascending 
to the top of the boiler, forces its way 
along the upper pipes to the reservoir, 
the cold water finding its way back to 
the bottom of the boiler through the 
under pipes ; and the circulation con- 
tinues regular as long as there is any 
heat under the boiler, the hot water 
flowing through the upper pipes to the 
reservoir, and, as it cools, returning 
back to the boiler through the under 
pipes. 

" I have repeatedly, after the water 
has been heated, immersed a thermome- 
ter in the reservoirs at the ends of the 
house, and have only found a difference 
of three or four degrees between that 
and the water in the boiler. It is not 
necessary to make the water boil ; and, 
if the fire is judiciously managed, no 
steam will be raised and no water 
wasted. It is, however, necessary to 
examine the boiler occasionally, and to 
add water when any has evaporated. 

" Valves might be fixed in the boiler, 
pipes, and reservoirs, for letting steam 
into the house if required ; but that 
would induce the necessity of boiling 



Fig. 163. 




STR 



567 



STR 



the water; and it has not been done 
here, as I find I can produce all the 
steam I require, with little trouble, by 
wetting the pipes with a watering-pot. 

" I am persuaded that the advantages 
of this mode of heating, with its great 
simplicity, will give satisfaction to every 
practical gardener who has an oppor- 
tunity of trying it. When once the 
water is heated and the fires well 
made, he may retire to rest, certain 
that the pipes will not get cold during 
the night, but retain a considerable heat 
in the morning." — Trans. Hort. Soc. 

STRANV MSI A glaucescens. Hardy 
evergreen tree. Grafting or budding. 
Common soil. 

STRAPWOOD. Corrigiola. 

STRATIOTES aloides. Water 
Soldier. Hardy aquatic perennial. 
Suckers. Loam and peat. 

STRAVADIUM. Three species. 
Stove evergreen trees. Layers. Sandy 
peat. 

STRAWBERRY. Fragaria. 

Species and Varieties. — F. Virgin- 
iana: Scarlet or Virginia Strawberry. 
American Scarlet; Bishop's Wick; 
Black Roseberry ; Coul's Late Scarlet ; 
Garnstone Scarlet ; Grove End Scarlet ; 
Melon ; Old Scarlet ; Roseberry ; South- 
borough ; and Wilmot's Late Scarlet. 

F. Vesca Nigella : Black Strawberry. 
Downton ; Elton ; and Myatt's Pine. 

F. Grandiflora: Pine Strawberry. — 
Myatt's British Queen ; Myatt's Eliza ; 
Keene's Seedling ; Old Caroline, or 
Pine ; Round White Caroline ; and 
Swainstone's Seedling. 

F. Chilensis : Chili Strawberry. — 
The Scarlet Chili, Yellow ChilL, and 
Wilmot's Superb, are the only varieties 
of this class at all deserving cultivation; 
and even these are woolly and defi- 
cient in flavour. 

F. Moschata : Hautboy Strawberry. — 
Black Hautbois, Common Hautbois ; 
Large Flat ; Prolific, or Conical ; and 
Round-fruited Muscatelle. 

F. Collina Viridis : Green Strawber- 
ry. — Of this class the Green Pine, or 
Pine-apple, deserves culture ; its fruit 
being solid, juicy, and fine-flavoured. 

F. Collina Alba and Rubra: Alpine, 

or Monthly, and Wood Strawberry 

American Alpine; Red Alpine; Red 
Wood (F. Vesca Rubra) ; White Alpine ; 
White Wood (F. V. Alba). 

The following is a selection from the 
best of the preceding, in the order of 



their ripening: — White Alpine; Old 
Scarlet; Grove End Scarlet; Keene's 
Seedling; Roseberry; Garnstone Scar- 
let ; Myatt's Eliza ; Old Pine ; Myatt's 
British Queen ; Large Flat Hautbois ; 
American Scarlet; Downton; Elton; 
Coul's Late Scarlet ; and Turner's 
Pine. The chief bearing-time of these 
is from the end of June to the middle 
of July ; but the White Alpine pro- 
duces successive crops until November. 
I have even gathered from them a dish 
late in December. 

Soil and Situation. — Any good deep 
loamy soil will produce good strawber- 
ries. It should be well trenched and 
manured previously to planting. Though 
they will succeed when partially shaded 
by trees, yet they are best flavoured 
when grown in an open compartment, 
with no other shade than that from their 
own leaves. If Alpines are planted on 
south-west, east, and north borders, 
they will give a succession of fruit from 
June till December. 

" Beds, four feet wide, should be 
marked out with a foot-alley between 
each, which is highly necessary to pre- 
vent those who gather the fruit from 
treading between the plants ; and lastly., 
the runners are planted two feet apart. 
A bed thus made will last three years, 
without requiring anything further, not 
even so much as a top-dressing. My- 
att's pine will grow profusely on light, 
rich, sandy, alluvial soils, near the sea. 
In such situations other strawberries 
are apt to throw out too many runners ; 
and for such Myatt's plan is well adapt- 
ed." — Gard. Chron. 

Manures. — The best top-dressing for 
strawberry beds is a little leaf-mould, 
pointed in with a fork, early in March. 
A good addition also is nitrate of soda, 
three ounces to each square yard, 
sprinkled over the surface at the same 
season. Bone dust, and charred turf, 
pointed in with a fork, in October, have 
also been found highly beneficial. 

Propagation. — This is chiefly by run- 
ners; but the Alpines are best propa- 
gated by seed. All other kinds can 
only be obtained true by planting the 
runners. The first of these should be 
pegged down as early as possible, and 
all others removed to promote the 
quick rooting and strength of the young 
plants. 

" It is a very good plan to encourage 
the earliest runners by letting them 



STR 



568 



STR 



root in small pots sunk in the earth ; as 
soon as they are well rooted, pkint them 
in their beds." — Gard. Chron. 

" The seeds of the true Alpine straw- 
berry may be obtained from the Paris 
seedsmen. The seeds should be sown 
in a bed of light rich soil, or in pans, 
and the plants afterwards planted where | 
they are to remain for fruiting, the soil 
being trenched, and well mixed with 
rotten dung. You may insure a more 
abundant crop late in the season by 
cutting off the blossoms that appear 
previously to June." — Gard. Chron. 

Planting. — The best period for mak- 
ing strawberry beds is from the close of 
July until the middle of October — the 
earlier the better — but this must be con- 
trolled by the rooting of the runners. 
If the planting be deferred until spring, 
they never succeed so well, and the 
produce that year is very small. Show- 
ery weather is the best for planting, and 
the less the roots are disturbed the bet- 
ter, which is the chief reason why in- 
ducing the runners to root in small pots 
is beneficial ; they can be turned out 
of these without any injury to the 
roots. Myatt's pines are more difficult 
to grow fruitfully than other varieties, 
but Mr. Mearns says they will not fail 
if the following precautions are adopt- 
ed :— 

" Take off the first runner plants as 
soon as they have rooted : the weather 
being showery is the more suitable for 
transplanting. Get a piece of well-ex- 
posed rich ground ready for their recep- 
tion, according to the quantity desired, 
and let it be divided into four-feet beds. 
Plant them about four inches apart; 
water them, and shade them for a few 
days if the sun should be powerful, and 
keep them clear from weeds. Get a 
piece of ground prepared for their final 
transplanting, either in autumn or the 
following spring, by trenching and ma- 
nuring it. Plant them eighteen inches 
row from row, and nine inches in the 
row; and if any blossoms appear the 
first season pinch them off, and keep 
them free from weeds; but it is not 
necessary to divest them of their run- 
ners until the following spring, when 
the beds are to be cleaned, and all 
runners cut oft"; but the soil should by 
no means be stirred between them any 
further than with a Dutch hoe, to 
loosen the surface lightly, and without 
destroying more of the surface-roots 



than can possibly be avoided, as they 
are of great importance towards the 
success of the crop. Before the leaves 
cover too much of the surface, hoe 
gently amongst them to destroy all 
weeds, and afterwards cover the sur- 
face with clean straw. Take the first 
produced runners from them, and plant 
them in a nursery bed as in the previous 
season ; and when the fruit is all ga- 
thered, destroy the old plants, and the 
ground will be then ready for cauli- 
flowers, or any other crop required to 
be put out at that time. Myatt's pine 
will do little good by remaining a third 
season upon the same ground, however 
well manured; and this is generally 
applicable to hautboys, the Elton pine, 
Downton, and in fact to all strawber- 
ries." — Gard. Chron. 

Beds. — "Never have more than three 
rows in a bed. Let them be eighteen 
inches apart, and the plants twelve 
inches apart in the rows; or two feet 
by eighteen inches, according to the 
richness of the soil, and vigorous 
growth of the variety. The pines re- 
quire more room than the scarlets. 

" Strawberries generally, but espe- 
cially Myatt's pine, succeed best upon a 
bank facing the south-west. 

" The old Hautboy strawberry bears 
the male and female flowers on differ- 
ent roots. The mode of planting is 
this: mark the male plant, the sterile, 
and plant the lines in quincunx thus — 

: X : X : X : X : 

the middle roots marked X to be the 
male plants, and the others the female. 
If this rule is observed, you will never 
fail to have abundance of fruit. The 
only time to mark the males is when 
they are in blossom ; and every gar- 
dener should know them, and keep 
them apart in his nursery, to take young 
ones from." — Gard. Chron. 

Dr. Lindley has these justly discri- 
minating observations on the frequent 
renewal of the beds : — 

"With regard to the opinion that a 
fresh plantation of strawberries should 
be made every year, to be destroyed 
after having once born fruit, and that 
the finest crops can only be obtained by 
this method, there are some doubts. 
Mr. Keene, the fortunate raiser of the 
seedling which bears his name, and an 
extensive cultivator, had a tolerable 
crop the first year, an excellent one the 



STR 



569 



STR 



second, and after the third year he de- 
stroyed the plantation. Those called 
Pine Strawberries, such as the Old 
Pine, Keene's Seedling, Elton, &c, 
will bear well in th* same situation for 
many years, if pro™rly managed. 

" That scarlets are best when the 
plantations are frequently renewed, is 
generally admitted ; and there are some 
large varieties which appear to have 
more or less of the Chili in their con- 
stitution, as Myatt's Seedlings, which 
require that runners be early establish- 
ed, for bearing in the following season, 
as the old plants are apt to die off. As 
fruit can be obtained earlier in the sea- 
son from plants that have not previously 
borne, it is advisable to renew some 
portion every year; but the propriety 
of annually destroying the whole, de- 
pends very much on circumstances, and 
therefore the method cannot be recom- 
mended except in particular cases." — 
Gard. Chron. 

The surface of the soil should be co- 
vered with straw, or the mowings of 
grass-plots, during the bearing season, 
to preserve moisture to the roots of the 
plants, and to keep the fruit from being 
dirt-splashed. 

To promote an early produce of fruit, 
it is also suggested by Mr. G. L. Smartt, 
of Enfield, — that " there should be fixed 
on each side of the rows of strawber- 
ries, just before they come into blossom, 
feather-edged boards, at an angle of 50° 
or 55°. This may be effected by nail- 
ing two narrow slips of wood to each 
board, and pushingthem into theground. 
The boards should be painted black. 
This plan makes two or three weeks 
difference in the ripening of the fruit ; 
but glass or an oiled paper frame being 
placed on the top, makes a greater dif- 
ference still, and prevents any of the 
fruit from being trod upon, or eaten by 
vermin. This plan at first sight may 
appear to be an expensive one, but it is 
not so ; any old boards will answer the 
purpose. I have bought old feather- 
edged boards at one half-penny per 
foot ; and as they are only used in sum- 
mer, they last for many years. The 
expense is saved in the first year; for 
the wood, although painted on each 
side with a coat of invisible green, costs 
only about three-halfpence the foot, 
while the increase of fruit in quantity, 
as well as in quality, quite compen- 
sates for the outlay." — Gard. Chron. 



After-Culture. — " Remove all runners 
not required for planting as often as 
they appear, for their growth at first is 
at the expense of the parent, and the 
more beds are matted with plants, the 
more those will draw the moisture out 
of the soil. 

" What would be just sufficient for 
supplying the evaporation of a moderate 
quantity of plants, would be completely 
exhausted by an excessive number. 
Stirring the soil so as not to injure the 
roots, mulching with grass or litter, or 
paving with fiat tiles or small round 
pebbles and occasional waterings, are 
the best means to adopt. 

" In thin soil the plantations will re- 
quire to be more frequently renewed 
than where it is deeper, and of a more 
substantial quality." — Gard. Chron. 

The spade should never be permitted 
to enter among strawberries, except to 
dig them up when a bed is to be de- 
stroyed ; the hoe, or at the most point- 
ing with a three-pronged fork, is all the 
surface-stirring required, if the beds 
were well trenched when made, and 
have not been trampled upon. 

Late Crops. — To obtain these of the 
Alpine, it is correctly recommended to 
sow the seed in pans, and place in a 
hot-bed about February, or not later 
than the first week in March. " When 
the plants are hardied off, plant out in 
good time in May; they will bear a 
plentiful crop in August and September 
following, and continue to bear until 
stopped by the frost. The same plants 
will also bear earlier than the larger 
sorts, and continue on until the crop 
raised from seed (as above) succeed, 
when they can be thrown away. Large 
stones, or tiles, or slates, placed be- 
tween the plants, will keep the roots 
moist through the summer months, and 
ripen the fruit. Seed should always be 
saved from the finest fruit ; to get them 
large and plentiful, waterings (with now 
and then manure water) will improve 
the size of the fruit."— Gard. Chron. 

To obtain late crops of other straw- 
berries, as of the Keene's Seedling, 
Mr. W. Godwin recommends — " plants 
which were early in spring to be plant- 
ed out into a rich border, to remain 
until the last week of September, when 
they will throw up very strong spikes 
of flowers; take up and pot in the same 
soil in which they were growing, and 
place in a pine frame. They will bear 



STR 



570 

— « — 



STR 



fruit to near the close of the year." — 
Gard. Chron. 

Forcing. — On this point we have the 
following directions from one of the 
most eminent of modern horticulturists, 
Mr. Paxton : — 

" Select for this purpose, in the mid- 
dle of August, a sufficient number of the 
best runners from approved kinds to 
have choice from, and plant them six 
inches apart, in beds, upon a strong 



must be immediately pinched out; they 
should have their balls carefully re- 
duced, and be repotted in larger pots 
early in August, protecting them from 
the late autumnal rauis, and from frost." 
— Gard. Chron. ™ 

" For succession," Mr. Paxton says, 
te , strong runners are taken up in Sep- 
tember, and planted about six inches 
apart, in manured and well-prepared 
beds, four feet wide, in a somewhat 



border in a dry and sheltered situation, i sheltered situation ; there they are al- 



As soon as the leaves have withered, 
mulch them lightly with well-rotted ma- 
nure, and if very severe weather occur, 
protect them for the time with fern or 
litter. They must be kept the follow- 
ing spring free from weeds and runners, 
removing also any flowers as they ap- 
pear. Towards the latter end of May 
or beginning of June, whenever dull or 
rainy weather may occur, remove them 
carefully into forty- eight-sized pots. It 
is optional with the grower, whether 
one, two, or three plants are put in one 
pot, according to his object being quality 
or quantity; but we, desiring fine fruit 
in preference to number, only place one 
of the strongest or two of the weaker 
in one pot, using enriched melon soil 
or turfy loam. Place them, when pot- 
ted, in a situation where they can be 
readily shaded for a short time, and 
receive regular supplies of water if 
necessary. About the latter end of 
July, or early in August, these pots 
will be filled with roots, when the 
plants must be repotted into flat thirty- 
two-sized pots, usually termed straw- 
berry pots, and at this time plunged in 
old tan or coal ashes. The best man- 
ner of plunging them we find to be, 
forming beds wide enough to contain 
five rows of pots, when plunged, upon 
a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent 
them rooting through, the sides sup- 
ported by slabs of the same width as the 
depth of the pots, and filling them up 
with old tan or ashes ; the plants re- 
main here until wanted to take in, and 
are easily protected from severe frosts. 
It will be found an excellent plan to 
preserve the latest forced plants, which 
are not much exhausted, for forcing the 
first the next season ; these, from their 
long period of rest, and well-ripened 
buds, are predisposed to break earlier 
and stronger than the others ; some of 
them, if the autumn is moisl, will be 
excited, and produce flowers, which 



lowed to remain until the following 
July, during which period they must be 
kept very clean from weeds, have the 
flowers and runners regularly pinched 
off, and be watered whenever likely to 
suffer from drought. About the middle 
of July they are potted in small thirty- 
two-sized pots, two plants in a pot, 
taking the greatest care that neither 
roots nor leaves are damaged in the 
operation, and an important part of it 
is to press the earth firmly about them ; 
the soil used is two parts loam to one 
of well-rotted dung. Beds which will 
hold five or six rows of pots are then 
formed in the following manner : — level 
the surface of the ground, and spread 
upon it a layer of coal ashes; above 
which must be nailed firmly slabs, or 
any rough boards, as wide as the depth 
of the pots, which are then to be plunged 
to the rim in spent bark or ashes. All 
that they will here require is attention to 
watering when necessary, and a slight 
protection with fern, or other light cover- 
ing, during severe frosty weather. I al- 
ways preserve from 300 to 400 of the 
latest forced plants of the above descrip- 
tion, and after having carefully reduced 
their balls, repot them in large thirty- 
two-sized pots in July, treating them 
afterwards precisely as the others. I 
find these by having their buds formed 
early (through the slight forcing they 
have received), and becoming very 
strong, are admirably adapted for the 
first crop, and always repay me for the 
extra trouble. Begin forcing with a 
temperature of 40°, increasing to 50° 
when in bloom, and to 55° when ripen- 
ing." — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Brown, gardener to Lord South- 
ampton, at Whittlebury Lodge, near 
Towcester, says, that " Mr. Paxton's 
| method of preparing strawberry plants 
for forcing is a good one where time 
and trouble are of no consequence ; but 
for the last fifteen years he has adopted 



S TR 



571 



STR 



a plan which answers well, and by 
which good strong plants are procured 
in one month from the present year's 
runners. 

" The compost used is good strong 
loam, well mixed with rotten dung from 
the hot-bed linings; twenty-four-sized 
pots are the best for Keene's Seedlings, 
and thirty-twos for Grove End Scarlets. 
The latter variety answers for early forc- 
ing better than any other sort, when 
strawberries are wanted by the end of 
March. 

" Having filled the pots with the com- 
post, they are removed at once to the 
strawberry quarters, and arranged on 
each side of the rows, amongst the run- 
ners. The middle of July, when the 
plants are emitting roots, is the proper 
time to begin the operation of layering; 
having previously prepared a quantity 
of pegs, the runners that are rooted into 
the ground are carefully removed, and 
their roots inserted in the pots, and peg- 
ged down. Put three plants into the 
twenty-four pots, and one in the thirty- 
twos ; they immediately begin growing, 
being supported by the mother plant, 
and will only require occasional water- 
ing in dry weather. 

" When the plants are well rooted, 
which is in about one month, detach 
them from the old plants, and remove 
to their winter quarters. 

" Beds are prepared for them with a 
bottom of coal ashes, and they are 
plunged in old tan ; each bed surrounded 
with a stratum of coal ashes six inches 
wide, and as high as the top of the pots, 
which prevents worms from working 
amongst them." — Gard. Chron. 

Thus far we have copied the English 
edition of this work. The American 
reader, though he will find that which 
will instruct in the culture of this de- 
licious fruit, will perceive there is too 
much detail and tedious labour for his 
practice. 

Many of the varieties named in the 
preceding article are comparatively un- 
known in this country, and others have 
been tested, and found wanting. Our 
American Seedlings have, on the whole, 
given most satisfaction, and are most 
reliable, whilst the efforts now being 
made to produce varieties promise, from 
the success already attained, to give all 
that could be desired. 

" The market gardeners around Phi- 
ladelphia, who are successful cultivators 



of the strawberry, plant both in spring 
and early in autumn ; their method is 
to plant two rows about twelve inches 
apart, and the plants twelve inches from 
each other in the rows; between every 
two rows as described, they leave spaces 
of two feet, which are, by the growth of 
the vines, reduced to one foot, thus 
making each bed two feet wide with an 
alley of twelve inches between them; 
when planted in the spring they usually 
raise some dwarf crop on the same 
ground, but that had better be omitted 
— keeping the soil cultivated and top- 
dressed with some well-rotted manure. 
In the autumn, they spread on the sur- 
face, both beds and alleys, a good coat 
of coarse manure, such as will lie light- 
ly, the loose portion of which may be 
raked off in the spring, when the alleys 
are dug, and covered with straw, to ex- 
clude draught and screen the trusses of 
fruit on the edge of the bed from con- 
tact with the earth. Exhausted tanner's 
bark, or saw-dust scattered among the 
plants, is highly serviceable in protect- 
ing the fruit from grit. 

" Varieties. Hudson or Scarlet.— 
This variety is grown almost exclu- 
sively for the supply of the Philadelphia 
market; it appears to be distinct from 
what is known as the old Hudson, in 
New York, which Downing describes as 
having a neck, whereas the Philadelphia 
Hudson has none, (unless occasionally 
spontaneous seedlings are found with 
elongated crowns.) It is undoubtedly 
one of the best, though from want of 
skill in its culture it is frequently unfruit- 
ful. The fruitful and barren flowers are 
on separate plants, and as the barren are 
most vigorous, they are liable to take 
nearly exclusive possession; in such 
cases the inevitable result is, but little 
fruit is obtained. The proper method 
is to carefully cull them when in flower, 
(the experienced can detect them by the 
foliage as well as flowers,) exterminating 
the larger portion of the male or stami- 
niferous plants, as one in ten suffices to 
impregnate the pistil iferous or fruit- 
bearing flowers. Much has been said 
on this subject, and most positive deni- 
als of the fact here stated have been 
made, but after all it is incontrovertible, 
and remains a ' fixed fact.' Our limits 
will not admit of embarking further in 
the controversy, which has been prac- 
tically settled around Philadelphia for 
fifty years, by the German truck women, 



STR 



572 

— ♦— 



STR 



who may be seen in the spring, with 
their linsey petticoats and short- gowns, 
busily engaged plucking out the ' he 
plants,' as they term them. 

" In France the Chili strawberry is 
highly esteemed, but as it requires for- 
eign fertilization, they mix with it other 
varieties, and adopt artificial methods 
of impregnation. Duchesne has suc- 
ceeded by cutting off the half-closed, or 
rather half-opened umbils of staminife- 
rous flowers, with foot-stalks from one 
to three inches long, which being placed 
in phials filled with water, were dis- 
tributed among the Chili plants; the next 
day the blossoms opened and the im- 
pregnation was successfully completed. 

"Many experiments with like re- 
sults, have been practised by others, and 
what in some of the periodicals is called 
'Longworth's theory,' is nothing more 
than that of the Philadelphia truck-wo- 
men, from one of whom that gentleman, 
as he says, received the hint. 

" Methven Scarlet, also termed 
Keene's seedling (erroneously), is a very 
large variety, sometimes exceeding five 
inches in circumference; it is but indif- 
ferently flavoured, but much admired 
for preserving. The flowers of this va- 
riety are pistilate (female), though sta- 
mens are also present, generally in an 
imperfect state, hence it fruits more 
surely in company with those which have 
strong staminate flowers, as for instance 
the Iowa, or the males of the Hudson. 

"Hovey's Seedling (Fig. 164) was 
raised from the seed by the Messrs. 
Hovey, of Boston, some years since, 
and is one of the most desirable straw- 
berries among us. It is of vigorous 
growth, withstands the winter equal 
to any other, produces fruit of an 
enormous size, and exquisite flavour; 
too much cannot be said in its praise. 
Mode of cultivation same as others; it 
does not, however, always produce 
fruit when planted alone, from a defi- 
ciency of pollen in the anthers, and in an 
unfavourable state of the weather, fails 
to produce fruit at all : the better plan, 
therefore, is to mix with it some other 
variety, as directed for the Methven 
scarlet, or grow others in immediate 
contiguity, where the flies and air can 
affect the impregnation. It is true, fine 
crops from this variety are sometimes 
produced where no other variety is 
within a considerable distance, but it is 
attributable to most favourable states of 



the weather, in which the scanty pollen 
is all available, and also to impregnation 
from seedlings, which are, more or less, 
in all beds of one year's standing, and 
some of which, proceeding from the old 
Hovey, have strong erect stamens, not 
unlike the Hudson males, with this dif- 
ference, however, the pistil is fruitful 
and the fruit perfect. 

"Ross's Phozintx. — This variety has 
been much praised in New York. It was 
produced by Mr. Alexander Ross, of 
Hudson, in that state, and from its 
character for hardiness and product (if 
true), would speedily attain popularity 
and general culture — unfortunately for 
its reputation it has suffered greatly by 
the past season's drought, whilst other 
varieties have sustained themselves un- 
injured. We must have further confir- 
mation of its value, before recommend- 
ing it for enlarged culture. 

"Cushing. — (Fig. 165.) This is one of 
a multitude of seedling strawberries, 
raised by that indefatigable amateur cul- 
tivator, Dr. Wm. C. Brinckle, of Phi- 
ladelphia, to whom we are indebted for 
the drawing, Fig. 165, and many other 
favours. He thus describes it in an arti- 
cle communicated to the Farmers' Cabi- 
net, vol. xi., No. 1. 

" ' Cushing, so named as a compli- 
ment to J. P. Cushing, Esq., of Boston, 
to whom I am under a thousand obliga- 
tions — produced from a seed of a berry 
of No. 72, A., [Dr. B.'s private cata- 
logue,] the anthers not having been 
extracted; planted May 31st, 1845; 
fruited in 1846, one year from the seed ; 
flower large, with perfect anthers; leaf 
large and roundish, like that of Keene's 
Seedling and Ross's Phoenix ; differing, 
however, from these two varieties, in 
having a hairy leaf stem, and when full 
grown, the leaf is slightly twisted ; fruit 
very large, round, some of the berries 
with a short neck, light scarlet colour; 
seed inserted in slight depressions; fine 
flavour, and very productive. This plant 
was exhibited at one of the meetings of 
the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society 
this summer, with 26 fine berries on it, 
several of them four and a quarter inches 
in circumference. Not long since, Mr. 
Longworth, of Cincinnati, offered one 
hundred dollars for a strawberry with 
perfect anthers that will bear a full crop 
of fruit as large as Hovey's Seedling. 
Such a strawberry is, I think, the Cush- 
ing.' 






573 
Fig. 164.— (P. 572.) 




574 
Fig. 165.— (P. 572-) 




STR 



575 



sue 



"If Dr. Brinckle's opinion should be 
confirmed by further observation, he 
will have contributed an invaluable va- 
riety of this delicious fruit." — Rural 
Register . 

STRAWBERRY BLITE. Blitum. 

STRAWBERRY SPINACH. Blitum. 

STRAWBERRY TREE. Arbutus. 

STRELITZIA. Eight species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Suckers. Turfy 
loam. 

STREPTANTHERA. Two species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Loam and peat. 

STREPTANTHUS. Two species. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

STREPTIUM asperum. Stove herb- 
aceous perennial. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

STREPTOCARPUS rexii. Stove 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Rich 
soil and vegetable mould. 

STREPTOPUS. Five species. Herb- 
aceous perennials; all hardy except S. 
simplex, which belongs to the green- 
house. Seeds or division. Light soil. 
STROBILANTHES Sabiniana. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
soil. 

STROPANTHUS. Three species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
dy loam and peat. 

STRUMARIA. Ten species. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Offsets. San- 
dy loam. 

S TRUTH I OLA. Fifteen species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Sandy 
peat. 

STRUTHIOPTERIS. Two species. 
Ferns. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division. Loam and peat. 

STRYCHNOS. Six species. Stove 
evergreen trees. S. colubrina is a 
climber. Half-ripe cuttings and seeds. 
Loam and sandy peat. Nux vomica is 
one of the species. 

STYLIDIUM. Nine species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials or ever- 
green shrubs. The latter increases by 
cuttings, a few of the herbaceous by 
division, but chiefly by seeds. Sandy 
loam and peat suit them all. 

STYPANDRA. Five species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. S.fru- 
tescens an evergreen shrub. Division. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

STYPHELIA. Eight species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy peat and sandy loam. 

STYRAX. Four species. Hardy 



deciduous shrubs. S. officinale produces 
the balsam of storax. Layers. Light 
soil. 

SUCCORY, CHICORY, or WILD 
ENDIVE. Cichoriumintybus. Although 
this hardy perennial plant is much used 
on the Continent in salads, yet it has 
never been employed to any extent for 
that purpose in Britain. 

Soil and Situation. — Like endive, for 
the main crops it requires a rich light 
soil, and for the earlier sowings a moist- 
er one, in every instance having an open 
situation allotted to it. 

Sowing must be annually; for, al- 
though it is a perennial, yet, after being 
cut from two or three times, the radical 
leaves become bitter and worthless. 
Mr. Oldaker says, it should be sown at 
the end of June, or early in July ; but 
L'Quintinye recommends it to be per- 
formed in the beginning of March; and 
it may be performed, for successive 
crops, between the two periods men- 
tioned by the above writers, in the same 
manner as endive, and also like that 
salad herb in small portions at a time, 
the earliest sowings being very liable to 
run to seed. Sow moderately thick, in 
the same manner as endive, the direc- 
tions for cultivating which are equally 
applicable in every other particular. 

Cultivation. — When the plants begin 
to cover the ground, they are thinned to 
nine inches apart; and those removed 
planted out at similar distances. They 
require to be kept very clear of weeds ; 
and if the leaves grow very luxuriant, 
and shade the roots much, they must 
be cut off within an inch of the ground. 
Those grown from sowings antecedent 
to June, when of nearly full growth, 
which they arrive at in about four 
months from the insertion of the seed, 
must have all their leaves trimmed 
away, so as not to injure their hearts, 
and then covered over thick with sand, 
ashes, or long Jitter. By this treatment, 
those fresh leaves which are produced 
become etiolated and crisp, losing their 
bitterness. Those which arise from the 
sowings of June and July, must, at the 
end of September, or early in October, 
be raised, and planted very close, by the 
dibble, in pots or boxes, having their 
leaves trimmed as before directed, and 
their roots shortened previous to plant- 
ing. Water must be given moderately 
in dry weather, until they are establish- 
ed, and shelter, if frosts occur, by a 



sue 



576 



sue 



light covering of litter. When well 
rooted they may be removed into the 
cellar, or other place, where the light 
can be completely excluded from them, 
to blanch for use as wanted, which 
change will be effected in six or seven 
days. Succory will bear a temperature 
of 60°, but thrives better in a rather 
lower one. 

If the roots are vigorous, they will 
bear cutting from two or three times, 
after which they are unproductive. 

To obtain Seed, a few plants must 
be left in the open ground of the June 
sowing ; they bear the severity of win- 
ter without protection, and shoot up in 
the spring, running to seed about May. 

SUCCOWIA balearica. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Light soil. 

SUCCULENT PLANTS are so cha- 
racterized on account of their thick juicy 
leaves. " They are formed to exist," 
says that excellent botanist and horti- 
culturist, Mr. Fortune, now traveling 
for the London Horticultural Society, 
" in countries and situations where they 
are often exposed to intense light and 
dryness ; their skins are thick ; they 
have few evaporating pores ; and they 
have, likewise, few roots to gorge their 
tissue with food during the rainy season. 
Therefore, we find the dry sandy plains 
of the Cape abounding in aloes and 
mesembryanthemums ; and the bare 
volcanic rocks of Mount Etna covered, 



ticularly during winter, as more plants 
are killed by over-watering, than by 
any other cause. At this time, once in 
ten days or a fortnight will generally 
be found sufficient; but as this depends 
upon the situation and the weather, 
much must be left to the good sense of 
those who attend them. Those kinds 
which are more luxuriant in growth, 
and not so succulent, require more 
water, and are not so easily injured by 
it. By far the greatest number succeed 
perfectly, where the temperature is 
merely high enough to exclude frost, 
that is, anywhere between thirty-five 
and forty-five degrees, as may be most 
agreeable to the cultivator. 

" Succulents are generally easily 
multiplied, either by seeds or cuttings. 
If the cutting is very soft, and liable to 
damp, it ought to be dried a little be- 
fore it is put into the sand. Sometimes 
a little quicklime is useful for prevent- 
ing decay, and can be either used for 
the base of the cutting, or to any part 
of the plant from which a damping 
piece has been removed." — Gardeners'* 
Chron. 

SUCKERS, says Dr. Lindley, in his 
Theory of Horticulture, " are branches 
naturally thrown up by a plant from its 
base, when the onward current of 
growth of the stem is stopped. Every 
stem, even the oldest, must have been 
once covered with leaves: each leaf 



any places, with the common prick- i had a bud in its axil ; but of those buds, 



ly pear. In Mexico, also, and in many 
other parts of Central and South Ame- 
rica, the extensive race of cacti, with 
their curious unvegetable-like forms, 
are at home, and flourish even in those 
dry and parched seasons when the 
whole face of nature besides seems 
withered and destroyed. I wish particu- 
larly to draw attention to the natural 
circumstances in which these plants 
are found ; because, if these are once 
known, they are sure and certain guides 
in cultivation. 

" To be grown well, the whole race 
of what are called succulent plants re- 
quire to be kept in the lightest possible 
situation in the green-house. It is true 
they may be grown in heavy-shaded 
green-houses, but their leaves will ne- 
ver acquire that beautiful colour which 
is seen in light situations, nor will they 
flower so freely. Water should be 
given to the slow-growing kinds at all 
times with a judicious hand, but par- 



few are developed as branches, and 
the remainder remain latent, or perish. 
When the onward growth of a plant is 
arrested, the sap is driven to find new 
outlets, and then latent buds are very 
likely to be developed ; in fact, when 
the whole plant is young, they must 
necessarily shoot forth under fitting 
circumstances; the well-known effect 
of cutting down a tree is an exemplifi- 
cation of this. Such branches, if they 
proceed from under ground, frequently 
form roots at their base, when they are 
employed as a means of propagation ; 
and in the case of the pine-apple they 
are made use of for the same purpose, 
although they do not emit roots till 
they are separated from the parent. 
Gardeners usually satisfy themselves 
with taking from their pine-apple plants 
such suckers as are produced in con- 
sequence of the stoppage of onward 
growth by the formation of the fruits ; 
but these are few in number, and not 



SUF 



577 

♦ 



SWt 



at all what the plant is capable of 
yielding. Instead of throwing away the 
" stump" of the pine-apple, it should 
be placed in a damp pit, and exposed 
to a bottom heat of 90°, or thereabouts, 
when every one of the latent eyes will 
spring forth, and a crop of young plants 
be the result." 

Taking up or transplanting suckers 
may be performed almost at any time, 
in open weather, from October to 
March, being careful to dig them up 
from the mother plant with as much 
root as possible, and cutting off any 
thick knobbed part of the old root that 
may adhere to the bottom, leaving only 
the fibres arising from the young wood. 
Though it is probable some will appear 
with hardly any fibres, they will be dis- 
posed to produce them after removal. 

SUFFOCATION is a term employed 
by Keith and others to describe any 
stopping of the transpiratory organs of 
plants, whether it arises from extrava- 
sated sap, mosses, fungi, or even from 
a deficient supply of sap. 

SUGAR BAKERS' REFUSE. See 
Animal Matters. 

SUMACH. Rhus. 

SUNFLOWER. Helianthus. 

H. annuus. Annual Sunflower. 

Soil and Situation. — A light rich soil, 
and as unshadowed by trees as possible, 
suits it best. It is now much cultivated 
for its oil, and as a food for cattle and 
poultry. The following directions for 
its culture on a large scale, are applica- 
ble on a reduced extent for the gar- 
den : — 

The earlier the seed can be got into 
the ground the better, say the beginning 
of April, as the crop will be ready to 
harvest the latter part of August, which 
will be of the greatest importance to 
growers. The necessary quantity of 
seed required for an acre depends upon 
the conditions of the soil, and varies 
from four pounds to five pounds ; but, 
of course, it is advisable to sow a little 
more than is actually wanted, to pro- 
vide against accidents. The seed should 
be drilled into the ground, and the dis- 
tance from row to row eighteen inches ; 
the plants to be thinned out to thirty 
inches from plant to plant, and the 
number of plants at this distance would 
be about 14,500 per acre ; at eighteen 
inches from, plant to plant, 25,000 per 
acre ; and at twelve inches from plant 



to plant, 32,000. 
37 



kind of grain, like that of most others, 
varies considerably, according to the 
state of the soil, climate and the cul- 
tivation that is employed; but the 
average quantity of seed is about fifty 
bushels per acre. This will produce 
fifty gallons of oil, and of oil-cake 1,500 
pounds. The stalks, when burnt for 
alkali, give ten hundred weight of po- 
tash. 

SUNFLOWER. Actinotus Helianthi. 

SUN ROSE. Helianthemum. 

SURFACE GRUBS, or caterpillars, 
are the larva? of several species of 
Noctua, or Night Moths. Gardeners 
thus name them because they attack the 
roots of the turnip, mangold wurtzel, 
&c, just at the surface of the soil. 

SUTHERLANDIA frutescens. Half- 
hardy evergreen shrub. Seeds or young 
cuttings. Peat and loam. 

SUWARROW NUT. Caryocar. 

SWAINSONIA. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings or seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

SWALLOW WORT. Asclepias. 

SWAMP LOCUST TREE. Gledit- 
schia monosperma. 

SWAMP POST. Quercus lyrata. 

SWARTZIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings with the 
leaves on. Sandy loam and peat. 

SWEDISH BEAM TREE. Pyrus 

SWEDISH TURNIP. Brassicacam- 
pestris; var. rutabaga. 

SWEEPING. See Broom. It is 
best done in calm weather, and early, 
whilst the dew is strong enough to al- 
lay the dust and keep the light refuse 
from blowing about. 

SWEET BAY. Laurus nobilis. 

SWEET BRIAR. Rosa rubiginosa. 
It is of the easiest propagation in any 
common garden soil. Cuttings, suck- 
ers, and seed may be indifferently em- 
ployed. 

" To form a hedge of it sow the heps 
in the autumn as soon as ripe, or which 
is better, in the month of March, hav- 
ing kept them in the meanwhile mixed 
with sand. But it is far more conveni- 
ent to buy sweet briar ' layers,' (young 
plants,) from the nurseryman, and to 
plant them a foot apart early in the 
month of November. Let them grow 
as they like for the first year, and cut 
them down to the ground the second ; 
they will then spring up and require no 



The produce of this more care than occasional trimming 



S WE 



578 



S WI 



light loam on a dry subsoil. Leaf-mould 
and liquid manure the best additions. 

Propagation. — They are propagated 
by seed, layers, and slips. 

By Seed. — March and April is the 
season for sowing ; sow it in a bed or 
border of light earth broadcast, and 
rake it in. In a fortnight the plants 
will come up. In June or July trans- 
plant into nursery beds of common 
earth, in rows six or eight inches dis- 
tant, to remain until autumn or spring 
following, then to be taken up and 
planted in the places where they are to 
flower. 

By Layers. — June and July is the 
proper season, and the same method is 
to be observed in every respect as for 
the Carnation. This is the only me- 
thod of propagation to continue the 
same double-flowered varieties. Being 
layered, give frequent waterings in dry 
weather, and they will be well rooted 
in six or seven weeks, then to be sepa- 
rated from the old plant, and removed 
to a bed of light soil ; and in October 
some of them should be potted to move 
to occasional shelter from frost, for 
although the doubles are almost as 
hardy as the single, yet being more 
choice, it is necessary always to have 
some that may have protection in severe 
winters, the same as for choice Carna- 
tions. 

By Slips. — July is the best month for 
slipping; observing, if it is to be per- 
formed upon the year-old plants, they 
must be slipped quite down to the 
roots, so as to have fibres to each slip ; 
plant them at once where they are to 
flower, but these never make such good 
plants as seedlings and layers, nor do 
they generally flower so strongly. 
Large double deep purplish! Saving Seed. — "The flowers which 
Double variegated. All the have the most beautiful colours, should, 
when in full bloom, be marked from 
which to have seed ; if any ordinary 
sorts grow near them, let them be re- 
moved to prevent hybridizing. Let the 
branches of seed be gathered in dry 
weather, and after lying a few days in 
the sun be beaten out and stored till 
abundance of seed in autumn. The | spring." — Abercrombie. 
plants, although usually of several I SWIETENIA. Two species. Stove 
years' duration, yet, after the first year j evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings with 
of flowering, the shoots generally be- j the leaves on. Loam and sand, 
come longjWaggling, and of dwindling i SYMPHIANDRA pendula. Hardy 
growth, so that a supply should be raised i biennial. Seeds. Common soil, 
every year from seed or layers. SYMPHORICARPUS. St. Peter's 

Soil. — The best is a moderately rich ! Wort. Three species. Hardy decidu- 



with the pruning-knife or shears, so as 
to keep the hedge in shape. When it 
gets naked at the bottom it must be 
again cut down." — Gard. Chron. 

SWEET CALABASH. Passiflora 
maliformis. 

SWEET CICELY. See Chervil. 

SWEETIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings or seeds. 
Loam and sand. 

SWEET MARJORAM. Origanum 
majorana. 

SWEET MAUDLIN. Achillea age- 
ratum. 

SWEET PEA. Lathyrus odoratus. 

SWEET POTATOE. Batata. 

SWEET SOP. Anona squamosa. 

SWEET SULTAN. Centaur ea mos- 
chata. 

SWEET WILLIAM. Dianthus bar- 
batus. 

Varieties. — Narrow-leaved kinds : 
Deep Red; Pale Red; Pale Red and 
Flesh-coloured; Purplish, white-eyed; 
Snow White; White and Flesh-colour- 
ed ; White and Purple ; White Spotted ; 
Red flowers and white borders, called 
Painted Lady Sweet- William, and many 
other intermediate shades of colours 
and variegations, and which frequently 
vary in the flowers of the same aggre- 
gate; there are also single and double 
flowers of each variety. Among the 
doubles of this class of narrow leases, 
is that sort called the Mule, having a 
bright red double flower in smallish ag- 
gregates, said to have been accidentally 
produced from the seed of a Carnation 
impregnated by the Sweet- William. 

Broad-leaved kinds : — Tall deep red ; 
Tall flesh-coloured; Pure White; White 
dotted; Striped leaves and red flowers; 
Large double rose-coloured; Sweet 
scented 
burster; 

varieties, about forty in number, are 
hardy herbaceous evergreen perennials, 
rising the first year with a large bushy 
tuft of leafy shoots, continuing green 
the year round, and the second year 
shooting up flower-stems, producing 
flowers in June and July, succeeded by 



S YM 



579 

— ♦ — 



TAN 



ous trees. Cuttings or suckers. Com- 
mon soil. 

SYMPHYTUM. Eight species. 
Hardy herbaceous or tuberous-rooted 
perennials. Division. Off-sets. Any 
soil suits them. 

SYMPIEZIA capitellata. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
tings. Turfy peat and sand. 

SYMPLOCOS. Three species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs, or stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat and sand. 

SYNCHRONICAL TIMES are va- 
lidly observed for the performance of 
gardening operations. More than one 
botanist has observed that if the time 
of the foliation and blossoming of trees 
and herbs, and the days on which the 
seed is sown, flowers, and ripens, were 
noted, and if the observer continued 
these observations for many years, there 
can be no doubt but that we might find 
some rule from which we might con- 
clude at what time grains and culinary 
plants, according to the nature of each 
soil, ought to be sown ; nor should we 
be at a loss to guess at the approach of 
winter; nor ignorant whether we ought 
to make our autumn sowing later or 
earlier. 

M. Barck would derive his intima- 
tions from the vegetable tribes alone, 
but, I think, the other kingdoms of 
organic nature might be included; as 
the appearances of certain migratory 
birds, and the birth of certain insects. 
For example, in the east of England, it 
is a common saying among gardeners, 
confirmed by practice — "When you 
have seen two swallows together, sow 
kidney beans." 

Mr. Stillingfleet, one of the most 
careful of Nature's observers, says, that 
in his time "the prudent gardener never 
ventured to put his house-plants out 
until the mulberry leaf was of a certain 
growth." — Gard. Aim. 

SYNNETIA. Three species. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
Sandy peat and loam. 

SYRINGA. Lilac. Five species and 
many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
shrubs. Seeds, layers, or suckers. 
Common soil. 

SYRINGE. This is a most useful 
implement for impelling water over 
plants in pots, wall-trees, &c. Read's 
syringes are excellent. When the ob- 
ject is merely to refresh the plants, the 



operator should stand at some distance 
from the plants, so that the water may 
spread and fall upon them like a shower. 
But if aphides have to be destroyed he 
may be closer to the plants, and drive 
forth the water with greater force. 

SYZYGIUM. Three species. Stove 
evergreen trees or shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy peat. 

TABERNtEMONTANA. Fifteen 
species. Stove evergreen shrubs and 
trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

TACCA. Six species. Stove bulbous 
perennials. Division. Loam, peat, and 
sand. 

TACHIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat, sand, 
and loam. 

TACHIGALIA bijuga. Stove ever- 
green tree. Cuttings. Light loam. 

TACSONIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

TiERRITIS. Three species. Ferns. 
Stove evergreen creepers. Division or 
seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

TAGETES. Fifteen species. Hardy 
annuals, except T.florida and T. lucida, 
the first a half-hardy, the second a 
green-house herbaceous perennial. The 
annuals increase by seed, the others by 
cuttings or division. Light rich soil. 

TALAUMA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Layers or inarching 
on Magnolia obovata, and ripe cuttings 
with the leaves on will root, but not 
easily. Loam, peat, and sand. 

TALIERA bengalensis. Palm. Seeds. 
Turfy loam and sand. 

TALIRIUM. Seven species. Stove 
and green-house evergreen shrubs and 
herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. T. reflexum, a stove 
biennial, increases by seeds. 

TALISIA guianensis. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Large cuttings with the 
leaves on. Turfy loam and peat. 

TALLIES. See Labels. 

TAMARINDUS. Tamarind. Two 
species. Stove evergreen trees. Seeds 
and cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

TAMARIX. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs or trees, except T. 
gallica, which is a hardy deciduous 
shrub. Cuttings. Any soil suits them. 

Manna is produced from a variety of 
T. gallicia. 

TAMONEA. Two species. Stove 
biennials. Seeds. Sandy soil. 

TAN. See Bark. 



TAN 



580 

— • — 



TAX 



TANACETUM. Tansy. Nine 
species. Hardy or green-house herba- 
ceous perennials. The hardy kinds 
increase by division, the green-house 
by cuttings. Light rich soil. T. globu- 
l{ferum a hardy annual. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

TANGIER PEA. Lathyrus tingi- 
tanus. 

TANK SYSTEM. See Stove, Hot 
Water, and Rendle. 

TANSY. Tanacetum vulgare. 

Varieties. — The Curled or Double 
Tansy, the one chiefly grown for culi- 
nary purposes ; the Variegated ; and 
the Common or Plain. This last is but 
of little worth, except for medicinal 
preparations. 

Soil and Situation. — A light, dry, and 
rather poor soil, in an open exposure, 
is best suited to it, as in such it is the 
most hardy and aromatic. 

Planting. — It is propagated by rooted 
slips, or divisions of its fibrous creeping 
root, planted from the close of Febru- 
ary until that of May, as well as during 
the autumn. Established plants may 
be moved at any period of the year. 
Insert in rows twelve inches apart each 
way ; a gentle watering being given, if 
the season is not showery. As the 
roots spread rapidly, plants will soon 
make their appearance over a large 
space of ground if left undisturbed ; to 
prevent it, a path should be left entirely 
round the bed, and often dug up to keep 
them within bounds. The plants run 
up to seed during summer, but the 
stalks must be constantly removed, to 
encourage the production of young 
leaves. Weeds should be extirpated, 
and the decayed stalks cleared away in 
autumn, at the same time a little fresh 
mould being scattered over the bed. 

Forcing. — If required during the 
winter and early spring, old undivided 
roots must be placed in a moderate 
hot-bed once a month, from the middle 
of November to the close of February. 
They may be planted in the earth of the 
bed, in pots, and plunged in a similar 
situation, or placed round the edges of 
the bark pits in a hot-house. A frame 
is not absolutely necessary, as a cover- 
ing of mats supported on hoops, afforded 
during frost, at night, and in very in- 
clement weather, will answer nearly as 
well. 

TARCHONANTHUS. Two species. 



Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
Light rich soil. 

TARRAGON. Artemisia dracuncu- 
lus. Use it in salads to correct the 
coldness of the other herbs ; and its 
leaves are likewise excellent when 
pickled. 

Soil and Situation. — It will flourish 
in any that are poor and bleak. Indeed, 
a poor dry earth is essential to produce 
it in perfection as to flavour, and hardy. 

Propagation by parting the roots, 
slips, and cuttings; as also by seed to 
be sown in the spring, but this mode is 
attended with much trouble. To have 
green Tarragon during the winter and 
spring, strong-rooted plants must be 
planted, small portions at a time, once 
or twice a month, from the close of 
October to the end of January. For the 
main crop, it may be planted any time 
from the end of February until the con- 
clusion of May ; and by cuttings of the 
young stalks, from the close of June 
until the same period of August ; this 
last mode is not often adopted, on ac- 
count of the uncertainty attending the 
rooting of the cuttings. 

Cultivation. — The plants must be at 
least ten inches apart; and if dry 
weather, especially in the summer 
months, water must be given regularly 
every evening until they are rooted. 
They soon establish themselves, and 
may be gathered from the same year. 
As they run up, if seed is not required, 
the stems should be cut down, which 
causes them to shoot afresh. The only 
additional cultivation required is to 
keep them free from weeds. 

At the end of autumn, if some estab- 
lished plants are set beneath a south 
fence, they will often afford leaves 
throughout the winter, or, at all events, 
come early in the spring. Some of the 
leaves should be gathered in the sum- 
mer, and dried for winter's use. 

To obtain Seed, it is only necessary to 
allow it to run up without molestation. 
It flowers about July, and when the 
seed is ripe, in early autumn, must be 
cut, and completely dried before it is 
beaten out. 

TASMANNIA aromatica. Green- 
house shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

TAVERNIERA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreens; one a trailer, the 
other a shrub. Seeds. Sandy loam. 

TAXODIUM capense. Green-house 



TAX 



581 

— ♦— 



TEN 



evergreen shrub; and T. distichum 
(Deciduous Cypress), and its varieties, 
hardy deciduous trees. Seeds, layers, 
or cuttings with the leaves on, placed in 
water. Rich moist soil. 

TAXUS. Yew Tree. Five species. 
Evergreen shrubs and trees, all hardy 
except T. nucifera, which belongs to 
the green-house. They increase chiefly 
by seeds, but may also increase by cut- 
tings. Moist soil. See Coniferce. 

TEA-TREE. Thea. 

TECOMA. Fifteen species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs and trees. Green- 
house, hardy, and half-hardy evergreen 
and deciduous climbers. Cuttings and 
layers. Peat and loam, or common 
soil, and a warm situation. 

TEEDIA. Two species. Green- 
house biennials. Cuttings or seeds. 
Light rich soil. 

TEESDALIA. Two species. Har- 
dy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

TELEKIA speciosa. Hardy herba- 
ceous perennial. Division. Common 
soil. 

TELLIMA grandiflora. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Peaty 
soil. 

TELOPEA speciosissima. Warratah. 
Green-house evergreen tree. Layers 
and also cuttings. Sandy loam and 
heath mould. 

TEMPERATURE is the most im- 
portant circumstance connected with 
the cultivation of plants; for upon its 
proper regulation and just accommoda- 
tion to the intensity of light depend, in 
the chief degree, whether a plant is 
healthy and capable of performing its 
functions. Every seed has its appro- 
priate temperature for germinating (see 
Germination) ; every root has a temper- 
ature in which it imbibes food most 
favourably (see Bottom-heat) ; and every 
leaf has a temperature in which it re- 
spires most vigorously (see Leaves and 
Night Temperature). 

TEMPLES dedicated to some deity 
of the heathen mythology, as to Pan in 
a grove, or to Flora among bright sun- 
ny parterres, are not inappropriate, if 
the extent of the grounds and the ex- 
penditure on their management allow 
them to be of that size, and of that cor- 
rectness of style, which can alone give 
the classic air and dignity which are 
their only sources of pleasure. 

TEMPLETONIA. Two species. 



Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

TENTHREDO. Saw-fly. T. moris, 
Plum Saw-fly, attacks the green-gage, 
and other plums, when about the size 
of peas. It pierces them, causing their 
fall, to deposit its eggs in their pulp. 
M. Kollar gives these correct particu- 
lars of this insect : — 

"At a distance it resembles a small 
house-fly ; but it has four wings, where- 
as the house-fly has only two. The 
head and body are completely black, 
and the feet of a reddish yellow. 

" It lays its eggs in the notched part 
of the calyx of the flowers, cuts in 
obliquely with its saws, without com- 
pletely piercing it through, and intro- 
duces the egg into the deepest part, so 
that, when it flies away, nothing is seen 
on the exterior but two very small 
brown spots. 

" The egg is very small, greenish- 
white, and transparent. It is hatched 
in the course of a few days, and pro- 
duces a delicate whitish larva, with a 
dark-brown head, six pairs of middle 
feet, three pairs of fore feet, and one 
pair of anal feet." 

T. hcemorrhoidalis, Pear Saw-fly, re- 
sembles the former, but is rather larger, 
and has more yellow about it. The 
same authority last quoted says that it 
" appears usually late in May, some of 
them only in June, if the warm spring 
weather sets in late. The female lays 
from forty to sixty eggs, and almost 
always on the under side of the leaf. 
The caterpillar, which is hatched in a 
few days, at first is of a whitish yellow, 
but becomes darker every day. As soon, 
as it is exposed to the light, it spins a 
web over itself, the threads of which 
proceed from its mouth. The caterpil- 
lar never appears out of this web ; and 
when it has partly eaten a leaf, it spins 
itself a web on another, and always in 
company with the other caterpillars. It 
has a black head, and, immediately un- 
der the throat, two black dots : the other 
parts of the body are ochre-colored and 
transparent, without hairs." — Kollar. 

T. difformis, Antler Rose Saw-fly. 
Its caterpillar feeds on the leaves of 
rose-trees ; and they are thus described 
by Mr. Curtis : — 

"They are nearly cylindrical, taper- 
ing a little to the tail. They are bright 
green, and covered with short upright 
hairs, with a darker line down the back, 



TEN 



582 

— ♦ — 



TEN 



and one of a deeper tint down each 
side. Having arrived at their full 
growth, they spin a web either between 
the contiguous leaves, or in a fold, by 
drawing the sides of a leaf slightly to- 
gether ; but sometimes it is attached to 
the stem only at a fork of the branches. 
In this web they form a yellowish-white 
cocoon, somewhat oval. In these co- 
coons the green larvae rest a short time, 
losing, it is said, their fourteen false 
legs, and eventually changing to a pupa. 
The flies are hatched in twelve or thir- 
teen days. The perfect insect is found 
from the end of May to the middle of 
August. 

" It would not, perhaps, be an easy 
matter to get rid of these troublesome 
caterpillars, except by hand-picking and 
shaking the branches over a cloth ; for, 
as they keep on the under surface of 
the leaves, no application except fumi- 
gating with sulphur would fairly reach 
them. It is possible that sprinkling 
hellebore powder over the leaves would 
annoy them." — Gard. Chron. 

T.populi, Peach, or Poplar Saw-fly, 
also resembles the first-named, and M. 
Kollar says that, — 

"As soon as the first leaves of the 
stone-fruits are unfolded in spring, this 
saw-fly visits them, and attacks the 
peach, apricot, and plum trees. They 
choose days that are particularly still 
and warm, and lay their eggs on a leaf 
in rows, one after another, from thirty 
to forty in number, not all at once, but 
often disburden themselves of their eggs 
at different times. They are longish, 
cylindrical, and of a light yellow color. 

" If the weather is favorable the eggs 
are hatched in a few days, and a white- 
greenish grub is produced from them. 
They no sooner begin to move than 
they surround themselves with a web ; 
thus surrounded they roam from one 
leaf to another, from which they select 
the best parts for their food ; therefore 
a leaf is never found entirely con- 
sumed. 

"As soon as they have attained their 
full growth they retire into the ground, 
form themselves a chamber, make them- 
selves a dark-brown roomy case, the 
material for which they produce from 
themselves, and remain in the earth till 
spring, when they again appear as saw- 
flies to propagate their species." — 
Kollar. 

T. grossularia and T. ribesii are 



very destructive of gooseberries. Mr. 
Curtis says that, — 

" The larvae, of which there are two 
generations in the course of the year, 
live in societies consisting of from 50 
to nearly 1000. One family, so to 
speak, frequently occupy one bush, 
and destroy all the leaves, thus prevent- 
ing the fruit from arriving at maturity. 

" The larvae are of a grayish colour, 
covered with small black warts ar- 
ranged in rows, and have twenty feet. 
Their transformation also takes place 
in society, one fixing the end of its 
cocoon to the end of the next, and so 
on. Many remedies have been sug- 
gested, but none have been attended 
with perfect success. Perhaps the surest 
way of all to diminish the numbers is 
to hand-pick the larvae, and collect the 
cocoons wherever they appear, and 
destroy them, thus killing many hun- 
dreds in embryo." — Gard. Chron. 

T. pini, T. erythrocephala, and T. ru- 
fus, infest the pine and fir species. 

T. cerasi produces a slimy catepillar, 
commonly called a slug-worm, very in- 
jurious to the leaf of the cherry, plum, 
and pear. Mr. Curtis observes of 
" these very singular and inactive cat- 
erpillars," that they " are more like 
little black slugs, or tadpoles, than the 
larvae of a saw-fly, being entirely co- 
vered with a slimy matter which gives 
them a moist and shining appearance ; 
and when at rest, upon the foliage, 
they might easily be mistaken for the 
droppings of sparrows or swallows. 
Upon closer examination they will be 
found to exhibit the typical characters 
of the family to which they belong, 
having six pectoral and fourteen abdo- 
minal feet, but no anal ones. They 
are of a deep bottle-green color ; the 
thorax is dilated, being very much 
thicker than the rest of the body, and 
concealing the head, or nearly so. 

" After four or five weeks, when 
they have arrived at their full growth, 
they cast off their bottle-green jackets, 
and then appear in a suit of buff, being 
entirely changed in their appearance ; 
they no longer shine, neither are they 
smooth, but covered with small trans- 
verse wrinkles ; and, a short time after, 
they leave the leaves for the purpose 
of entering the earth, where they spin 
an oval brown cocoon composed of silk, 
with grains of the soil adhering to the 
outside. 



TEP 



583 

— ♦— 



TER 



" Towards the end of July, after 
having lain dormant nearly ten months, 
the flies emerge from their tombs. The 
female is of a shining black, with a 
violet tint ; the head and thorax are 
pubescent; the horns are short, pointed, 
and composed of nine joints; the ovi- 
positor is nearly concealed ; the wings 
are often more or less stained with 
black. 

" The eggs are deposited on the 
upper side of the leaves, probably un- 
der the skin. They are oval, and of a 
clear yellow colour : the young larvae 
are hatched from them in a few days. 
Dusting the infested trees with quick- 
lime is certain death to the larvae, es- 
pecially in their earlier stages ; but it 
ought to be repeated once or twice, as 
they change their skins, and can thus, 
like slugs, get rid of the noxious matter 
with their slough, for the first time, but 
not so at the second dusting. On a 
small scale, the powdered and unslaked 
lime might be scattered over the leaves 
with a tin box, having a number of holes 
in the lid like a dredging-box ; and on a 
larger scale a fine sieve might be used by 
a man on a ladder or steps. Decoction 
of tobacco water, about a quarter of a 
pound of tobacco to two gallons of 
water, thrown over the trees with a 
garden-engine, will destroy them. 

" Some persons have employed lime- 
water with complete success ; about a 
peck of lime to thirty gallons of water; 
and if two pounds of soft soap be added, 
it will improve the mixture. 

" The best periods for applying these 
liquids, are before seven in the morn- 
ing and after five in the evening. The 
syringing should be repeated until the 
trees are free from the slug worm ; they 
may afterwards be washed clean with 
pure water ; and if the lime water be 
used in the evening the cleansing may 
be deferred until the following morn- 
ing." — Gard. Chron. 

TEPHRITIS onopordinis. Celery 
Fly. This insect causes blisters on the 
leaves of celery by puncturing them, 
and depositing its eggs within their 
tissue. Mr. Curtis observes that, — 

" On examining these blisters they 
are found to be considerably inflated, 
and, on holding them up to the light, a 
maggot may be seen moving between 
the thin and somewhat transparent cu- 
ticles, where it has been consuming 
the parenchyma. Those parts of the 



blisters where it commenced its opera- 
tions being withered, they become 
ochreous or brown ; and the other por- 
tions, but recently deprived of the 
pulpy substance, partake of a pale 
green tint. In this way one maggot 
will form a patch of more than an inch 
in diameter before it is full grown. 

"The larvae are of a glossy pale 
green, with the alimentary canal shin- 
ing through the back ; the head is at- 
tenuated, and the tail obtuse, with a 
few tubercles. The maggots leave 
their habitations and probably enter the 
earth to undergo their transformation to 
the pupa. The male flies are shining 
ochreous, with a few black bristles on 
the head and thorax, which are dark 
ochreous; the lower part of the face 
and horns is yellowish ; the latter droop, 
and are furnished with a fine bristle or 
seta, which is black, except at the 
base. The eyes are deep green ; the 
body, which is five-jointed, is rusty 
brown and downy ; the wings are much 
longer than the body, iridescent, pret- 
tily variegated with brown, leaving 
two transparent spots on the costal 
edge, and five large irregular ones on 
the inferior margin. The female is 
larger and darker, especially the tho- 
rax, abdomen, and the brown markings 
on the wings." — Gard. Chron. 

The blisters are most prevalent in 
September and October, and are occa- 
sionally found on those of the Alex- 
ander and Parsnep. 

TEPHROSIA. Twenty-eight spe- 
cies. Stove and green-house evergreen 
shrubs, and a few herbaceous peren- 
nials of the latter species. T. virgini- 
ana is half hardy. Seeds or young cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

TERAMNUS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

TEREBRATION, or peg-grafting, is 
an obsolete mode, in which a hole 
was bored in the stock, and the scion 
was cut in a peg form to fit iu See 
Grafting. 

TERMINALLY. Fifteen species. 
Stove evergreen trees and shrubs. Ripe 
cuttings. Loam aud peat. From T. 
catappa the Indian ink is obtained. 

TERNSTROMIA. Four species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

TERRACES are not permissible any- 
where but around the mansion. Mr. 



TES 



584 



THE 



Whately justly observes, in connection 
with these structures, that,— 

" Choice arrangement, composition, 
improvement, and preservation, are so 
many symptoms of art which may occa- 
sionally appear in several parts of a 
garden, but ought to be displayed with- 
out reserve near the house; nothing 
there should seem neglected ; it is a 
scene of the most cultivated nature ; it 
ought to be enriched — it ought to be 
adorned ; and design may be avowed 
in the plan, and expense in the execu- 
tion." 

Mr. Loudon is more practical on this 
subject, and observes, — 

" The breadth of terraces, and their 
height relatively to the level of the floor 
of the living-rooms, must depend jointly 
on the height of the floor of the living- 
rooms and the surface of the grounds 
or country to be seen over them. Too 
broad or too high a terrace will both 
have the effect of foreshortening a lawn 
with a declining surface, or conceal- 
ing a near valley. The safest mode, 
in doubtful cases, is not to form this 
appendage till after the principal floor 
is laid, and then to determine the de- 
tails of the terrace by trial and correc- 
tion. 

" Narrow terraces are entirely occu- 
pied as promenades, and may be either 
gravelled or paved ; and different le- 
vels, when they exist, connected by in- 
clined planes or flights of steps. Where 
the breadth is more than is requisite for 
walks, the borders may be kept in turf, 
with groups or marginal strips of flowers 
and low shrubs. In some cases the 
terrace-walls may be so extended as to 
enclose ground sufficient for a level 
plot to be used as a bowling green. 
These are generally connected with one 
of the living-rooms, or the conservatory; 
and to the latter is frequently joined an 
aviary, and the entire range of botanic 
stoves." — Enc. Gard. 

TESTUDINARIA. Two species. 
Green-house deciduous climbers. Im- 
ported roots. Turfy loam and peat. 

TETRACERA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Ripe cuttings. 
Turfy loam and peat. 

TETRAGONOLOBUS. Hardy trail- 
ing annuals or deciduous trailers. 
Seeds. Common soil. 

TETRAGONOTHECA helianthoides. 
Hardy herbaceous perennial. Division 
or seeds. Rich light soil. 



TETRAMENA mexicanianum. 
Green-house shrub. Cuttings and seed. 
Light rich loam. 

TETRANTHERA. Eight species. 
Stove and green-house evergreen trees 
and shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Turfy loam, 
peat, and sand. 

TETRANTHUS littoralis. Stove 
evergreen creeper. Division. Sandy 
loam. 

TETRAPELTIS fragrans. Stove 
orchid. Division. Peat and potsherds. 

TETRAPTERIS. Two species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

TETRATHECA. Seven species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

TETTIGONIA spumaria. Froth Fly, 
or Cuckoo Spit. The frothy patches 
seen in April and May upon the young 
shoots of hawthorn, lilac, peach, &c, 
are formed by this insect. As the froth 
is formed from the sap of the plant, 
the insect is by so much injurious to it. 
The froth protects the insect from the 
sun, from night colds, and from parasitic 
insects ; but it betrays the insect to the 
gardener, whose hand is the best re- 
medy. 

TEUCRIUM. Forty-seven species. 
Hardy, half-hardy, and green-house 
evergreen shrubs and herbaceous pe- 
rennials ; some hardy annuals, and T. 
cubense a stove biennial. The herba- 
ceous perennials increase by division 
and seeds; the shrubby kinds by young 
cuttings ; the annuals and biennials by 
seeds. Common soil suits them all. 

THALIA dealbata, a half-hardy aqua- 
tic perennial, and T. geniculata, a stove 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Light 
rich soil. 

THALICTRUM. Fifty-six species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials : a few 
are twiners. Division. Light soil. 

THAPSIA. Seven species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials^ Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

THAPSIUM. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division or 
seeds. Common soil. 

THEA. Tea. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
dy loam and peat. 

THEOPHRASTA Jussieui. Stove 
evergreen tree. Cuttings, with the 
leaves left entire. 

THERMOMETER. This instrument 
is the only unfailing guide for the gar- 



THE 



585 



THE 



dener in regulating the heat to which 
he allows the roots and foliage of his 
plants to be subjected. Fahrenheit's is 
that employed in England ; but as on 
the Continent others, differently gradu- 
ated, are employed, and referred to by 



foreign writers, the following table, 
showing the synonymous degrees of 
each, will be useful. [See table.] 

Fahrenheit's is used chiefly in Britain, 
Holland, and North America, the freez- 
ing point of water on which is at 32° ; 



Fah. 


Reau. 


Cent. 


Fah. 


Reau. 


Cent. 


Fah. 


Reau. 


Cent. 


Fah. 


Reau. 


Cent. 


212 


80.0 


100.0 


153 


53.7 


67.2 


94 


27.5 


34.4 


35 


1.3 


1.6i 


211 


79.5 


99.4 


152 


53.3 


66.6 


93 


27.1 


33.8 


34 


0.8 


1.1 


210 


79.1 


98.8 


151 


52.8 


66.1 


92 


26.6 


33.3 


33 


0.4 


0.5 


209 


7-*.6 


98.3 


150 


53.4 


65.5 


91 


26.2 


32.7 


32 


0.0 


0.0 


208 


78.2 


97.7 


149 


52.0 


65.0 


90 


25.7 


32.2 


31 


— 0.4 


— 0.5 


207 


77.7 


97 2 


148 


51.5 


65.4 


89 


25.3 


31.6 


30 


— 0.8 


— 1.1 


206 


77.3 


96.6 


147 


51.1 


63.8 


88, 


24.8 


31.1 


29 


— 1.3 


— 1.6 


205 


76.8 


96.1 


146 


50.6 


63.3 


87 


24.4 


30.5 


28 


— 1.7 


— 2.2 


204 


76.4 


95.5 


145 


50.2 


62.7 


86 


24 


30.0 


27 


— 22 


— 2.7 


203 


76.0 


95.0 


144 


49.7 


62 2 


85 


23.5 


29 4 


26 


— 2.6 


— 3.3 


202 


75.5 


94.4 


143 


49.3 


61.6 


84 


23.1 


28.8 


25 


— 3.0 


— 3.8 


201 


75.1 


93.8 


142 


43.8 


61.1 


83 


22 6 


28.3 


24 


— 3.5 


- 4.4 


200 


74.6 


93 3 


141 


4S.4 


60 5 


82 


22.2 


27.7 


23 


— 4.0 


— 50 


199 


742 


92.7 


140 


48.0 


60.0 


81 


21.7 


27 2 


22 


— 4.4 


— 5.5 


198 


73.7 


92.2 


139 


47.5 


59.4 


80 


21.3 


26.6 


21 


— 4.8 


— 6.1 


197 


73.3 


91.6 


138 


47.1 


58.8 


79 


20.8 


26.1 


20 


— 5.3 


— 6.6 


196 


72.8 


91.1 


137 


466 


5S3 


78 


20.4 


25.5 


19 


— 5.7 


— 7.2 


195 


72.4 


90.5 


136 


46.2 


57.7 


77 


20.0 


25.0 


18 


— 6.2 


— 7.7 


194 


720 


90.0 


135 


45.7 


57.2 


76 


19.5 


244 


17 


— 6.6 


— 8.3 


193 


71.5 


89.4 


134 


45.3 


56.6 


75 


19.1 


23.8 


16 


— 7.1 


— 8.8 


192 


71.1 


88.8 


133 


44.8 


56.1 


74 


18.6 


23.3 


15 


— 7.5 


— 9.5 


191 


70.6 


88.3 


132 


44.4 


55.5 


73 


18.2 


22.7 


14 


— 8.0 


-10.0 


190 


70.2 


87.7 


131 


44.0 


55.0 


72 


17.7 


22.2 


13 


— 8.4 


—10.5 


189 


69.7 


87.2 


130 


43.5 


54.4 


71 


17.3 


21.6 


12 


— 8.8 


—11.1 


188 


69.3 


86 6 


129 


43.1 


53.8 


70 


16.8 


21.1 


11 


— 9.3 


-11.6 


187 


6S.8 


86.1 


123 


42.6 


53.3 


69 


16 4 


20.5 


10 


— 9.7 


—122 


186 


69.4 


85.5 


127 


42.2 


52.7 


68 


16.0 


20.0 


9 


—10.2 


-12.7 


185 


68.0 


85.0 


126 


41.7 


52.2 


67 


15.5 


19.4 


8 


-10.6 


—13.3 


184 


67.5 


84.4 


125 


41.3 


51.6 


66 


15.1 


18.8 


7 


-11.1 


—13.8 


183 


67.1 


83.8 


124 


40.S 


51.1 


65 


14.6 


183 


6 


-11.5 


—14.4 


182 


66.6 


83.3 


123 


40.4 


50.5 


64 


14.2 


17.7 


5 


-12.0 


—15.0 


181 


66.2 


82.7 


122 


40 


50.0 


63 


13.7 


17.2 


4 


-12 4 


—15.5 


180 


65.7 


82.2 


121 


39.5 


49.4 


62 


13.3 


16 6 


3 


—12.8 


—16.1 


179 


65.3 


81.6 


120 


39.1 


48.8 


61 


12 8 


16.1 


2 


—13.3 


—16.6 


178 


64.8 


81.8 


119 


38.6 


48.3 


60 


124 


15.5 


1 


—13.7 


—17.2 


177 


644 


80 5 


118 


38.2 


47.7 


59 


12.0 


15.0 





-14.2 


—17.7 


176 


64.0 


80.0 


117 


37.7 


47.2 


58 


11.5 


14.4 


— 1 


—14.6 


-18.3 


175 


63.5 


79.4 


116 


37.3 


46 6 


57 


11.1 


13.8 


— 2 


—15.1 


—18.8 


174 


63.1 


78.8 


115 


36.8 


46.1 


56 


10.6 


13.3 


— 3 


—15.5 


—19.4 


173 


62.6 


78.3 


114 


36.4 


45 5 


55 


10.2 


12.7 


— 4 


—16.0 


—20.0 


172 


62.2 


77.7 


113 


36.0 


45.0 


54 


9.7 


122 


— 5 


-16.4 


-20.5 


171 


61.7 


77.2 


112 


35.5 


44.4 


53 


9.3 


116 


— 6 


—16.8 


-21.1 


170 


61.3 


76.6 


111 


35.1 


43 8 


52 


8.8 


ll.l 


- 7 


—17.3 


-21.6 


169 


60.8 


76.1 


110 


34.6 


43.3 


51 


8.4 


10.5 


— 8 


-17.7 


—22.2 


168 


60.4 


75.5 


109 


34.2 


42.7 


50 


8.0 


10.0 


— 9 


—18.2 


—22.7 


167 


60.0 


75.0 


108 


33.7 


42.2 


49 


7.5 


9.4 


-10 


—18.6 


—23.3 


166 


59 5 


74.4 


107 


33.3 


41.6 


48 


7.1 


8.8 


—11 


—19.1 


—23.8 


165 


59.1 


73.8 


106 


32.8 


41.1 


47 


6.6 


8.3 


—12 


—19.5 


—24.4 


164 


58.6 


73.3 


105 


32.4 


40.5 


46 


6.2 


7.7 


-13 


-20.0 


—25.0 


163 


58.2 


72.7 


104 


32.0 


40.0 


45 


57 


7.2 


—14 


—20.4 


-255 


162 


57.7 


72.2 


103 


31.5 


39.4 


44 


5.3 


6.6 


—15 


—20.8 


-26.1 


161 


57.3 


71.6 


102 


31.1 


38.8 


43 


4.8 


6.1 


-16 


—21.3 


—26.6 


160 


568 


71.1 


101 


30.6 


38.3 


42 


4.4 


5.5 


—17 


—21.7 


—27.2 


159 


56.4 


70.5 


100 


30.2 


37.7 


41 


4.0 


5.0 


—18 


-22.2 


-27.7 


158 


56.0 


70.0 


99 


29.7 


37.2 


40 


3.5 


4.4 


-19 


—22.6 


-28.3 


157 


55.5 


69.4 


98 


29.3 


36.6 


39 


31 


3.8 


—20 


—23.1 


—28.8 


156 


55.1 


68.8 


97 


28.8 


36.1 


38 


2.6 


3.3 








155 


54.6 


68.3 


96 


28.4 


35.5 


37 


2.2 


2.7 








154 


54.2 


67.7 


95 


29.0 


35.0 


36 


1.7 


2.2 









THE 



THI 



and its boiling point, 212°. Reaumur's 
thermometer was that chiefly used in 
France before the Revolution, and is 
that now generally used in Spain, and 
in some other Continental States. In 
its scale, the freezing point is 0° ; and 
the boiling point, 80°. Celsius or the 
Centigrade thermometer, now used 
throughout France, and in the northern 
kingdoms of Europe, the freezing point 
is 0°; and the boiling point, 100°. 
Hence, to reduce degrees of tempera- 
ture of the Centigrade thermometer and 
of that of Reaumur to degrees of Fah- 
renheit's scale, and conversely: — 

Rule 1, Multiply the Centigrade de- 
grees by 9, and divide the product by 
5 ; or multiply the degrees of Reaumur 
by 9, and divide by 4 ; then add 32 to 
the quotient in either case, and the 
sum is the degrees of temperature of 
Fahrenheit's scale. 

R,ule 2. From the number of degrees 
on Fahrenheit's scale, subtract 32; 
multiply the remainder by 5, for Centi- 
grade degrees, or by 4 for those of 
Reaumur's scale, and the product, in 
either case, being divided by 9, will 
give the temperature required. 

To ascertain the internal temperature 
of a hot-house, the thermometer should 
be fixed near its centre, against a pillar, 
and under a cupola, or little roof, shad- 
ing it from the sun. 

A self-registering thermometer should 
be in every house, for it shows the 
highest and lowest degrees of heat 
which have occurred in the twenty- 
four hours; and, therefore, 
Fig. 166. serves as a check upon 
those to whose care they 
are entrusted. 

Bregazzi's bark-bed ther- 
mometer is an excellent in- 
strument for ascertaining 
the bottom heat of hot- 
beds, bark-pits, &c. It is 
a thermometer inclosed in 
a metal tube, perforated to 
admitthe heat, pointed so as 
to be easily thrust down and 
with a small door in the 
, JJ side, for observing the de- 

\«/ gree of temperature shown 

V by the scale. Fig. 166. 

THERMO PS IS. Three species. 
Hardy or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials. Seeds. Light rich soil. 

THESIUM. Six species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials, except T. am- 



plexicaule, a green - house evergreen 
shrub ; increased by cuttings, and grow- 
ing best in loam and peat ; the herba- 
ceous kinds increase by division or 
seeds, and require a chalky soil. 

THESPESIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Half-ripe cuttings. 
Sandy loam. 

THIBAUDIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy loam, 
peat, and sand. 

THINNING. The exhaustion conse- 
quent upon the production of seed, is 
a chief cause of the decay of plants. 
This explains why fruit trees are weak- 
ened or rendered temporarily unpro- 
ductive, and even killed, by being 
allowed to ripen too large a crop of 
fruit, or to "overbear themselves," as 
it is emphatically termed by the gar- 
dener. 

The thinning of fruit is consequently 
one of the most important operations 
of the garden, though one of the least 
generally practised. On the weaker 
branches of the nectarine and peach, 
an average space of nine inches should 
be between each brace of fruit, and on 
the most vigorous wood of the most 
healthy trees, they should not be nearer 
than six inches. This enforcement of 
the importance of thinning fruit, is not 
intended to be confined to the two 
trees specified; it is equally important 
to be attended to in all other fruit- 
bearers, but especially the vine, apri- 
cot, apple, and pear. It should be 
done with a bold fearless hand, and the 
perfection of that which is allowed to 
remain, will amply reward the grower 
in the harvest time for the apparent 
sacrifice now made. But he will not 
reap his reward only in this year, for 
the trees, thus kept unweakened by 
over production, will be able to ripen 
their wood, and deposit that store of 
inspissated sap in their vessels, so ab- 
solutely necessary for their fruitfulness 
next season. 

The berries of the grape vine are best 
thinned from the branches with a sharp- 
pointed pair of scissors, care being 
taken to remove the smallest berries. 
This increases the weight and excel- 
lence of the bunches; for two berries 
will always outweigh four grown on 
the same branchlet of a bunch, be- 
sides being far handsomer, and having 
more juice, as compared with the skins. 
The average weight of the bunches on 



THO 



587 



THU 



a vine maybe taken, when ripe, at half 
a pound each, and with this data it is 
easy to carry into practice Mr. Clement 
Hoare's excellent rule for proportioning 
the crop to the size of the vine. 

If its stem, measured just above the 
ground, be three inches in circumfer- 
ence, it may bear five pounds weight of 
grapes. 

3^ inches 10 lbs. 

4 « 15 « 

Ah " 20 " 

5 « 25 " 

And so five pounds additional for 

every half inch of increased circum- 
ference. 

Thinning is a most necessary opera- 
tion with plants, as well as with the 
fruit they bear. The roots of a plant 
extend in a circle round it, of which the 
stem is the centre. If the roots of ad- 
joining plants extend within each other's 
circle, they mutually rob of nutriment, 
and check each other's growth. Thin- 
ning in the seed-bed is the remedy 
generally applied with too timid a 
hand. 

THOMASIA. Seven species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam, peat., and sand. 

THOUINIA pinnata. Stove ever- 
green shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

THRIFT. Statice armeria. See 
Edgings. 

THRIPS, a genus of predatory in- 
sects. 

T. adonidum is particularly injurious 
to stove plants. Its different forms are 
thus portrayed by that excellent ento- 
mologist, Mr. Curtis : — • 

" The larva? and pups are yellowish- 
white, and the perfect insect is of a 
dull deep black, with the point, and 
sometimes the whole of the abdomen, 
of a rust colour, the wings are dirty 
white, the horns and legs yellowish, 
the extremity of the former black ; it is 
very troublesome in hot-houses, attack- 
ing tropical plants by piercing the under 
side of the leaves, and one often sees 
at the tip of the tail a globule of black- 
ish fluid, which it soon deposits, and by 
innumerable spots of this glutinous mat- 
ter the pores of the leaves are stopped 
up, and large portions of the surface 
become blotched. During March the 
full-grown larvae and pups, which are 
as large as the perfect insect, are found 



the leaves, and at this time the recently 
hatched but perfect insect, either lies 
close under the ribs, or roves about in 
search of a mate." — Gard. Chron. 

T. ochraceus infests the ripe fruit of 
plums, peaches, and nectarines, pierc- 
ing the stalks and causing their fall, and 
rendering the fruit disgusting. It was 
first noticed, and thus described by Mr. 
Curtis : — 

" It is narrow and linear, of a bright 
and deep ochreous colour, the eyes are 
black, the horns appear to be only six- 
jointed and brownish at the tips ; it has 
three ocelli in the crown, the body is 
hairy, the tip pointed and bristly, the 
wings are shorter than the body in the 
male, lying parallel on the back when 
at rest, narrow, especially the under 
ones, and fringed, the hairs longest 
beneath and at the point, tips of feet 
dusky." — Gard. Chron. 

THROAT WORT. Campanula cervi- 
caria. 

THROATWORT. Campanula tra- 
chelium. 

THROATWORT. Trachelium. 

THRYALLIS brachystachys. Stove 
evergreen climber. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

THUJA arbor vita. Eight species. 
Evergreen trees, all hardy except T. 
articulata, which is half-hardy, and T. 
cupressoides, which belongs to the green- 
house. Seeds, and T. pendula, one of 
the rarer kinds, by cuttings. A moist 
soil suits them best. T. occidentalis 
and T. orientalis form admirable ever- 
green hedges, and when properly shear- 
ed, inclining inward from the base so 
that no part is overshadowed, retain 
their beauty for many years. As a 
standard, the occidentalis or American 
arbor vitas, has few superiors among the 
minor evergreens. 

THUNBERGIA. Ten species. Stove 
evergreen climbers, except T. auran- 
tiaca, a green-house herbaceous peren- 
nial. Cuttings or seeds. Sandy loam 
and leaf mould. 

Mr. Maclntyre says, that the species 
of this genus, " though usually grown 
in a stove, will flower freely in a green- 
house, or even when they are planted 
out in the open border, during the sum- 
mer months: if the situation is sheltered, 
and exposed to the influence of the sun, 
they will flower well. In propagating 
those that are intended for planting out, 



in groups, feeding on the under side of I take off the lateral shoots when they are 



THY 



588 

— ♦ — 



TIL 



of a sufficient length, which, if possible, 
should be done in March, so that the 
plants may have attained a medium size 
before they are put out ; pot them in 
equal quantities of peat and sand, then 
plunge them in a hot-bed, and they will 
strike root in a week or two. When 
they are rooted, pot them off into small 
pots filled with good rich loam and 
leaf-mould, mixed with a little sand; 
then replace them in the pit or frame 
until the middle of May, when, if the 
weather is favourable, they may then be 
planted out. If the soil is not naturally 
good, it should be made so; and as the 
plants advance in growth, they should 
be trained to some kind of support, 
which may be of any shape that fancy 
may suggest. If the season is dry, they 
should be watered and syringed. About 
the middle of October, take up the 
plants with good balls, re-pot them, 
and place them in the green-house. 
After they have been there for a short 
time, they maybe removed to the stove, 
where they will keep gay for the greater 
part of the winter. 

" T. alata has a beautiful effect when 
it is planted out on a rock-work, where 
the plant appears in its natural charac- 
ter, clinging to the various projections, 
which it quickly covers." — Gard. Chron. 

THYMBRA spicata. Half-hardy 
evergreen shrub. Young cuttings or 
seeds. Gravelly soil. 

THYME. Thymus vulgaris. 

Varieties. — Broad-leaved Green, Nar- 
row-leaved Green, Variegated, and 
Lemon-scented. The Variegated is 
grown almost solely on account of its 
ornamental foliage. 

Soil and Situation. — A poor, light, 
and dry soil, is best. In moist or rich 
soils, it becomes luxuriant, but deficient 
in its aromatic qualities, and generally 
perishes during the winter. The situa- 
tion cannot be too open. 

Propagation. — By Seeds and rooted 
Slips. — Sowing may be performed from 
the middle of March until about the 
beginning of May, in drills half an inch 
deep, six inches apart, or as an edging 
to a bed or border. The seedlings must 
be kept clear of weeds, and if the season 
is dry, watered moderately twice a week . 
When of about six weeks' growth, or 
when three or four inches high, thin 
to six inches apart, unless grown as 
an edging, when they must be left 
thick. Those removed may be pricked 



out at a similar distance, if required ; 
water occasionally until they have taken 
root. The plants may be left in the 
situations they are placed in at this 
season, or be finally planted out in 
September or October, or in the early 
spring of the following year. To obtain 
slips, some old stools may be divided 
into as many rooted portions as possible, 
or layers may be obtained by loosening 
the soil around them, and pegging the 
lateral shoots beneath the surface. They 
must be planted out at distances similar 
to those raised from seed, water and 
weeding being similarly required. 

In autumn the decayed stalks should 
be cleared away, and a little fresh earth 
scattered and turned in among the 
stools. 

Although it is perennial, yet after 
three or four years, thyme becomes 
stunted and unproductive, consequently 
requiring to be raised periodically from 
seed. 

By Slips. — These may be planted 
from the beginning of February until 
the close of May. 

To obtain Seed. — Some plants should 
be allowed to run up without being 
gathered from, in early summer. The 
seed is ripe during July, and must be 
cut immediately it is so, and laid on a 
cloth to dry, otherwise the first rain will 
wash it out of the seed-vessels. 

THYMUS. Thyme. Nineteen spe- 
cies, and several varieties. Hardy or 
half-hardy evergreen shrubs or trailers. 
T. corsicus, an herbaceous perennial. 
Division, slips, cuttings, or seeds. Dry, 
light, sandy soil. 

THYSANOTUS. Seven species. 
Green-house or half-hardy herbaceous 
or tuberous-rooted perennials. Offsets. 
Sandy loam. 

TIARELLA. Four species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Sandy 
peat. 

TIARIDIUM. Two species. Half- 
hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

TIGER FLOWER. Tigridia. 

TIGRIDIA. Two species. Hardy 
bulbous perennials. Offsets or seeds. 
Light rich soil. 

TILE ROOT. Geissorhiza. 

TILIA. Lime Tree. Three species, 
and many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
trees. Seeds and sometimes layers. 
Any deep, light, and fertile soil suits 
them. 

TILIACORA racemosa. Stove ever- 



TIL 



TIP 



green climber. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

TILLANDSIA. Thirty-one species. 
Stove epiphytes. Suckers or seeds. 
Wood, with a little moss on their roots. 

TINEA, a genus of moths, the larvae 
of which are very destructive. 

T. daucella. Carret Moth. Head and 
back and upper wings reddish-brown ; 
abdomen gray and white. Its cater- 
pillar is greenish-gray with black tuber- 
cles, and lives on the flowers and seeds 
of the carrot, but prefers the parsnep. 

T. padella. Small Ermine Moth is 
white with black dots on the upper 
wings. Eggs deposited in June and 
July, near the blossom buds of the haw- 
thorn, eunymus, apple and pear tree ; 
caterpillars appear in autumn, and in- 
close the twigs with a web. In the fol- 
lowing spring they attack the petals and 
calyx. Color, dull lead with a black 
head. — Kollar. 

T. Clerckella. Pear Tree Blister 
Moth. The caterpillars of this raise 
dark brown blisters on the leaves of the 
pear tree, and less often on those of the 
apple. The moth is active and minute, 
shining like pearly satin, the wings hav- 
ing an orange ground spotted with 
black and other colors. It appears in 
May. Mr. Curtis says, — " To check 
this disease, it will be advisable to wash 
the tree with soapsuds the end of May 
or beginning of June, when the moths 
are pairing and laying eggs for a future 
progeny ; and if a very valuable tree 
be only partially attacked, the blistered 
leaves might be gathered and burnt as 
soon as any spots began to appear in 
August." — Gard. Chron. 

T. capitella. Triple-spotted Currant 
Tinea. The larva? of this feed upon 
the pith of the young shoots of the cur- 
rant, which they attack in the spring. 
The moth itself is fuscous ; the head 
with an ochreous tuft; superior wings 
bronzed, spotted with purple and yel- 
low. 

T. porectella. Rocket or Gray-streak 
Moth, has its habits and forms thus de- 
scribed by Mr. Curtis : — 

" During the middle and latter end 
of April, as the shoots of the rockets 
advance, it is found that the leaves ad- 
here firmly together, and those that 
liberate themselves are perforated with 
large holes. On forcibly opening a 
shoot, for the young leaves are con- 
nected by silken threads, a small green 



caterpillar of different shades, varying 
with its age, is found in or near the 
centre feeding upon the tender leaves, 
and sometimes a little family of four or 
five inhabit the same head. The head 
feelers and horns of our little moth are 
white, the latter with a few black spots 
near the tips ; the thorax is cream-co- 
loured, the sides brown, upper wings 
lance-shaped, very pale clay brown, 
with whitish streaks. Perhaps the best 
method of extirpating them would be 
to search for the young caterpillars 
between the leaves on the first symp- 
toms of their presence, and extracting 
them with a small pair of forceps, such 
as are used for microscopic objects ; 
but as some might be too minute at that 
early period to be detected on the first 
search, this operation must be repeated. 
Pinching the maggots in the bud is also 
recommended as well as dusting the 
plants with flower of sulphur, which I 
fear would be of little use. I think, 
however, that a portable frame might 
be constructed and covered with tarred 
or painted canvas, which could be 
placed over a bush or small bed of 
flowers, when it is attacked by insects ; 
and it would then be easy to fumigate 
any plant by means of an aperture with 
a tube of leather or any pliable mate- 
rial which could be tied or plugged up, 
so as to keep in the smoke of tobacco, 
or even of sulphur, which last would 
in ten minutes destroy every living ani- 
mal within the inclosed space." — Gard. 
Chron. 

TIPULA. Crane Fly or Daddy-long- 
legs. 

T. oleracea, the grubs or " leather 
jackets," so injurious to the market 
gardener, are its larva?. They attack 
the roots of scarlet beans, lettuces, 
dahlias, potatoes, &c, from May to 
August. During the last month and 
September they become pupa?. Mr. 
Curtis observes, that — " It is said that 
lime water will not kill them, and sug- 
gests that if quicklime was scattered on 
the ground at night, it would destroy 
them when they come to the surface to 
feed ; and all the gnats that are found 
on the walls, palings, ground or else- 
where, should be killed, especially the 
female, which would prevent any eggs 
being deposited in the ground. A mix- 
ture of lime and gas water distributed 
by a watering pot over grass, has com- 
pletely exterminated the larvae, where 



TIT 



590 



TOM 



they had been exceedingly destructive, 
and by sweeping the grass with a bag- 
net, like an angler's landing net, only 
covered with canvas, immense numbers 
of the gnats might be taken and de- 
stroyed." — Gard. Chron. 

TITHONIA tagetiflora. Stove 
evergreen tree. Cuttings. Light rich 
soil. 

TOBACCO. Nicotiana, whether in 
the form of snuff, or its decoction in 
water, or its smoke whilst burning, is 
very destructive to insects. 

Tobacco paper is paper saturated with 
the decoction of tobacco, and when 
burnt emits a fume nearly as strong. It 
is an easy mode of generating the 
smoke. Whenever plants are smoked 
they should be done, so on two follow- 
ing nights, and then be syringed the 
following morning. Mr. Cameron says, 
— " I have always found tobacco paper 
the most efficacious substance to fumi- 
gate with for destroying the aphis with- 
out doing any injury to the plants; if 
the house is not filled too rapidly with 
smoke, and is allowed to reach the 
glass, without coming in contact with 
any of the plants, it then descends as 
it cools, without doing any injury. 
Plants fumigated in frames, or under 
hand-glasses, are most liable to be in- 
jured by the heat of the smoke, if not 
done cautiously. There is a spurious 
kind of tobacco paper sometimes offer- 
ed in spring by the tobacconists, appa- 
rently made to meet the increased de- 
mand, and this kind of paper will bring 
the leaves off plants, without killing 
many of the aphides. It is of a lighter 
color than the genuine sort, and may 
be readily detected by the smell being 
very different. Foliage should be per- 
fectly dry when a house is fumigated, 
and should not be syringed till next 
morning. If plants are syringed im- 
mediately after fumigation, many of 
the aphides will recover even where 
they have dropped off the plants, a 
fact which any one may soon prove 
after fumigating a house." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Another very simple mode of fumi- 
gating plants in frames, and under 
hand-glasses turned over them for the 
purpose, is as follows: — "Dissolve a 
tablespoonful of saltpetre in a pint of 
water ; take pieces of the coarsest 
brown paper, six inches wide, and ten 
inches long, steep them thoroughly in 



the solution, dry them and keep till 
wanted. To fumigate, roll one of the 
pieces into a pipe like a cigar, leaving 
the hollow half an inch in diameter, 
which fill with tobacco, twist one end 
and stick it into the soil, light the other, 
and it will burn gradually away for an 
hour or more." 

Tobacco smoke should not be ad- 
mitted to fruit trees when in bloom, 
nor when the fruit is ripening, as it 
imparts to them a flavour. See Fumi- 
gating. 

Tobacco Water is usually made from 
what is known as Tobacconists'' Liquor, 
being a liquor expressed by them, and 
full of ammonia and the acrid oil of the 
plant. To every gallon of this add five 
gallons of water. This mixture with 
Read's garden syringe may be sprinkled 
over the trees, putting it on with the 
finest rose, and being careful to wet all 
the leaves. This operation is to be 
performed only in the hottest sunshine, 
as the effect is then much greater than 
when the weather is dull; five gallons 
of liquor reduced as above stated, 
cleanses seventeen peach and nectarine 
trees, averaging seventeen feet in 
length, and twelve in height. The 
black glutinous aphis, provincially call- 
ed blight, so destructive to the cherry 
trees, and in fact every species of aphis, 
is destroyed in the same way with equal 
facility ; the grubs which attack the 
apricot, may be destroyed almost in- 
stantly by immersing the leaves infested 
in this liquor. — Gard. Mag. 

As the tobacconists' liquor cannot be 
obtained always, tobacco water may be, 
in such case, made by pouring half a 
gallon of boiling water upon one ounce 
of strong tobacco, and allowing it to re- 
main until cold, and then strained. 

TOCOCA. Two species. Stove ever- 
green trees. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 

TOCOYENA longiflora. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat and 
loam. 

TODDALIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

TODEA. Two species. Ferns. 
Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Division or seeds. Loam and peat. 

TOLPIS. Five species. Hardy an- 
nuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

"TOMATO or Love-apple. This 
plant is a native of South America, and 
perhaps of the West Indies; thence in- 



TON 



591 



TOO 



troduced into this country. But a few 
years since it was scarcely known as an 
esculent — now it is in very general use. 

" There are six or seven varieties, 
between which there is not much real 
difference ; the common red is equal to 
any. 

" Cultivation same as directed for the 
Melongena, or Egg Plant. It is, how- 
ever, more free in growth, and will pro- 
duce fruit tolerably early, when sown 
on the open border. 

" On the approach of frost pull up 
gome of the plants, (root and all,) which 
are well laden with fruit, and hang them 
up in a dry, airy apartment. In this 
manner it may be continued in perfec- 
tion for some time longer than the natu- 
ral season." — Rural Reg. 

TONQUIN BEAN. Dipterix. 

TOOL-HOUSE. Upon this too much 
neglected garden edifice, the editor has 
been favoured by Mr. Barnes, ofBicton 
Gardens, with the following excellent 
remarks : — " Have a place for every- 
thing, and everything in its place j — 
kept in good condition, and at all times 
put away clean ; — for omission of which 
have rules and fines placed in each of 
the tool-houses, regularly enforced, and 
payment demanded for each fine on the 
labourers' pay-day. At Bicton, a book 
is kept for entering each fine, and a 
separate account given of each fine, and 
for what, or why, it was enforced; an- 
nually, Lady Rolle doubles the amount 
so collected, and if good order has been 
kept, and only a small sum so collected, 
her ladyship trebles the amount. I add 
my own mite, and each foreman theirs, 
as a sort of compound for any matter 
that may have slipped our memories, 
&c. ; the amount is then placed in the 
Savings Bank, as a reserve sum in case 
of illness, &c. We have the same order 
and regulation kept in each tool-shed, 
that is to say, the tool-shed of each de- 
partment — that I need here describe 
only one. The tool-shed of the hot- 
house and flower-garden department is 
a lean-to shed at the back of a hot-house, 
substantially built, and covered with 
slate: — length, fifty-four feet; width, 
thirteen feet ; height at back, fifteen 
feet; and height in front, nine feet; 
paved all through with Yorkshire flag- 
stones, which are neatly swept up every 
night, the last thing, and washed every 
Saturday, thoroughly. There is a door | 



the front wall, and a window on each 
side of the centre door. Strong beams 
are thrown across from front to back, 
and strong planks laid on them, which 
form a useful loft for placing mats, 
stakes, laths for tally making, brooms, 
nets, canvas for covering and shading, 
&c. &c. Within two feet of the roof, 
against the back wall, is placed a row 
of pegs the whole length of the shed, 
for hanging the long-handled tools, such 
as grass and leaf rakes, long-handled 
Dutch hoes and iron rakes, &c; on the 
next row of pegs, the whole length of 
the shed, are placed the various kinds 
of draw hoes, tan forks, dung forks and 
prongs, strong forks for digging and 
surface stirring, spades and shovels of 
various kinds, pickaxes, mattocks and 
bills, dung drags, edging shears, &c. ; 
on a third row of pegs, still lower, are 
placed the water pots, all numbered, 
with initials as well, thus — B, G — 45, 
or 60, whatever the number may run 
to ; underneath those is a row more of 
pegs, for placing the noses of the water 
pots — thus the back wall is furnished. 
The front wall, half way, is furnished 
with shelves for placing shreds and 
nails, rope yarn, tallies, flower pegs, 
whetstones, rubber or scythe-stones, 
and many other small articles. Under- 
neath those shelves are pegs for hang- 
ing the hammers, axes, saws, hatchets, 
mallets and stake-drivers, trowels, hand- 
forks, reels and lines, hedge-clipping 
shears, scythes, chisels, the various 
sizes of one-handed crane-necked hoes, 
crowbars, mops, hair -brushes and 
brooms, and various other articles. 
The scythes are hung up over the end 
beam, and on the other side without 
shelves the hand-barrows are placed ; 
birch and heath brooms, both round and 
fan-shaped, that are in daily use; and 
various other articles. The garden rules 
are hung in a conspicuous place ; also 
in the tool-house. Every tool is to be 
put into its proper or allotted place, 
every night, thoroughly cleansed; any 
omission of which subjects the defaulter 
to a fine. Each tool-house is under the 
same system. We have separate wheel- 
barrow sheds ; sheds for placing soils in 
the dry, arranged in old casks; varieties 
of sand, pebbles, and flints, for potting 
purposes, with lofts over for flower pot 
stowage ; — a shed for the liquid manure 
casks, which is one of the most essen- 



at each end, and one in the centre ofjtial and valuable of all. A shed for 



TOR 



592 

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TR A 



placing the charred articles of all kinds, 
equal to the last ; a potting shed ; mush- 
room shed ; stove shed ; fruit rooms, 
and onion lofts, &c. &c. — Each and all 
are kept under the above regulations." 

TO REN I A scabra and cordifolia. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs. Seeds. 
Sandy loam. There are two other spe- 
cies not worth cultivating. 

TORTRIX. A genus of moths. 

T. luscana generates a red grub, and 
T. cynosbana a black-spotted green 
grub, both very destructive of blossom 
buds. 

T. vitisana. Vine Tortrix. Found 
on the vine in April and May ; head 
yellow; upper wings marbled with rusty 
and gray colours. Caterpillars appear 
as the blossom buds open, which they 
unite with white threads. 

T. nigricana. Red Plum Grub Tor- 
trix. Moth black, appearing in June. 
Eggs deposited on the plum; grub, 
small red, pierces the fruit, and is found 
near the stone. Mr. Curtis observes, 
that — " If the plums that have fallen off 
be examined, a small red caterpillar 
will be found within it; the caterpillar 
being generally full grown when the 
plum falls off, soon creeps out, and 
penetrates the loose bark, forming a 
case in which it remains during the 
winter. Early in the spring it changes 
into a light brown pupa, and the moth 
emerges about June. The moth is not 
so large as a house-fly; its wings are 
almost black, and when the sun is 
shining on them, they have a remarka- 
bly metallic lustre ; on the outer edge 
of the fore wings there is an appearance 
of fine silver dust. Among the reme- 
dies proposed to lessen the ravages of 
this insect, it is recommended to shake 
the trees, and remove all the fruit that 
falls off; and another good method is 
to scrape the rough pieces of bark of 
the stem, under which the cocoons are 
concealed ; this must be done late in 
the autumn, or early in the spring." — 
Gard. Chron. 

T. Bergmanniana. Rose Tortrix. 
Differs little to a common observer 
from the preceding. " Where bushes 
are much infested with the larvae of 
these insects, it is much better to cut 
them down and burn the shoots ; this 
and hand-picking are the only remedies 
we are acquainted with. Care must be 
taken not to disturb the maggots when 
collecting them, for they will let them- 



selves down by threads, and thus es- 
cape." — Gard. Chron. 

T. ocellana. This is the parent of 
the red bud caterpillar, which destroys 
the buds of the apple and pear. Upper 
wings gray, with a white transverse 
band. 

T. Waberiana. Plum tree Tortrix. 
Its larva feeds on the inner bark of the 
plum, apricot, almond, and peach. The 
grubs pierce holes through the bark, 
which may be detected by small heaps 
of red powder upon it. Moth brown ; 
grub greenish, with a red head. 

T. pomonana. Codling Moth. Its 
reddish-white grub is common in apples 
and pears. Moth light gray, streaked 
with dark gray. Seen of an evening 
during May, and the grubs appear soon 
after. All fallen apples should be de- 
stroyed, because they usually contain 
this or other grubs, which will otherwise 
produce moths, and multiply the evil. 

" T. turionana, T. hyrcyniana, T. 
resinella, and T. buoliana, all infest 
pine trees, injuring them by depositing 
their eggs in the buds, which are sub- 
sequently preyed upon by their cater- 
pillars." — Kollar. — Gard. Chron. 

TOUCH-ME-NOT. Impatiens. 

TOURRETIA lappacea. Hardy 
climbing annual. Seeds. Light soil. 

TOWER MUSTARD. Arabis Tur- 
rita. 

TRACHELIUM cceruleum. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Seeds or cut- 
tings. Light soil. 

TRACHYMENE. Six species. Green- 
house annuals; increased by seed, and 
green-house and stove evergreen shrubs, 
increased by young cuttings. Loam 
and sandy peat suits them all. 

TRACHYTELLA actaa. Green- 
house evergreen climber. Ripe cut- 
tings. Peat and loam. 

TRADESCANTIA. Twenty-seven 
species. Chiefly stove and hardy herb- 
aceous perennials. A few hardy an- 
nuals, and stove and green-house ever- 
green trailers. T. paniculata is a green- 
house biennial. T. tuberosa is a stove 
tuberous-rooted perennial. Division. 
The annuals, seeds. Rich light soil 
suits them all. 

TRAGOPOGON. Goat's beard. Fif- 
teen species. Hardy biennials. Seeds. 
Common soil. T.porrifolius is the gar- 
den Salsafy. 

TRAGOPYRUM. Three species. 



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593 



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Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers. Peat 
and sandy loam. 

TRAILERS. See Creepers. 

TRAIN OIL. See Animal. Matters. 

TRAINING has for its object render- 
ing plants more productive either of 
flowers or of fruit, by regulating the 
number and position of their branches. 
If their number be too great, they over- 
shadow those below them, and by ex- 
cluding the heat and light, prevent that 
elaboration of the sap required for the 
production of fructification. If they are 
too few, the sap is expended in the pro- 
duction of more, and in extending the 
surface of the leaves required for the 
digestion of the juices. 

The position of the branches is im- 
portant, because, if trained against a 
wall, they obtain a higher temperature, 
and protection from winds; and if 
trained with their points below the 
horizontal, the return of the sap is 
checked. Shy-flowering shrubs, as Di- 
placus puniceus, are made to blossom 
abundantly, and freely-flowering shrubs, 
as Cytisus hybridus, are made to blos- 
som earlier, by having their branches 
bent below the horizontal line. Dr. 
Lindley, observing upon these facts, 
proceeds to remark, that — " If a stem 
is trained erect, it will be more vigorous 
than if placed in any other position, and 
its tendency to bear leaves rather than 
flowers will be increased : in proportion 
as it deviates from the perpendicular is 
its vigour diminished. For instance, if 
a stem is headed back, and only two 
opposite buds are allowed to grow, they 
will continue to push equally, so long 
as their relation to the perpendicular is 
the same ; but if one is bent towards a 
horizontal direction, and the other al- 
lowed to remain, the growth of the 
former will be immediately checked ; if 
the depression is increased, the weak- 
ness of the branch increases proportion- 
ally ; and this may be carried on till the 
branch perishes. In training, this fact 
is of the utmost value in enabling the 
gardener to regulate the symmetry of a 
tree. It, however, by no means follows, 
that because out of two contiguous 
branches, one growing erect, and the 
other forced into a downward direction, 
the latter may die, that all branches 
trained downwards will die. On the 
contrary, an inversion of their natural 
position is of so little consequence to 
their healthiness, that no effect seems 
38 



in general to be produced, beyond that 
of causing a slow circulation, and the 
formation of flowers." — Theory of Hort. 
The reason of this appears in the fact, 
that a plant propels its sap with greatest 
force perpendicularly, so much so that 
the sap rising in a vine branch growing 
in a right line from the root, with a force 
capable of sustaining a column of mer- 
cury twenty-eight inches high, will, if 
the branch be bent down to a right 
angle, support barely twenty-three 
inches, and if bent a few degrees be- 
low the horizontal, the column sustained 
will not be more than twenty-one 
inches. This is the reason why at such 
angles gardeners find the trained 
branches of their wall trees rendered 
more productive of blossoms, and fur- 
nished with a smaller surface of leaves. 

Fig. 167. 




A similar effect is produced by training 
a branch in a waving form, for two- 
thirds of its length are placed horizon- 
tally, as in the accompanying outline. 
— Princ. of Gardening. 

On the practical parts of training, 
Abercrombie has the following good 
directions: — 

" When it is intended to raise trained 
fruit-trees for walls and espaliers, some 
of the best young plants of the respect- 
ive sorts, both dwarf and half-standards 
of one year old, with the first shoots 
from the budding and grafting entire, 
should be transplanted in autumn, at 
eight or ten feet distance, against any 
kind offence having a south aspect, in 
a free situation, not less than four or 



TRA 



594 

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five feet high, either a wall, paling, 
reed-fence, &c. 

" The trees thus planted, in spring 
following, just as they begin to make an 
effort for shooting, should be headed 
down ; that is, the first shoots from the 
budding, &c, to be cut down to within 
three or four eyes or buds of its place 
of insertion in the stock, especially 
those intended for dwarfs ; also the 
half-standards, if worked on tall stocks; 
and this heading down both prevents 
their running up too high with a single 
naked stem, branchless below, and 
causes them to throw out lateral shoots 
from the lower part, to fill the wall or 
espalier regularly with branches quite 
from the bottom upward ; for they will 
soon after push forth strong shoots from 
all the remaining lower buds, which 
shoots, when of due length, in summer, j 
should be trained along to the fence, 
equally to the right and left, at full 
length, till next spring, when these 
shoots may also be cut down to six or 
eight inches' length, to force out a 
further supply of more branches near 
the bottom. Continue shortening, more 
or less, the two or three first sprigs on 
the last summer's shoots, as you shall 
see necessary, in order to obtain a pro- 
per spread of lower branches to give 
the tree its intended form. Though this 
work of pruning short, to obtain Jaterals, 
may also be performed occasionally in 
summer, in May, or early in June, on 
the strong young shoots of the year, 
cutting or pinching them down to a 
few eyes, and they will thereby ^hrow 
out lower laterals the same season^ and, 
by that means, a year's growth is gained. 
Branches thus gained arrive to proper 
length in summer for training in ; they 
should all be trained along close to the 
wall ; and if any fore-right or back 
shoots come out, rub them all off close, 
leaving the well-placed side shoots in 
every part; and let the whole, or as 
many as possible, be trained in during 
this season, to have plenty to choose 
from in the general pruning season of 
winter or spring — train equally to the 
right and left on each side of the tree, 
in a spreading somewhat horizontal 
manner, nowhere crossing one another, 
but at parallel distances, and mostly 
all at full length during the summer's 
growth. 

" In the winter pruning we are to 
observe that, if more wood was trained 



up in summer than now appears neces- 
sary, or than can be trained in with due 
regularity, retrench such superfluities; 
likewise any remaining fore-right or 
back shoots, and other irregular growths 
omitted in summer, not eligibly situated 
for training in, should also be now all 
pruned out, cutting everything of the 
above nature, both superabundances 
and irregularities, quite close to their 
origin, being careful, however, to leave 
all the regular, well - placed, useful 
shoots that can readily be trained with 
due regularity, without crowding or 
crossing one another, all of which 
should also be cleared from all lateral 
or side shoots, if any; and with respect 
to their being shortened more or less, 
or left entire, you will order, according 
to your discretion, agreeably to the 
above-mentioned hints. 

" Thus, having obtained a regular 
spread of branches sufficient to effect 
the proper expansion requisite to form 
a trained wall or espalier tree, they 
must then be pruned according to the 
method peculiar to each respective sort 
of fruit, as directed in their culture, 
each under its proper genus. Training 
espalier trees is effected exactly in the 
manner as above, only these may be 
also trained as they stand in the nurse- 
ry lines, in the open quarters or bor- 
ders, &c, by ranging some stout stakes 
in the ground, along one side of each 
tree. Where a general luxuriancy pre- 
vails, while under the course of train- 
ing, or after, it is advisable, in the work 
of pruning, to use the knife with mode- 
ration ; for the more wood we cut out 
of a generally vigorous tree, and the 
more the shoots are shortened, the more 
vigorous will it continue to shoot with- 
out ever becoming properly fruitful ; 
and if severe cutting is repeatedly 
continued, the tree often exhausts so 
greatly by luxuriant shooting, that it 
suddenly assumes a weak consumptive 
state. Such trees as are vigorous only 
in particular shoots, may, in some cases, 
have such shoots radically retrenched, 
and in others reserved ; that if a very 
vigorous shoot runs considerably strong- 
er than all the rest, and seems to sup- 
port its vigour at the expense of the 
others in its neighbourhood, it should 
be retrenched to the very origin, as 
early in summer as discoverable. In 
other cases, if a luxuriant shoot arise 
in any vacant space towards the bot- 



T RA 



595 



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torn, especially where a supply of more 
wood is wanted, it may be retained, 
and pinched or topped down to a few 
eyes in May or June ; it will send out 
several laterals below, the same sea- 
son ; and instead of one rude luxuriant 
shoot, there will be four or five of mo- 
derate growth to fill the vacancy more 
effectually, and that will much sooner 
attain to fruitfulness." — Abercrombie. 

Besides the above usual modes of 
training — for which see also Walls, 
Espaliers, and Standards — there are 
two other modes which deserve notice. 

Quenouille Training " consists in 
training one upright central shoot in 
summer, and shortening it down to 
fifteen inches at the winter pruning, in 
order that it may, at that height, pro- 
duce branches forming a tier, to be 
trained, in the first instance, horizon- 
tally. The shoot produced by the up- 
permost bud is, however, trained as 
upright as possible during the summer, 
and is cut back, so as to produce an- 
other tier fifteen inches above the first, 
and so on until the tree has reached the 
desired height. In this climate, it is 
necessary to train the shoot downwards, 
which is easily done by tying those of 
the first tier to short stakes, those of 
each successive tier being fastened to 
the branches below them. When the 
shoots are thus arched downwards at 
full length, or nearly so, they soon 
come into a bearing state ; but in this 
climate, if cut short, as the French do, 
they only send up a number of shoots 
annually. The plan answers very well 
where it can be at all times properly 
attended to ; but if this cannot be 
guaranteed, the ordinary form of dwarf 
is preferable. Quenouilles require 
more time to be devoted to them than 
espaliers." — Gard. Chron. 

Balloon Training. — On this mode I 
merely extract the following from Dr. 
Lindley's Theory of Horticulture : — 

" What are called balloon apples and 
pears, are formed by forcing downwards 
all the branches of standard trees till 
the points touch the earth, and they 
have the merit of producing large crops 
of fruit in a very small compass; their 
upper parts are, however, too much 
exposed to radiation at night, and the 
crop from that part of the branches is 
apt to be cut off". One of the prettiest 
applications of this principle is that of 
Mr. Charles Lawrence, described in 



the Gardener's Magazine, viii. 680, by 
means of which standard rose trees are 
converted into masses of flowers. The 
figure given in that work represents the 
variety called the ' Bizarre de la Chine,' 
which flowers most abundantly to the 
ends of its branches, and was truly a 
splendid object." 

TRANSPLANTING is most success- 
fully performed, whenever the roots are 
least required for supplying the leaves 
with moisture. The reason is obvious, 
because the roots are always in some 
degree broken, and lessened in their 
absorbing power, by the process of 
removal. Now the leaves require least 
moisture in the autumn and winter, 
therefore, these are the seasons when 
transplanting is effected with least in- 
jury to a plant. That such is the ra- 
tionale of seasonable transplanting is 
proved by the fact that pots in plants, 
with reasonable care, may be trans- 
planted at any season. This rule, too, 
is sanctioned both by theory and prac- 
tice — transplant as early as possible 
after the leaves cease to require a sup- 
ply of sap, the reason for which is, 
that the vital powers in the roots con- 
tinue active long afterthey have become 
torpid in the branches and fresh roots 
are formed during the autumn and 
winter, to succeed those destroyed by 
transplanting. 

" If the months of November and 
December," says Dr. Lindley, " are 
the most favourable for transplanting 
deciduous trees, and March and April 
the worst, how much more important 
must be those periods to evergreens. 
An evergreen differs from a deciduous 
plant in this material circumstance, that 
it has no season of rest; its leaves re- 
main alive and active during the winter, 
and, consequently, it is in a state of 
perpetual growth. I do not mean that 
it is always lengthening itself in the form 
of new branches, for this happens peri- 
odically only in evergreens, and is usu- 
ally confined to the spring ; but that its 
circulation, perspiration, assimilation, 
and production of roots are incessant. 
Such being the case, an evergreen, 
when transplanted, is liable to the same 
risks as deciduous plants in full leaf, 
with one essential difference. The 
leaves of evergreens are provided with 
a thick hard epidermis, which is tender 
and readily permeable to aqueous ex- 
halations only when quite young and 



TRA 



596 

— ♦ — 



TRA 



which becomes very firm and tough by I exhibit no appearance of having been 
the arrival of winter, whence the rigi- removed. In the first place, we make 
dity always observable in the foliage of i the hole where the tree is intended to 



evergreen trees and shrubs. Such a 
coating as this is capable, in a much 
less degree than one of a thinner tex- 
ture, such as we find upon deciduous 
plants, of parting with aqueous vapour ; 
and, moreover, its stomates are few, 
small, comparatively in active, and 
chiefly confined to the under side, 
where they are less exposed to dryness 
that if they were on the upper side also. 



be placed sufficiently large for the roots 
to be extended at full length; and, in 
removing the tree, great care is taken 
to avoid cutting or injuring the roots. 
If a ball of earth is retained so much 
the better, as it will assist in steadying 
the tree; but, if well staked, it is not 
of much importance. As it is essential 
that the roots be as little exposed to the 
atmosphere as possible, we provide 



i But although evergreens, from their sufficient earth, either sifted or finely 



structure, are not liable to be affected 
by the same external circumstances as 
deciduous plants in the same degree ; 
and although, therefore, transplanting 
an evergreen in leaf is not the same 
thing as transplanting a deciduous tree 
in the same condition, yet it must be 
obvious that the great extent of perspir- 
ing surface upon the one, however low 
its action, constitutes much difficulty, 
superadded to whatever difficulty there 
may be in the other case. 

" Hence we are irresistibly driven to 
the conclusion that whatever care is re- 
quired in the selection of a suitable 
season damp, and not too cold for a 
deciduous tree, is still more essential 
for an evergreen." — Theory of Hort. 

It sometimes happens that transplant- 
ing has to be performed at the most in- 
auspicious seasons ; and when this is the 



reduced by a spade or rake, and have 
in readiness as many buckets of water 
as will nearly fill the hole; the tree is 
then placed in its intended position ; the 
whole of the water is then thrown over 
the roots, the fibres of which will be 
supported by it. The fine earth is then 
expeditiously sprinkled over the surface 
of the water, and, gradually subsiding, 
fills all the interstices, and gives sta- 
bility to the tree, which is further se- 
cured by three stakes placed at right 
angles, which finishes the operation. 
The earth must not be trodden, as is 
often done." — Card. Chron. 

The following observations, in the 
Gardener's Chronicle, so epitomize all 
that is practically essential in trans- 
planting, that it is extracted with little 
abbreviation : — 

" In the removal of large trees or 



case the following directions, given by j shrubs, first form the pit, where the 
Mr. Williamson, of the Sheffield Bo- J plant is to be planted, from twelve to 
tanic Garden, may be followed with j fourteen inches wider than the roots 



success : — 

« At the Sheffield Botanical Gardens 
we have for some time practised what 
we term the washing i?i-system, which 
has been attended with success in every 
instance. Indeed, I doubt not that by 
this method trees of considerable size 
may be removed, at any season of the 
year, with safety. Towards the latter 
end of last May I had occasion to form 
a block or screen, in a situation fully 
exposed to the sun, for which purpose 
I transplanted a number of tall trees 



will reach. 

" In lifting laurels, and other ever- 
greens, always bind up the plant with 
strong straw ropes, tying one end of the 
rope to one of the strong branches in 
the centre of the plant, and, taking up 
all the branches, draw into as small a 
compass as possible, without injuring 
the plant. Clear the roots, and, sup- 
posing the plant to be a common laurel, 
six or eight feet high, begin as many 
feet from the main stem, and cut a 
trench round the plant at the said dis- 



and evergreens, not one of which was tance, as deep as it may be supposed 



injured by the removal ; and early this 
May we disposed of upwards of a dozen 
large horse-chestnuts, Spanish ditto, 
limes, sycamore, and birches, all from 
ten to eighteen feet high, in full leaf, to 
a gentleman in this neighbourhood, the 
planting of which I superintended. All 
at this time (a fortnight subsequently) 



the roots have gone down ; then reduce 
the ball by degrees with a fork, clean- 
ing out the soil with a spade, and taking 
care not to injure any of the roots or 
fibres. These tie up in trusses with 
matting, in order to prevent them', as 
much as possible, from being injured. 
Clear the roots to within two or three 



TRA 



597 

— • — 



TRA 



feet of the main stem, and then under- 
mine the solid piece that is left. 

" When the plant is ready for re- 
moval, the strength for lifting it will 
depend upon its size, and the weight of 
the ball left, if any. When the plant 
is brought to the pit and placed in the 
centre of it, untie the roots, and dress 
with a sharp knife any that may have 
been bruised. Shorten strong ones, 
that they may make young fibres, upon 
which the welfare of the plant in a great 
measure depends. After dressing the 
roots, lay them all carefully out round 
the pit. If there are one, two, or three 
layers of roots, as is often the case, keep 
each layer by itself, and lay out the 
undermost first, taking care to spread 
out every fibre with the hand. On these 
spread well-broken soil; but in doing 
this, care must be taken not to club the 
roots together. After the first layer of 
roots is well covered proceed with the 
next, and so on until all is finished. 

" After transplanting, never give the 
plants water oftener than once, which 
is immediately after the operation of 
planting is performed. Many young 
trees and shrubs are destroyed (after 
having been transplanted) by the fre- 
quent application of water in dry 
weather. After the roots are all well 
covered, leave the pit three or four 
inches unfilled, and apply the water 
according to the state of the soil, and 
size of the plant. To a shrub, that 
covers about four square yards of 
ground (if the soil is not very moist), 
give about eight common sized water- 
ing potfuls, and so on for every square 
yard of ground covered. The only 
treading to be permitted is merely what 
may take place in going round them in 
taking away the rope and spreading out 
the branches in their original position. 
The above remarks apply well to the 
common and Portugal laurel, and also 
to deciduous trees and shrubs in gene- 
ral. A few kinds that are difficult to 
remove without balls when they are 
large plants, are the following : — the 
holly is one that is impatient of being 
removed without a ball, and in free 
light soils it will not lift with one. The 
best method with it is this. Two years 
before removal , open a trench round the 
plant about two feet from the main stem 
(more or less, according to its size). 
Two feet will do for a plant six feet 
high. Go as deep as there are roots, 



and cut clean off all those outside of 
the ball, and again fill in the soil. In 
about two years afterwards, the cut 
roots will have made firm young fibres, 
which supply the plant with food when 
it is transplanted. In lifting them, al- 
ways try to get a good ball with them. 
The Laurestinus is not very fond of 
being removed without a ball. There 
are but very few of the fir tribe that can 
be transplanted after they have attained 
the height of from six to sixteen feet ; 
but the best are the silver, the spruce, 
and the Weymouth pines. The silver 
fir bears transplanting tolerably well, 
provided care is taken not to injure the 
roots, which run horizontally near the 
surface. The spruce lifts well, even 
when sixteen feet high ; and the Wey- 
mouth pines from ten to twelve feet 
high. In lifting them always try to get 
good balls with them, keeping their 
roots as entire as possible, and making 
the pits wherein they are to be planted 
large, so as to get all their roots spread 
out as regularly as possible ; when 
covered, water in the same manner as 
evergreen shrubs. In lifting and trans- 
planting hard-wooded trees, such as 
oaks, &c, keep their roots as entire as 
possible, and shorten in any strong 
ones ; they should be well watered. It 
is very essential to the welfare of plants 
that have been transplanted to have 
them well supported to prevent them 
from shaking with the wind, &c. For 
trees from ten to twenty feet high, use 
three poles, set up in the form of a tri- 
angle ; roll a straw rope round the stem 
of the tree, for the poles to rest on, as 
it prevents them from hurting the bark ; 
then, after tying the poles firmly to the 
tree, and fixing them in the ground, the 
work is finished. For plants of smaller 
size use small rope, tied in the same 
manner to the tree, and fixed to stakes 
driven into the ground, after the man- 
ner of tent ropes. 

" No doubt the summer months are 
not proper for transplanting, therefore 
it should be avoided if possible. From 
October to April, all shrubs, &c, may 
be lifted with safety. November is 
preferable for lifting large plants, as 
those planted about that time always 
send out young roots during winter ; 
frequently by February, from one to 
three inches long. — Gard. Chron. 

T R A P A. Four species. Aquatic 
plants. Green-house, stove, and hardy 



TRA 



598 

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TRE 



annuals and biennials. Seeds. Rich 
loamy soil, in water. 

TRAVELER'S JOY. Clematis vi- 
talba. 

TRAVELER'S JOY. Clematis vi- 
orna. 

TREACLE MUSTARD. Clypeola. 

TREE CELANDINE. Bocconiafru- 
tescens. 

TREE GUARDS. The following are 
cheap and effectual. Mr. W. Brown, 
gardener at Merevale Hall, uses stakes 
about the thickness of the wrist, seven 
feet in length, and tolerably straight: 
he chops each a little flat on one side, 
gets some iron hooping a little thicker 
than coopers are in the habit of using 
for barrels; he punches holes through 
it six inches apart (with one near each 
end), nails it to the stakes on the chop- 
ped side, one foot from the top of 
them, and one foot from the bottom ; 
then raises it and bends it circularly 
round the tree, observing that the hoops 
are placed inside nearest the tree ; the 
holes left at each end of the hoop are 
then clenched up with a nail, and the 
guard is then complete. — Gard. Chron. 

The following plan is somewhat simi- 
lar: — " Procure stakes of ash or larch, 
six feet in length, or more if requisite, 
and about two inches in diameter, and 
bore holes through the tops and bot- 
toms, about one foot from each end. 
Get a similar hole drilled up the centre 
of a stake, and saw it off in lengths of 
two inches, or rather less ; pass a strong 
wire or thick tarred string through one 
stake, by the holes, at the top and at 
the bottom, then pass it through the 
hole made in one of the two inch pieces 
at each end, and then through another 
stake, separating each stake at top and 
bottom by a piece of wood, until you 
leave enough to surround the tree 
loosely, leaving plenty of space for 
growth. Place it round the tree, and 
fasten the ends of the wire or string. 
This guard is much the same as a cradle 
put round the neck of a blistered horse, 
to prevent his gnawing the irritated 
part. The stakes merely rest on the 
ground, and should be cut quite flat at 
the bottom, to prevent their sticking 
into the ground. At the upper end they 
should have a sharp slanting cut with a 
bill-hook, and threaded with the slope 
towards the tree. The motion of the 
tree will not in any degree be impeded ; 
and the bark cannot be injured, let the 



wind blow as it may, for the guard 
moves freely with the tree in every di- 
rection." — Gard. Chron. 

TREES are a chief material in land- 
scape gardening. Trees and shrubs 
are of different shapes, colours, and 
growths. 

"The varieties in their shapes," says 
Mr. Whateley, " may be reduced to the 
following heads. Some thick with 
branches and foliage have almost an 
appearance of solidity, as the beach, 
the elm, the lilac, and seringa. Others 
thin of boughs and of leaves, seem light 
and airy, as the ash, and the arbele,the 
common arbor vitse, and the tamarisk. 

" There is a mean betwixt the two ex- 
tremes, very distinguishable from both, 
as in the bladder-nut, and the ashen- 
leaved maple. They may again be di- 
vided into those whose branches begin 
from the ground, and those which shoot 
up in a stem before their branches begin. 
Trees which have some, and not much 
clear stem, as several of the firs, belong 
to the former class; but a very short 
stem will rank as a shrub, such as the 
althasa in the latter. 

" Of those whose branches begin from 
the ground, some rise in a conical figure, 
as the larch, the cedar of Lebanon, and 
the holly. Some swell out in the mid- 
dle of their growth, and diminish at both 
ends, as the Weymouth pine, the moun- 
tain ash, and the lilac ; and some are 
irregular and bushy from the top to the 
bottom, as the evergreen oak, the Vir- 
ginian cedar, and Guelder rose. There 
is a great difference between one whose 
base is very large, and another whose 
base is very small, in proportion to its 
height; the cedar of Lebanon and the 
cypress, are instances of such a differ- 
ence, yet in both the branches begin 
from the ground. 

" The heads of those which shoot up 
into a stem, before their branches be- 
gin, sometimes are slender cones, as of 
many firs, sometimes are broad cones, 
as of the horse-chestnut, sometimes they 
are round, as of the stone pine, and 
most sorts of fruit trees; and sometimes 
irregular, as of the elm. Of this last 
kind there are many considerable va- 
rieties. 

"The branches of some grow hori- 
zontally, as of the oak. In others they 
tend upwards, as in the almond, and in 
several sorts of broom, and of willows. 
In others they fall, as in the lime and 



TRE 



599 
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the acacia; and in some of these last 
they incline obliquely, as in many of the 
firs; in some they hang directly down, 
as in the weeping willow. 

" These are the most obvious great 
distinctions in the shapes of trees and 
shrubs. The difference between shades 
of green cannot be so considerable, but 
these also will be found well deserving 
of attention. 

" Some are of a dark green, as the 
horse-chestnut and the yew. Some of a 
light green, as the lime and the laurel. 
Some of a green tinged with brown, as 
the Virginian cedar. Some of a green 
tinged with white, as the arbele and the 
sage tree. And some of a green tinged 
with yellow, as the ashen-leaved maple 
and the Chinese arbor vitae. The varie- 
gated plants also are generally entitled 
to be classed with the white or the yel- 
low, by the strong tincture of the one 
or the other of those colours on their 
leaves. 

" The fall of the leaf is the time to 
learn the species, the order, and the 
proportion of tints, which blended, will 
form beautiful masses; and, on the other 
hand, to distinguish those which are in- 
compatible near together. 

"■ The peculiar beauty of the tints of 
red, cannot then escape observation, 
and the want of them throughout the 
summer months must be regretted ; but 
the want, though it cannot perfectly, 
may partially be supplied, for plants 
have a permanent and an accidental 
colour. The permanent is always some 
shade of green, but any other may be 
the accidental colour; and there is none 
which so many circumstances concur to 
produce as a red. It is assumed in suc- 
cession by the bud, the blossom, the 
berry, the bark, and the leaf. Some- 
times it profusely overspreads, at other 
times it dimly tinges the plant, and a 
reddish-green is generally the hue of 
those plants on which it lasts long or 
frequently returns. 

" Admitting this, at least for many 
months in the year, among the charac- 
teristic distinctions, a large piece of red- 
green, with a narrow edging of dark 
green, along the further side of it, and 
beyond that, a piece of light green, still 
larger than the first, will be found to 
compose a beautiful mass. Another, 
not less beautiful, is a yellow green, 
nearest to the eye, beyond that a light 
green, then a brown green, and lastly a 



dark green. The dark green must be 
the largest, the light green the next in 
extent, and the yellow green the least 
of all. 

"From those combinations, the agree- 
ments between particular tints may be 
known. A light green may be next 
either to a yellow or a brown green, and 
a brown to a dark green; all in consider- 
able quantities, and a little rim of dark 
green may border on a red or a light 
green. 

" Further observations will show, that 
the yellow and the white greens connect 
easily; but that large quantities of the 
light, the yellow, or the white greens, 
do not mix well with a large quantity 
also of the dark green ; and that to form 
a pleasing mass, either the dark green 
must be reduced to a mere edging, or a 
brown or an intermediate green must be 
interposed ; that the red, the brown, and 
the intermediate greens agree among 
themselves, and that either of them may 
be joined to any other tint ; but that the 
red green will bear a larger quantity of 
the light than of the dark green near it; 
nor does it seem so proper a mixture 
with the white green as with the rest. 
In massing these tints, an attention must 
be constantly kept up to their forms, 
that they do not lie in large stripes one 
beyond another ; but that either they be 
quite intermingled, or, which is gene- 
rally more pleasing, that considerable 
pieces of different tints, each a beautiful 
figure, be in different proportions placed 
near together. 

" Exactness in the shapes must not be 
attempted, for it cannot be preserved ; 
but if the great outlines be well drawn, 
little variations afterwards occasioned 
by the growth of the plants, will not 
spoil them. Another effect attainable 
by the aid of the different tints, is found- 
ed on the first principles of perspective; 
objects grow faint as they retire from 
the eye; a detached clump or a single 
tree of the lighter green will, therefore, 
seem farther off than one equidistant of 
a darker hue, and a regular gradation 
from one tint to another will alter the 
apparent length of a continued planta- 
tion, according as the dark or the light 
greens begin the graduation. 

" Single trees scattered about a lawn, 
cast it into an agreeable shape, and to 
produce that shape, each must be placed 
with an attention to the rest ; they may 
stand in particular directions, and col- 



TRE 



600 



TRE 



lectively form agreeable figures, or be- 
tween several straggling trees, little 
glades may open full of variety and 
beauty. The lines they trace are fainter 
than those which larger plantations de- 
scribe, but then their forms are their 
own ; they are therefore absolutely free 
from all appearance of art; any dispo- 
sition of them, if it be but irregular, is 
sure to be natural. 

" The situations of single trees, is the 
first consideration, and differences in 
the distances between them, their great- 
est variety. In shape, they admit of no 
choice but that which their species 
afford: greatness often, beauty often, 
sometimes mere solidity, and now and 
then peculiarity alone, recommends 
them. Their situations will also fre- 
quently determine the species; if they 
are placed before a continued line of 
wood only to break it, they should com- 
monly be similar to the trees in that 
wood, they will else lose their connec- 
tion, and not affect the outline which 
they are intended to vary; but if they 
are designed to be independent objects, 
they are as such more discernible, when 
distinguished both in their shapes and 
their greens, from any plantations about 
them. After all, the choice, especially 
in large scenes, is much confined to the 
trees on the spot; young clumps from 
the first have some, and soon produce a 
considerable effect; but a young single 
tree for many years has none at all, and 
it is often more judicious to preserve one 
already growing, though not exactly 
such as might be wished, either in itself 
or in its situation, than to plant in its 
stead another, which may be a finer 
object, and better placed, in a distant 
futurity." See Clump, Avenue, Grove 
and Wood. 

TREE MALLOW. Lavateraarborea. 

TREE OF SADNESS. Nyctanthes 
arbor tristis. 

TREE or CANADA ONION. Allium 
proliferum. This, like the Ciboule, is 
without a bulbous root, but throws out 
numerous offsets. Its top bulbs are 
greatly prized for pickling, being con- 
sidered of superior flavour to the com- 
mon onion for that purpose, as well as 
others in which that species is employed. 

Time and Mode of Planting. — It is 
propagated both by the root offsets, 
which may be planted during March 
and April, or in September and October, 
and from the top bulbs, which are best 



planted in spring. The old roots are 
best to plant again for a crop of bulbs, 
as they are most certain to run to 
stems. If the bulbs be planted earlier 
than as above directed, they are apt to 
push up the same season and exhaust 
themselves, without producing either 
good offsets or bulbs ; but, on the other 
hand, by planting the old roots in the 
previous autumn, or early in the spring, 
they will produce good bulbs the same 
year. They must be inserted in rows 
twelve inches asunder, in holes six 
inches apart and two deep, a single 
offset or bulb being put in each. Those 
planted in autumn will shoot up leaves 
early in the spring, and have their 
bulbs fit for gathering in June or the 
beginning of July; those inserted in 
the spring, will make their appearance 
later, and will be in production at the 
close of July or early in August ; they 
must not, however, be gathered for 
keeping or planting until the stalks de- 
cay, at which time, or in the spring 
also, if only of one year's growth, the 
roots may be taken up and parted if 
required for planting; but when of two 
or three years' continuance, they must 
at all events be reduced in size, other- 
wise they grow in two large and spin- 
dling bunches ; but the best plan is to 
make a fresh plantation annually with 
single offsets. The only cultivation 
necessary is to keep them clear of 
weeds ; and when the stems run up, to 
give them the support of stakes. 

The bulbs, when gathered, must be 
gradually and carefully dried in a shady 
place ; and if kept perfectly free from 
moisture, will continue in a good state 
until the following May. 

TRELLIS or TREILLAGE, is an 
arrangement of supporters upon which 
to train plants. 

Espalier Trellis. — The cheapest, the 
easiest, and soonest made, is that 
formed with straight poles or stakes, of 
ash, oak, or chestnut, in lengths of from 
five to six or seven feet, driving them 
in the ground in a range about a foot 
distant, all of an equal height; and then 
railed along the top with the same kind 
of poles or rods, to preserve the whole 
form in a regular position. They should 
be full an inch and a half thick, and 
having pointed them at one end, drive 
them with a mallet into the ground in a 
straight range, close along the row of 
trees, a foot deep at least. To render 



TRE 



601 

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TRE 



treillage still stronger, run two, three, 
or more ranges of rods, along the back 
part of the uprights, a foot or eighteen 
inches asunder, fastening them to the 
upright stakes, either with pieces of 
strong wire twisted two or three times 
round, or by nailing them. 

When the treillage is finished, it is 
advisable to paint the whole to render 
it both more beautiful and durable ; and 
the durability is greatly increased by 
charring the ends of the uprights before 
driving them into the soil. 

Espalier Trellis made of cast iron 
rods, is much more durable, and neater, 
than that made of wood. 

Trellis for Climbers. — These have 
been greatly improved, or rather created 
within these few years, for ten years ago 
we had nothing but stakes and rods. 
The following observations and designs 
are from the Gardener's Chronicle: — 

" The beauty of green-houses has 
been wonderfully increased, by the 
contrivance of compelling these un- 
manageable rambling scrambling plants, 
to grow down upon themselves, or 
round and round a circular trellis, so 
as to be compelled to clothe themselves 
all over with foliage, and to present 
immediately to the eye whatever flow- 
ers they produce. Every one who has 
ever witnessed the exhibitions in the 
garden of the Horticultural Society, 
must have been struck with the extra- 
ordinary beauty of the Russelias, and 
Tropeeolums, Lichyas, and Hardenber- 
gias, red, yellow, crimson, and blue, 
which have graced the stands of even 
the least extensive growers. It is not 
because some climbing plants require 
to have their roots confined in garden 
pots, nor because being, in the ma- 
jority of cases, inhabitants of tropical 
forests, they demand more bottom-heat 
than they can obtain in this country, 
when planted in the open border of a 
conservatory that the modern plan of 
distributing their branches over the 
trellis of a flower-pot, is to be so much 
commended. Nor is it because the 
flowers, which if the branches are un- 
controlled, are carried out of sight by 
the excessive length of the stems, are 
thus brought immediately before the 
eye ; but there is another great advan- 
tage in this practice. Gardeners need 
not be told that the immediate effect of 
compelling branches to grow down- 
wards is to make them bloom. This 



was effected over the walls of Sir 
Joseph Banks' house ; and as those 
branches were always loaded with 
fruit, the practice was soon imitated, 
and gave rise, among other things, to 
what is called balloon training. This 
produces an abundance of flowers, in 
the most sterile trees, and of fruit, when 
the branches are not exposed to severe 
night frosts, which kill the blossoms. 
Just the same consequences follow the 
training of climbing plants downwards ; 
they are compelled to yield a far greater 
crop of flowers than if permitted to 
grow at full length. The many kinds 
of trellises that have been invented for 
this purpose, are admirably adapted for 
compelling plants to grow upside down; 
for the branches can be bent in all di- 
rections, over and over again, and the 
more they are entangled, the prettier 
is the effect produced. 




The accompanying forms will be 
Fig. 169. 




TRE 



602 

— ♦ — 



admirably adapted for Gompholobium, 
TropcBolum tricolor, and other plants 
possessed of scanty foliage, whose 
branches require to be closely trained 
to produce a good effect. 

"The following cut will show the 
manner in which the wire-trellis for 
climbing plants, is attached to the pots, 
a matter of great importance, and of 
which the separate plans that have 
been proposed, and some of which are 
published, convey an incorrect idea. 

Fig. 170. 




" It will be seen that a strong wire 
ring is carried round the pot, a little 
above its bottom. To this a sufficient 
number of upright wires are attached 
all round. The upright wires are 
pressed down upon the surface of the 
pot, till they reach the rim, over which 
they are firmly bent till they reach the 
highest point of the rim, or are even 
bent a little within it. At this point 
they are secured by a second ring of 
stout wire, adjusted as in the drawing, 
which having been done, the uprights 
are directed upwards, and fashioned 
into the pattern required. By these 
means, a sort of collar is formed upon 
the rim of the pot, which prevents the 
trellis from slipping downwards, while 
at the same Itime, the lowest ring of 
wire keeps it from swinging and sway- 
ing backwards and forwards." — Gard. 
Chron. 

Umbrella Trellis is a form excellently 
adapted for Wisteria sinensis, and other 
climbers or shrubs having long racemes 
of flowers. The following (Fig. 171) is 
its form. 

Hothouse Trellis for training vines 
near the glass, is usually made of thin 
rods of deal or of iron, placed about a 
foot apart, and fastened to the frame- 
work of the building. Mr. Long, Beau- 




fort Place, Chelsea, has invented a 
movable wire trellis, by which the vines 
may be lowered from the roof, or placed 
at any angle, without injuring the vines. 
This is an excellent mode of removing 
them from the influence of extreme ex- 
terior heat or cold. A still further im- 
provement would be to have the verti- 
cal rods movable round the rod horizon- 
tally fixed to the rafter or roof, for then 
the whole trellis might be raised to an 
angle with, or even close to the glass, 
whenever sun to the vine upon the trel- 
lis, or shade to the plants within the 
house was desirable. 

Trellis for Walks. — The following 
observations made by Mr. Loudon, 
when criticising the gardens of Lord 
Selsey, at Westdean, comprise all that 
need be said upon this kind of struc- 
ture. 

" Among the contrivances adopted 
for giving interest to the walks, and to 
separate one scene from another, are 
portions of walk covered with arched 
trellis work. One of these is grown 
over with climbing roses ; another with 
laburnums, which in the flowering sea- 
son has a remarkably fine aspect, few 
colours looking so well in the shade as 
yellow, because, with the exception of 
white, none suffer so little from the ab- 
sence of light. This laburnum trellis 
has a new feature, that of a table bor- 
der of trellis work intended to be co- 
vered with ivy ; we have no doubt its 
effects will be good, especially in win- 
ter. We must remark some circum- 
stances in the construction of garden 



TRE 



603 

— ♦— 



TRI 



trellises, which should be ample in their 
dimensions, strictly geometrical in all 
their forms, and most accurately and 
substantially executed. Nothing can be 
more miserable in its effect on the eye 
than a low narrow archway, the support 
leaning in different directions, and the 
curve of the ground plan and of the 
roof in no marked style of determinate 
line. The most accurate carpentry and 
smithwork ought always to be employed 
in such structures, otherwise they had 
much better be omitted as garden deco- 
rations. Some attempt forming trel- 
lises over walks with long hazel rods, 
but nothing can be meaner than the 
effect : such rod trellis works or ar- 
bours are at best fit for a cottage gar- 
den, or a hedge alehouse." — Gard. 
Mag, 

TREMBLING ASPEN. Populus 
tremula. 

TRENCHING is one of the readiest 
modes in the gardener's power for re- 
novating his soil. The process is thus 
conducted : — 

" From the end of the piece of 
ground where it is intended to begin, 
take out a trench two spades deep, and 
twenty inches wide, and wheel the 
earth to the opposite end to fill up and 
finish the last ridge. Measure off the 
width of another trench, then stretch 
the line and mark it out with the spade. 
Proceed in this way until the whole of 
the ridges are outlined, after which 
begin at one end and fill up the bottom 
of the first trench with the surface or 
* top spit' of the second one ; then take 
the bottom ' spit' of the latter, and 
throw it in such a way over the other 
as to form an elevated sharp-pointed 
ridge. By this means a portion of fresh 
soil is annually brought on the surface 
to the place of that which the crop of 
the past season may have in some mea- 
sure exhausted." — Gard. Chron. 

Bastard-Trenching is thus perform- 
ed :— 

" Open a trench two feet and a half 
or a yard wide, one full spit, and the 
shoveling deep, and wheel the soil 
from it to where it is intended to finish 
the piece, then put in the dung and dig 
it in with the bottom spit in the trench, 
then fill up this trench with the top 
spit, &c, of the second, treating it in 
like manner, and so on. The advan- 
tages of this plan of working the soil 
are, the good soil is retained at top, an 



important consideration where the sub- 
soil is poor or bad, the bottom soil is 
enriched and loosened for the penetra- 
tion and nourishment of the roots, and 
allowing them to descend deeper, they 
are not so liable to suffer from drought 
in summer; strong soil is rendered ca- 
pable of absorbing more moisture, and 
yet remains drier at the surface by the 
water passing down more rapidly to 
the subsoil, and it ensures a thorough 
shifting of the soil." — Gard. Chron. 

In all trenching, whether one, two, 
or more spades deep, always, previous 
to digging, put the top of each trench 
two or three inches deep or more, with 
all weeds and other litter at the bottom 
of the open one, which not only makes 
clean digging, and increases the depth 
of loose soil, but all weeds and their 
seeds are regularly buried at such a 
depth, that the weeds themselves will 
rot, and their seeds cannot vegetate. 

TREVIRANIA. See Achimenes. 

TREVIRANIA pulchella. Stove 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Light 
rich soil. 

TREVOA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

TREWIA nudiflora. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

TRIBULUS. Eight species. Green- 
house and hardy trailing annuals or 
stove evergreen trailers; the annuals 
increase by seeds, and common soil 
will suit them ; the evergreens increase 
by cuttings or seeds, and grow best in 
loam and peat. 

TRICHOCEPHALUS. Three spe- 
cies. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. 
Young cuttings. Sandy peat. 

TRICHOCLADUS crinitus. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

TRICHOMANES. Two species. 
Ferns. Hardy and stove herbaceous 
perennials. Division or seeds. Loam 
and peat. 

TRICHONEMA. Sixteen species. 
Green-house, hardy and half-hardy 
bulbous perennials. Offsets. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

TRICHOPETALUM gracile. Half- 
hardy herbaceous perennial. Division. 
Light rich soil. 

TRICHOPILIA tortilis. Stove 
epiphyte. Division. Wood with a lit- 
tle moss on the roots. 



TRI 



604 



TRO 



TRICHOSANTHES anguina. Snake 
Gourd. Frame trailing annual. Seeds. 
Common soil. 

TRICHOSTEMA. Two species. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

TRICORYNE. Three species. 
Greenhouse herbaceous perennials, ex- 
cept T. simplex, a green-house biennial 
increased by seeds, the other two by 
division ; a light rich soil suits them all. 

TRIDENTIA. Seven species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and brick rubbish. 

TRIENTALIS. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division or 
seeds. Light rich soil. 

TRIFOLIUM. Trefoil or Clover. 
One hundred and two species. All 
hardy, chiefly annuals, some herba- 
ceous perennials, and a few deciduous, 
herbaceous, and annual trailers. Di- 
vision or seeds. Common soil. 

TRIGONIDIUM. Four species. 
Stove orchids. Division. Fibrous peat. 

TRIGUERA ambrosiaca. Hardy an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. 

TRILLIUM. Fifteen species. Hardy 
tuberous-rooted perennials. Division 
or seeds. Peaty soil. 

M. F. Otto observes, that — " Seven 
species are cultivated in our gardens, 
namely : Trillium sessile; T. erythro- 
carpum; T.pusilium; T.cernuum; T. 
erectum; T. pendulum ; and T. grandi- 
florum. Their cultivation is very sim- 
ple. They grow freely in the open air 
without covering, in shady places, and 
in a mixture composed of marsh or 
heath soil, mixed with river sand. They 
bloom abundantly every year, in April 
and May, and are a great ornament to 
our gardens ; the tuberous roots spread 
rapidly by the formation of lateral eyes, 
so that after some years, if the plants 
have not been removed, they will form 
large handsome bushes. The seeds 
ripen in August, and if sown imme- 
diately, they will come up the following 
year. They may be sown either in the 
open ground, in a shady peat border, or 
in pots. The stronger seedlings will 
bloom in the third season." — Gard. 
Chron. 

TRIOPTERIS. Two species. Stove 
evergreen twiners. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

TRIPHJENIA pronuba. Yellow Un- 
derwing Moth. Mr. Curtis says that 
" its caterpillar is hatched in July or 
August, and if the egg has been depo- 



sited in a cabbage or cauliflower, the 
young larva immediately eats its way to 
the centre, on which it feeds till it is 
full grown, when it is about two inches 
long, greenish or brownish green in 
colour, with two rows of black spots 
on the back. During the winter, it lies 
beneath stones or clods of earth, and in 
April or May it descends a few inches 
below the surface, where it changes to 
a reddish pupa, from which the perfect 
moth emerges in June or July. The 
moth varies in size from two to two and 
a half inches: the upper wings are 
brownish or grayish, with an indistinct 
kidney-shaped spot near the centre ; 
the lower wings are bright yellow, with 
a narrow black band. The moth varies 
considerably in its colour and markings, 
scarcely two individuals ever being ex- 
actly alike. The caterpillar, though it 
most frequently is found on the cabbage 
or cauliflower, yet sometimes does con- 
siderable mischief to celery, and even 
the young leaves and flower-buds of 
auriculas, primroses, and violets are 
destroyed by it. The only remedy we 
can suggest is to search for and destroy 
them." — Gard. Chron. 

TRIPHASIA trifoliata. Green-house 
evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Turfy 
loam and peat. 

TRIPTILION. Two species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

TRISTANIA. Eight species. Green- 
house evergreen trees and shrubs. Half 
ripe cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

TRITELEIA. Three species. Halt- 
hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets or 
seeds. Peat, loam, and sand. 

TRITOMA. Four species. Hardy 
or half-hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Suckers. Light rich soil. 

TROCHETIA grandiflora. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich light 
loam. 

TROCHOCARPA laurina. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat and turfy soil. 

TROLLIUS. Globe Flower. Seven 
species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Division or seeds. Light moist soil. 

TROMOTRICHE. Five species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and brick rubbish. 

TROP^OLUM. Nasturtium. Four- 
teen species. Green-house hardy and 
half-hardy annuals, and evergreen 
twiners. T. brachyceras and T. tube- 
rosum are half-hardy tuberous-rooted 



TRO 



605 



TRO 



perennials. The green-house and half- 
hardy species increase by cuttings, and 
require a light rich soil. The annuals, 
seeds only, and common soil. The 
tuberous-rooted, cuttings, loam, and 
peat. Some of the species require par- 
ticular treatment, as follows: — 

T. tricolorum. — Mr. Falconer, gar- 
dener to A. Palmer, Esq., of Cheam, 
enters fully into its cultivation. He 
says that — " the soil best suited to it is 
a mixture of loam, peat, and sand, with 
a small portion of soot; this mixture to 
be exposed to the influence of the sun 
from May until time to plant the tubers. 
About the latter end of June, or as soon 
as the decay of the stem and ripening 
of the seed show that the circulation of 
the sap has ceased, turn out the tubers 
from the pots, and having carefully re- 
moved the soil, put the tubers in flower 
pans upon a shelf in a dry room. About 
the beginning of September they pro- 
duce their new stems; let them remain 
until they have lengthened from twelve 
to fifteen inches. Having well drained 
a No. 12 pot, fill it up with the compost 
to within four inches of the top, then 
place the tuber in the centre of the pot, 
and coil the stem or stems around, care- 
fully filling up with the compost until 
about two inches of the stem are left 
above the soil. After potting, place the 
pots on a stage out of doors, there to 
remain till the middle of October, they 
are then removed to the front of a cool 
green-house, exposed to as much light 
and air as can be given to them. With 
respect to watering, keep them rather 
moist than otherwise: when out of doors 
they are freely exposed to rain. The 
early flower-buds should be picked off 
until the space allotted is covered, the 
object being to have the greatest quan- 
tity of bloom at one time. When ne- 
cessary, in their early growth, they may 
be stopped to give a supply of laterals. 
At all times they should have plenty of 
air and light, more especially after they 
show their flower-buds, for the joints 
will be shorter, and consequently the 
flowers more close together. When in 
bloom, care must be taken to shade 
from the midday sun, which will pro- 
long their season of plenty: take off 
the weak laterals that are not likely to 
flower, where about two inches long ; 
if with a heel so much the better. Any 
time from February till May fill the pot 
half full of crocks, then with a mixture 



of peat and sand, till within two inches 
of the top, fill up with silver sand, and 
water with a fine rose to settle it. Then 
dibble in the cuttings all round, within 
one inch of the rim, leaving about half 
an inch of the cutting above the sand. 
Place the pot on a shelf in the front of 
the green-house, keep the sand con- 
stantly moist, taking care that the cut- 
tings are always erect. In the course 
of two months many of them will throw 
up shoots from under the sand. The 
pot should then be removed to a shady 
situation out of doors. When the stems 
decay, do not disturb the sand, but 
water sparingly. In October let them 
be placed in the green-house, when all 
that have made small tubers will grow. 
It is from these plants the best cuttings 
are obtained in the spring. In the fol- 
lowing May, turn the whole ball out of 
the pot, in a warm situation in the open 
ground. After they have finished their 
growth, take them up and sift the ball 
through a fine sieve, carefully picking 
out the tubers. They are then treated 
in all respects as the older tubers, and 
will make fine flowering plants the fol- 
lowing spring. The seeds before sow- 
ing should be soaked in milk and water 
twenty-four hours, and the outer shell 
carefully removed ; they will under this 
treatment grow much sooner and with 
greater certainty. They should remain 
in the seed pot until after they have 
formed a tuber. A small stick can be 
placed against each plant, to which it 
will climb, and it serves to indicate the 
place of the tuber when the stem is 
dead. Many seeds will remain twelve 
months before vegetating." — Gard. 
Chron. 

T. moritzianum requires very similar 
treatment. Dr. Lindley directs that 
— "After this plant has bloomed, water 
should be gradually withheld from it, 
and the pot containing the tubers should 
be stored away in some dry situation, 
until the season for starting it into 
growth returns. The tubers should then 
be repotted and placed in a gentle heat." 
— Gard. Chron. 

T. majus is the Nasturtium of our 
gardens. " The flowers and young 
leaves are frequently eaten in salads ; 
they have a warm taste, like the com- 
mon Cress, hence the name of Nastur- 
tium. The flowers are also used as a 
garnish to dishes. The berries are 
gathered green and pickled, in which 



T RO 



606 



TRU 



state, they form an excellent substitute 
for capers. 

f It should be planted on a warm 
border in April, having soaked the seed 
in warm water for twelve hours. The 
usual mode of planting, is in hills three 
feet apart each way, four seeds in a 
hill ; two strong plants are sufficient to 
remain; when they commence running, 
place brush around them to climb on. 
When the berries attain full growth, 
but whilst yet tender, they are plucked 
with the foot stalk attached, and pre- 
served in vinegar." — Rural Register. 

TROWEL. This implement, made of 
iron from twelve to six inches long in 
the plate, and half as broad, hollowed 
like a scoop, and fixed on a short handle 
to hold with one hand, is convenient in 
removing small plants, with a ball or 
lump of earth about their roots, lifting 
bulbous flower roots after the flowering 
is past in summer; planting bulbs in 
patches or little clumps about the bor- 
ders, as also for digging small patches 
in the borders, for sowing hardy annual 
flower seeds ; likewise for filling mould 
into small pots, stirring the surface of 
the earth in pots, and fresh earthing 
them when necessary. And such a 
trowel is likewise very convenient for 
pointing over or stirring the ground be- 
tween rows of small close-placed plants 
in beds or borders; are made between 
about twelve inches long in the plate, 
and six broad, narrowing gradually to 
the bottom, the other six or eight inches 
in the plate, and four inches broad, 
narrowing considerably towards the bot- 
tom, to introduce between small plants. 

TROXIMON. Two species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
mon soil. 

TRUE PARSLEY. Apium Petroso- 
linum. 

TRUE SERVICE. Pyrus Sorbus. 

TRUFFLE. Tuber magnatum, Pied- 
montese Truffle ; T. Borchii, Italy ; T. 
moschatum, Musk Truffle, near Bath ; 
T. cibarium, Common Truffle, England. 
But besides the tubers there are other 
edible fungi known as truffles, viz., Hy- 
drobolites tulasnei, Spye Park, Wilts ; 
Melagonaster Broomeianus, Red Truf- 
fle, near Bath. 

These edible fungi have not yet been 
cultivated in England, though the Prus- 
sians have succeeded in making them a 
garden tenant, and Comte de Borch has 
been equally successful in Italy. The 



latter cultivates the Piedmont Truffle, 
and his process is this : — He either em- 
ploys the soil where the truffle is found, 
or he prepares an artificial soil of seven 
parts good garden earth; two, well 
pulverized clayey soil ; and one, oak 
sawdust — intimately mixed. Decayed 
oak or beech leaves would be better 
probably than the sawdust. If the na- 
tural soil was used, he trenched it two 
feet, removing all the large stones, and 
adding oak sawdust, if necessary, and 
about one- tenth of powdered snail shells, 
if the soil was too stiff. 

" Choosing an aspect rather exposed 
to the north than the south, where no 
reflected rays could fall upon it, with 
every precaution to insure its being 
thoroughly soaked with pure rain-water, 
and after waiting a day or two till it 
was in a proper state of moisture, he 
made rows half a foot deep, and in 
these, at six inches distance, he placed 
good and sound truffles, each of them 
being surrounded with two or three 
handfuls of oak sawdust, taking care to 
mark the rows accurately. Ridges were 
then made over each row, to prevent 
the truffles being injured by too abund- 
ant moisture. The bed was then left 
till the following autumn, with no other 
precaution than, in dry weather, to take 
care that it did not become too dry. 
The result, we are informed, was an 
abundant harvest, every year, from Oc- 
tober to January." — Gard. Chron. 

Bradley, writing, in 1726, of the culti- 
vation of the truffle in England, says 
that — 

" The truffle may be easily cultivated 
where there are woods or coppices of 
oak or hazel, and where the soil is not 
too stiff, or inclining to chalk. The soil 
where they are most found is a reddish 
sandy loam ; this will then be the best 
for our purpose, especially if it has lain 
long uncultivated. When we are thus 
provided with the proper soil, we must 
be sure to let it lie undisturbed till we 
are ready to plant, which will be in the 
months of October, November, and De- 
cember, if the weather be open ; for 
then the truffles are to be found in their 
full ripeness, and then, likewise, one 
may find them in a state of putrefaction, 
which is the time when the seeds are 
prepared for vegetation. It is in the 
last state that one ought to gather truf- 
fles for planting, or at least they should 
be in perfect ripeness. 



TRU 



607 



TUL 



"The proper soil, and these rotten 
truffles, being found, we may begin our 
work as follows : — Open a spot of 
ground, of a convenient space, and 
take out the earth about eight inches 
deep, and screen it, that it may be as 
fine as possible ; then lay about two or 
three inches thick of this fine earth at 
the bottom of the trench or open ground, 
and upon it lay some of the overripe 
truffles, about a foot and a half distance 
from one another; and, as soon as pos- 
sible, prepare a thin mud, made of the 
screened earth and water, well stirred 
and mixed together, and pour it on the 
truffles till the open ground is quite 
filled up. By this means, in a few hours, 
the ground will be as closely settled 
about the truffles as if it had never been 
dug or disturbed at all, and you may 
expect a good crop in due time. You 
must, however, take care to choose 
your spots of ground in woods or cop- 
pices, or such places as are shaded with 
trees. Their favorite tree is the oak, or 
the ilex or evergreen oak, as the elm is 
the favourite of the Morille. 

" Notwithstanding these statements, 
it is quite certain that, at present, the 
art of cultivating the truffle is not known 
in England; and it will remain unknown, 
probably, until we have discovered how 
its spawn can be prepared, as for culti- 
vating the mushroom." — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. Gower says he recommended an 
old truffle-hunter " to bury, at the pro- 
per depth, some of his truffles that were 
in a state of decay and unfit for the 
table, under one of the unproductive 
trees sufficient in stature and in umbra- 
geous development. At the beginning 
of next winter, when his visit was re- 
peated, he sought for Mr. G., and told 
him, with great satisfaction, that the 
scheme had answered ; for he had found 
two or three pounds of excellent truffles 
beneath the hitherto barren tree. By 
following this example, proprietors of 
trees adapted to truffles, and where the 
proper trees have been planted, may, in 
a short period, do that which a lapse of 
years, unassisted, would not effect. 

" Of all trees the cedar of Lebanon is 
the most favourable to the growth of the 
truffle." — Gard. Chron. 

TRUMPET FLOWER. Bignonia. 

TRUSS is the florist's name for what 
botanists call an umbel of flowers, a dis- 
tinctive title for that mode of inflores- 
cence where several flowers have their 



stalks united at one common centre, 
and thus spring from the root or branch 
on one stem, as in the auricula, polyan- 
thus, and cowslip. See Pip. 

TUBE FLOWER. Clerodendron si- 
phonanthus. 

TUBER cibarium, the well known 
truffle. It grows under ground, in light 
dry soils. 

TUBEROSE. Polyanthes tuberosa. 
Dr. Lindley says that, — 

" To flower the tuberose in the open 
air the bulbs should be started in a 
moderately warm frame, and planted 
out towards the end of May, in a sunny 
sheltered border. The bottom of the 
border should consist principally of well 
decomposed manure, and should be 
covered, to the depth of six inches, with 
light sandy loam, in which the bulbs 
should be planted. Success, in thi3 
case, will depend greatly upon the sea- 
son, and upon having good bulbs, which 
should be planted just as they are re- 
ceived. When grown in pots the same 
soil should be used, the plants should be 
kept near the glass, and they should re- 
ceive a liberal supply of water when 
growing." — Gard. Chron. 

TUCKERMANIA maritima. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Division. Sandy 
loam. 

TULBAGHIA. Five species. Green- 
house bulbous perennials. Offsets or 
seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

T U L I P A . Twenty-four species. 
Hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. Rich 
loam and sand. 

TULIP. Tulipa Gesneriane. From 
this species are descended our innume- 
rable garden varieties. Of these it is 
needless to do more than offer a selec- 
tion ; and the most judgmatical is the 
following, by Mr. Slater, florist, of Chel- 
tenham Hill, near Manchester. 

The first class contains all that are 
worthy of a place in any stand of twelve 
or twenty-four varieties, and possess 
every requisite of a fine tulip. In the 
second the varieties have either fine 
forms, but tinged stamens, or else have 
rather long cups and pure bottoms and 
stamen. Those in the third class are 
such as deserve a place in any collec- 
tion, but are not calculated for a south- 
ern stage. 

FIRST CLASS. 

Rose. — Aglaia; Amelia; Bacchus, 
alias Atlas, and Rose Baccu; Carnuse 



TUL 



TUL 



de Craix ; Catalina, alias Ponceau tres 
Blanc, and Cerise Blanche; Cerise a, 
belle forme; Galatea (Slater's); Tri- 
omphe Royale, alias Heroine, La Belle 
Nannette, and La Cherie; Madame Ves- 
tris, alias Clarke's Clio, and Goldham's 
Princess Sophia of Gloucester; Ponceau 
tres blanc (Dutch) ; Queen of Hearts 
(Franklin's) ; Rose Brillant. 

ByUomens. — Anacreon (Slater's); Bi- 
jou des Amateurs ; Byzantium (Lau- 
rence's); Camarine;Evequed'Amboise; 
Holmes' King; Invincible (Franklin's); 
Mentor, alias Reine de Sheba; Musa- 
dora ; Pandora ; Roi de Siam, alias Aea- 
pulco ; Salvator Rosa; Violet Cook; 
Violet Sovereign; Violet Quarto, alias 
Violet Alexander; Violet Brun; Zenobia 
(Slater's). 

Bizarres. — Catafalque (Old Dutch) ; 
Charbonnier; Curion (Slater's); Duke 
of Hamilton (Slater's) ; Fabius (Lau- 
rence's) ; Glencoe ; Iago (Laurence's) ; 
Marcellus ; Napoleon (Walker's) ; Poly- 
phemus, alias Goldham's Albion, Ulys- 
ses, and Nourri Effendi. 

SECOND CLASS. 

Roses. — Brulante Eclatante; Catha- 
rine; Cerise Royal,a/zasManteau Ducal, 
Ponceau Brilliant, and Moore's Rose ; 
Elizabeth Jeffries ; Lady Crewe ; Lady 
Middleton ; Lac ; Manon ; Mason's Ma- 
tilda, alias Strong's French Pvose ; Pre- 
tiosa, alias Thunderbolt; Queen Boadi- 
cea; Rose Camuse. 

Byblomens. — Ambassador, alias Atlas 
and Rose Baccu ; Bailleu van Menvede ; 
Bienfait Incomparable; Beauty (Buck- 
ley's); Buckley's No. 46; Cleopatra; 
Comtede Provence ; David, alias David 
Pourpre ; Davy's Queen Charlotte; Due 
de Bourdeaux ; General Barneveld ; Im- 
peratrixFlorum; Incomparable Daphne; 
Incomparable, (Rowbottom's, alias 
Haigh's ;) Lancashire Hero (Buckley's); 
Lord Denbigh; Lord of the Isle (Sla- 
ter's); Lewold ; Louis XVI.; Ne plus 
Ultra ; Prince Elie ; Queen Victoria 
(Wilmer's); Rubens ; Sir E. Knatchbull; 
Thalia (Clarke's); Violet Sovereign. 

Bizarres. — Charles X., alias Water- 
loo, Bartlett's Platoff, La Conquerante, 
Gabel's Glory, Royal Sovereign, and 
Duke of Lancaster; Catafalque Surpasse; 
Carter's Leopold; Donzelli, alias Wells' 
Lord Brougham ; Leonatus Posthumus; 
Lord Milton ; Lord Lilford ; Leonardo 
da Vinci ; Optimus (Hutton's), alias Sur- 
passe Optimus; Richard Cobden ; San- 



zio, alias Abercrombie, Captain White ; 
Strong's Admiral White, and Strong's 
Admiral Black ; Shakspeare, alias Gar- 
rick and Edmund Kean ; Strong's King. 

THIRD CLASS. 

Roses. — Admiral Kingsbergen ; Alex- 
andre le Roi; Camillus ; Claudiana ; 
Comte de Vergennes ; Duchess of Cla- 
rence ; Emily ; Fleur de Dame ; Grand 
Roi de France ; Incomparable Hebe, 
alias Iphigenia and Rose Hebe ; Lady 
Wilmot; La Vandyke; Lavinia (Clarke's); 
Lilas en Cerise; Maria (Goldham's) ; 
Mary Ann (Lawrence's) ; Rose Monty, 
Rose Bianca,Rose Quarto, Rose Primo 
bien du Noir, and Rose Unique ; Sarah 
(Lawrence's) ; Strong's Daphne, very 
like if not the same as La Vandyke; 
Thalestris; Vesta; Walworth, alias Glo- 
ry of Walworth, and Glaphyra. 

Byblomens. — Alexander Magnus, 
alias Alcon and Grand Marvel ; Ange- 
lina; Bagnel, called also Black Bagnel ; 
Baluruc; Black Tabbart; Catharina ; 
Chef d'eeuvre ; Competitor ; Czarine ; 
Ely's Queen Victoria ; Fair Flora 
(Buckley's) ; Glory (Buckley's) ; Gro- 
tius; Imperatrice de Maroc, alias Lady 
of the Lake, and Valerius Publicola ; 
Imperatrice des Romaines, alias Du- 
chesse de Modena; Incomparable Pre- 
mier Noble, alias Grand Czidt; La belle 
Narene; La Mere Bruin Incomparable; 
Laurence's Friend ; Nectar ; Passe 
Reine d'Egypt ; Patty (Lawrence's) ; 
Queeu of Beauties ; Queen Charlotte; 
Reid's Sir John Moore ; Reine d'Hon- 
grie ; Reine des Tulips; Roscius ; Su- 
perbeen Noir, alias Lysander Noir ; 
Transparent Noir; Washington, alias 
Rodney; Violet a, belle forme, Violet 
Imperial , Violet Pompeuse, Violet Rou- 
geatre, Violet Triumphant, and Violet 
Wallers. 

Bizarres. — Bolivar (Lawrence's) ; 
Carlo Dolci; Catafalque Superieure ; 
Duke of Wellington ; Emperor of Aus- 
tria ; Jubilee (Rider's) ; Sir Sidney 
Smith, alias Magnum Bonum, Trebi- 
sonde, Demetrius, and Franklin's 
Washington ; Osiris ; Prince Albert 
(Groom's). — Gard. Chron. 

It will be observed, that tulips are 
divided into different classes, and as 
the characteristics of these, as well as 
some other terms applicable to these 
flowers, may not be understood by all 
readers, they are here defined. 

Florists call tulips seedlings until they 



TUL 



609 



TUL 



have bloomed ; after this those pre- 
served on account of their good form 
and habit, as well as the offsets they 
produce, are called breeders. After 
some years the petals of these become 
striped, and they are then said to be 
broken. If the striping is good, they 
are said to have a good strain ; if it be 
inferior, they are described as having 
a bad strain. A rectified tulip is syno- 
nymous with a tulip having a good strain. 

& feathered tulip has a dark-coloured 
edge round its petals, gradually becom- 
ing lighter on the margin next the cen- 
tre of the petal ; the feathering is said 
to be light, if narrow ; heavy, if broad ; 
and irregular, if its inner edge has a 
broken outline. 

& flamed tulip is one that has a dark- 
pointed spot, somewhat in shape like 
the flame of a candle, in the centre of 
each petal. 

Sometimes a tulip is both feathered 
and flamed. 

A Bizard tulip has a yellow ground, 
and coloured marks on its petals. 

A Byblomen is white, marked with 
black, lilac, or purple. 

A Rose is white, with marks of crim- 
son, pink, or scarlet. 

Characteristics of Excellence. — A 
tulip, however coloured, should be 
composed of six petals, three outer and 
three inner, which should be alternate, 
and lie close to each other; broad and 
round on the top, quite smooth, and of 
sufficient width to allow the edges to 
lie over each other when fully expand- 
ed. They should be firm in texture, 
having a slight swell towards the lower 
part of the midrib of the petal, which 
will enable it to retain its shape; this 
in a fully expanded flower should be 
semi-globular, the stalk being inserted 
in the pole, which should be a little 
depressed. The petals should be level 
on the top, the inner three of the same 
height as the outer; the latter should 
not be bent back, as is the case in 
some flowers. The colour of the 
ground should be pure and rich, the 
base of the petals without stain, and 
the yellow ground should possess the 
same intensity of colour on the outer as 
on the inner side of the flower. In the 
three principal classes, namely, roses, 
bizards, and byblomens, the colours 



should commence at the bottom of each 
petal, the deepest marking being on the 
top, and equal in every one. The 
flamed flower should likewise possess 
this feather; with a rich beam up the 
rib of each petal, branching off on 
either side, touching the feather, and at 
the same time preserving sufficient of 
the ground colour to show it to advan- 
tage. A flame without a feather, in 
general, presents a star-like appear- 
ance, which, though not so correct as 
the other, is still beautiful. The stem 
should be elastic, neither too tall nor 
short for the size of the flower, and suf- 
ficiently strong to keep itself erect 
without support. The edge of the petals 
should be unbroken, their greatest 
width near the top, which would pre- 
vent all quartering (a term which in 
reality means dividing in four), whereas 
the tulip parts into six, and it would 
be better in Mr. Groom's opinion if 
sextalizing, or some more proper term 
were substituted — Gard. Chron. 

Soil and Situation. — The best soil is 
formed of good turfy loam from a pas- 
ture. Some very old cow-dung, say 
two years old, and road scrapings, in 
the proportions of three or four barrow- 
fuls of the loam to one of the others. 
The best aspect is south-west ; the beds 
should be upon an open space, eight 
yards at least from any wall, to avoid 
the reflection of the sun. The soil 
should be free from manure, rich, and 
rendered light by well working it. — 
Gard. Chron. 

Propagation. — By Seed. — An excel- 
lent French authority gives these direc- 
tions : — "When the ripeness of the 
tulip seed, where the flower has bloom- 
ed in a full exposure, is indicated by 
the opening of the capsule, it is cut off 
a few inches below the head, and placed 
in a very dry situation, in order to in- 
sure its perfect maturity. This being 
accomplished, the seeds are taken out, 
and should be sown, about the middle of 
October,in a bed of well prepared earth, 
which has been passed through a coarse 
sieve, and covered about the eighth of 
an inch in depth with soil of a fine and " 
light texture, which will allow the free 
vegetation of the seeds without in- 
crusting or becoming hard. The beds 
must be protected from sharp frosts by 



should be brilliant, and well defined, j covering them with leaves or with mats, 
In Mr. Groom's opinion, the feathered and likewise kept perfectly free from 
flower is most preferable; the feathers weeds. If these necessary precautions 
38 



TUL 



610 



TUL 



are attended to, the tulips will come 
up towards the end of February. From 
the size of a small pea in the first year, 
the roots will increase considerably 
during the two following seasons, and 
each time when the leaves fade, I 
spread over my seedlings about an inch 
in thickness of similarly prepared soil 
to that with which the seed was cover- 



account of their different heights, called 
first row, second row, third row, or 
fourth row flowers ; the first row being 
nearest the sides, and the fourth row 
being in the middle; of course, both 
sides being alike. There are but four 
heights recognised. Although we have 
said a bed should consist of seven rows, 
to make the matter plain to those who 



ed, being satisfied, that from the loss of j have not grown a bed of tulips, every 
time and the greater extent of land they I seven which cross the bed is called a 
will occupy by taking them up in the j row; and among tulip growers, wher- 



second year and replanting them, it is 
the better plan to allow them to remain 
till they have made their third growth. 

" I do not take up mine until that 
time, and in a few days afterwards I 
replant them about two or three inches 
in depth, and about three inches apart 
from each other, in a well prepared 
bed. Lastly, in every succeeding 
year, I set them in fresh soil, being 
convinced that they attain their full 
size much sooner when treated in this 
manner, especially if sand has been 
mixed with it, or lime rubbish, which 
has been enriched with good rotten 
manure or vegetable soil." — Gard. 
Chron. 

By Offsets. — The same practical hor- 
ticulturist observes, that — 

" The side bulbs always reproduce 
flowers identically with those from 



ever they speak of a row, they mean 
the row of seven which crosses a bed, 
all these sevens being numbered from 
1 to 50, as distinct rows, or up to the 
full number, whatever it may be. Tu- 
lips should be always planted six inches 
apart every way, consequently a bed of 
twenty-five feet would take fifty rows 
of seven each. The tulips required will 
be 50 fourth-row flowers, 100 third row, 
(there being two rows alike of the other 
heights) 100 second row, and 100 first; 
and each of these ought to comprise, 
as nearly as may be, one-third of each 
class. 

" There should be a few over of each 
to guard against accident. The parties 
who supply the tulips should not only 
send the names attached to each, but 
their classes also. 

' Mark a space twenty-five feet long 



which they derived their origin. Their and four feet broad, and lying as near 
period of blooming varies according to j as may be convenient north and south 



their size; it occasionally happens 
the first year, but sometimes it is six 
seven years before they flower. During j 



Dig this clean out to the depth of three 
feet. 

" If the soil at the bottom is sour or 



August the bed must be prepared for wet, make a drain from the bottom to 
their reception ; and in September they the nearest place at which the water 
must be planted from two to four inches i can escape ; this drain should be made 
apart, according to their size. Should i by cutting a trench even with the bot- 
their planting be deferred till Novem- torn of the bed all the way to the pro- 
ber, it is very possible that many of the - posed outlet, half filling it with large 
smaller ones will shrivel and perish, stones, broken pots, or (for want of 



When they are put into the ground or 
taken up, the same system is followed 
as in the main collection, so that all 
mistakes may be avoided, and by that 
means the amateur will be able to re- 



harder and more lasting substance) with 
faggot wood, and fill up the trench with 
the soil of the garden, 

" If the bottom of the tulip bed should 
be gravel, there will require no artifi- 



place any bulbs which by accident or j cial drainage. On the bottom of the 
otherwise he may have lost in hischoice j bed spread a foot of the common soil 



or best beds." — Gard. Chron. 



of the garden ; the real depth of the 



Planting in Beds. — On this part of; bed required for the tulips is but two 



their culture the best practical informa 
tion is given by Mr. Glenny. He says 



feet ; but in clearing away all that might 
prove noxious, and making the ground 



A bed properly arranged consists j sound and sweet, by throwing in a foot 
of seven long rows, of which the tallest ; of good garden soil, an excellent bottom 
tulips should be the middle, and shorter i is made, which will not again have to 
ones nearer the sides. Tulips are, on ; be disturbed. 



TUL 



61 



" If the bottom be wet and sour, and 
you have drained it as before denoted, 
let there be a good six inches of brick 
rubbish, or broken flowerpots, or both, 
put at the bottom, and about six inches 
of the common garden soil upon them. 

" The pit for the bed being now pre- 
pared for filling, spread dry cow-dung, 
six inches thick, at the bottom; let it 
be trodden down, and throw maiden 
loam, as already described as the top 
spit of a meadow, with the turf rotted 
in it ; fill up the bed to eight inches 
above the surface, drive down at each 
corner of the bed a stake, to mark the 
exact size the bed should be, that is, 
the two end stakes four feet from each 
other, and from one end to the other 
twenty-five feet; and let these stakes 
stand exactly square, one foot above 
the surface of the path, and perfectly 
level. 

"If you design to have the sides 
boarded, which saves much trouble, 
your best way is to let the carpenter 
adjust the boards very nicely as to level, 
to let them go down at least six inches 
below the surface of the garden or path, 
and stand eight inches above it ; he must 
then provide a three-inch width, to fit 
on and take off at pleasure, because it 
is of the greatest service in planting. 
The most simple way of planning this 
is with bolts ; the boarding should be 
an inch thick, staples should be placed 
both in the fixed and in the moveable 
board, opposite each other, at proper 
distances. 

« The whole should be covered from 
heavy falls both of rain and snow ; and 
from the moment the bulbs are in the 
ground, have none but genial showers, 
and not much rain of any sort. We 
would never see the bed dry, but should 
be quite as unwilling to see it too wet." 
— Gard. and Pract. Flor. 

Should very severe frosts occur dur- 
ing the winter, cover the bed all over 
a few inches thick with sawdust, which, 
ifdry, the frost never penetrates. When 
the frost is over, take away the sawdust, 
and sift a little fresh soil over the sur- 
face of the bed. t 

Shade. — Tulips cannotbe grown more 
advantageously than in two beds, ar- 
ranged and sheltered according to the 
plan of which the following is an end 
view. But whether grown in two beds 
or in one, highest in the centre, as be- 
fore mentioned. The edges of the beds 




should be supported by deal planking 
two inches thick, and painted green, 
surmounted by a wire trellis, thirty 
inches high, coloured similarly, and 
supporting arches of wire to bear a 
canvas covering, when shade is re- 
quired. These wire arches fit into 
sockets in the upper rail of the trellis, 
and the canvas cover is fastened to 
them by strings, as in the case of a tent 
bedstead. 

The wire trellis will preserve the 
plants from boisterous winds during all 
periods of the growth, and the whole 
will be found to be the most efficient 
shelter, at a moderate expense that 
combines elegance with utility. The 
first fortnight of the month of Novem- 
ber is the best season for planting. A 
hole should be made with a trowel, not 
with a dibble, a little sand be placed 
beneath and over each bulb, and a small 
hillock marks on the surface its place. 

The only after culture required is a 
frequent hoeing of the surface of the 
bed ; and as the flowers fall, to cut off 
the seed pod. 

Taking up the Bulbs. — This must be 
done as soon as the leaves in early 
autumn become yellow. Mr. Glenny 
says — 

« If you have room and convenience, 
put them into boxes, with all their skins 
and roots, and place the drawers singly 
in an airy dry covered place out of the 
sun. In a few days they will harden, 
the skins will come off easy, and the 
root break away without damaging the 
bulb. Should any in taking up be found 
with moist or mildewed skins, which is 
not unfrequently the case, they should 
nevertheless be let alone a day or two; 
the removal of the skins, stalks, and 
roots is accompanied with much less 
risk. It is not uncommon for part of 
the top to come away with the roots, if 
the latter is broken off at the time of 
taking up in temporary boxes at first, 
so that as they are cleared of their 
skins and roots, they may be laid away 



TUL 



612 

— • — 



TUR 



in their own drawers perfectly clean, 
which is not easily done if they are 
taken out to clean and returned to the 
same place, because there will be grit 
and mould not easily got rid of. Tulips 
when put away, should have air, with- 
out heat, or much frost; an outhouse of 
any kind is better than a dwelling-house. 
There should be a vacancy between all 
the drawers, and the case all round 
should have wire panel sides, back and 
front." — Gard. and Tract. Flor. 

TULIP TREE. Liriodendron. 

TUP A. Six species. Half-hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division and 
seed. Light, rich, or peaty soil. 

TURF may be obtained either by 
sowing grass seeds, or laying turf ob- 
tained from a common or down ; and if 
the latter mode can be adopted, it is 
the best, as the turf is obtained at once, 
and more regular than can be under the 
best circumstances from seed. 

All the preparation of the soil re- 
quired is to dig it level, a spade deep, 
provided the subsoil is open, otherwise 
to have a good drainage effected (see 
Draining); to have all large stones re- 
moved from the surface, and to have it 
brought to a perfect level, by repeated 
rollings, and filling up the hollows 
when necessary, as indicated by the 
level. The surface being then loosened 
by raking, is ready for the seed or turf. 

By Seed. — " Never use that from a 
haystack, for it will have mixed with it 
the seeds of weeds ; but buy of respect- 
able seedsmen, as much as you require. 
For this purpose the best are Poa pra- 
tensis, green or spear grass ; Poa com- 
pressor, blue grass ; Anthoxanthum odo- 
ratum, sweet scented vernal grass: — 
either of the above, mixed with a small 
proportion of white clover, will form a 
permanent and pleasing sward. 

" Sow evenly, and rake well in, and 
roll. When the grasses come up, the 
ground should be carefully gone over, 
and cleared of all weeds and spurious 
grasses, as they appear. Strict atten- 
tion to this will do much to ensure the 
future excellence of the lawn. During 
the first season after sowing, the grass 
may be mown three or four times, but 
not in hot dry weather; and afterwards, 
the oftener it is rolled and mown the 
better." — Gard. Chron. — Gard. and 
Prac. Flor. 



or May, though it will grow at almost 
anytime of the year, even if there is 
occasion to lay it in summer, and dry 
weather succeed : for although it will 
open at the joints, and turn brown, as 
if dead, yet, after the first rain it will 
close again, and resume its verdure. 

The turf for this use is cut with an 
iron instrument called a turfing iron, 
observing to cut the pieces all an equal 
width, length, and thickness — the pro- 
per size is a foot wide, a yard long, and 
about an inch thick ; they should be 
first marked by line, the proper width, 
length, and depth with a racer or rutter. 
Racing them first longwise a foot wide, 
then across in yard lengths; then pro- 
ceed to cut them up, having particular 
regard to cut them level, and equal in 
thickness, otherwise it will be impossi- 
ble to lay them level. As you cut, a 
man or boy should roll each turf up 
close and tight, the grass side inwards, 
and pile them up by tens, especially if 
they are cut by the hundred. They are 
to be laid regular, turf and turf, unroll- 
ing them as you lay them, joining them 
up quite close edge to edge, making 
good all deficiency of broken parts as 
you go on ; and as soon as laid, it should 
be well beaten with broad heavy wood- 
en beaters, being flat pieces of elm or 
oak plank, two inches thick, fifteen or 
eighteen inches long, and a foot broad, 
having a long handle fixed slanting in 
the middle of the upper side ; and with 
these, beat the grass regularly all over, 
and then roll it well with a heavy roller, 
observing the beating and rolling should 
be repeated in moist weather. 

"If very dry hot weather succeeds, 
so as to occasion the turf to shrink and 
open at the joints, a good watering will 
be of much advantage." — Abercrombie. 

By Inoculation. — If turf is scarce, cut 
turves into pieces, about three inches 
square, and plant these, green side up, 
pretty thickly over the space intended 
for the lawn. Beat them down into the 
soil, and water freely, roll frequently, 
and water also in dry weather. The 
turf will soon be as close, and the sward 
as perfect, as if the ground had been 
entirely turved. 

TURF ASHES. See Ashes. 

These, which are the basis of charred 
turf, now becoming so usual a manure, 
are, according to M. Sprengel, thus 



By Turf. — The season for laving turf I constituted 
is any time from September till April ' Silica 93.10 



TUR 

Alumina 1.35 

Oxide of iron 1.73 

- manganese . . . 0.32 

Lime . . 0.62 

Magnesia 0.33 

Potash, combined with sulphu- 
ric acid ...... 0.38 

Common salt 0.08 

Sulphuric acid, combined with 

potash and lime .... 1.70 
Phosphoric acid, combined 

with lime and magnesia . 0.39 
TURF TOOLS are the Racer or Flut- 
ter, for cutting the edges of turf after it 
has been laid, and for cutting the out- 
lines of the turves when first obtained. 
It is a thin sharp edged implement, 
somewhat resembling a cheese-cutter, 
fixed to a handle about four feet long. 



613 

— ♦— 



TUR 




The Turfing Iron is for raising or 
peeling off the turves from the soil. It 
has an arrow-headed flat blade, with an 
angular handle, thus : — 



Fig. 174. 



f 



o 



A Turf or Daisy Rake consists of a 
piece of thin plate iron, cut into teeth, 
with two slips of ash, or other tough 
wood, between which it is firmly rivet- 
ed to form a back, and keep it from 
bending. When put together, the back 
is an inch and a quarter thick. The 
wood is beveled to nothing, half an inch 
above the interstices of the teeth, at 




which point the iron is slightly bent 
longitudinally to admit the thickness of 
wood underneath, and give a proper 
inclination to the handle. The instru- 
ment serves both as a grass rake and a 
daisy rake, and has the advantage over 
the daisy rakes in common use, of being 
easier cleaned, from the wideness of 
the interstices between the teeth. — 
Gard. Mag. 

TURNERA. El even species. 
Stove annuals, biennials, and evergreen 
shrubs. T. trioniflora is an herbaceous 
perennial ; and T. racemosa a hardy an- 
nual. Seeds, and the shrubby kinds by 
cuttings. Rich soil. 

TURNIP. Brassica rapa. "The 
turnip is a biennial plant, growing 
in a wild state in some parts of Eng- 
land, but better known as an inha- 
bitant of the garden and farm. There 
are an immense variety: to cultivate 
all is not so desirable as to plant 
such as are the more valuable. Those 
which we deem best for family use are 
the Early Dutch and Red Top, for au- 
tumn and early winter supply. The 
Yellow Aberdeen, Golden Maltese, 
Ruta Baga (or Swedish), are not so much 
esteemed in the autumn, but remain 
firm and solid until late in the spring, 
(when most other kinds have become 
pithy,) and are then fine. The Large 
Globe, and Norfolk Turnip, and the 
Ruta Baga, are principally cultivated 
for cattle. 

" The main sowings of all the kinds 
recommended for family use, are made 
in the vicinity of Philadelphia from 
about the middle of August to the first 
of September. If sown earlier they are 
not so tender and finely flavoured, and 
if sown later do not generally attain 
full growth. The Ruta Baga, Globe and 1 
Norfolk require more time to perfect 
themselves ; sow therefore about a 
month earlier. The more rapidly the 
root is produced the more tender and 
well flavoured it will be. Those which 
are intended for the spring supply should 
be topped very closely, else when the 
weather becomes mild, the crown will 
start, and the root soon gets pithy and 
unfit for use. 

" Spring sowings seldom answer a 
good purpose : the Early Dutch and 
Red Top are, however, best. 

" Should a long continued drought 
prevail at the time recommended for 
sowing in the autumn, some difficulty 



TUR 



614 



TUS 



may be experienced in getting the seed 
to vegetate, (unless it be small patches 
in the garden, which can be shaded and 
watered.) The only resource is, to 
make several sowings in freshly dug or 
ploughed ground. 

"If the seed has Iain long, say two 
or three weeks, without vegetating, 
should a shower come, the safer plan 
will be to re-plough or harrow the 
ground, and make a fresh sowing. 

" Frequently the < fly' proves very 
destructive, preying upon the young 
plants when in so early a stage that 
they can scarcely be seen without close 
inspection. To counteract them it has 
been recommended to soak the seed in 
sulphur water— an ounce of sulphur to 
a pint of water. A mixture of quick- 
lime, ashes, and soot, sprinkled over 
them, is frequently effectual. 

" The crop may be put in either broad 
cast, or in drills, raking the seed well 
in. The latter plan is the better, and 
if sown on very dry ground during hot 
weather, it is safer to roll the land im- 
mediately afterward. Observe, the land 
cannot be too rich for this crop; old sod , 
or newly cleared land, produces the 
largest and finest flavoured roots." — 
Rural Register. 

To obtain Seed, some of the most per- 
fect roots of those which will withstand 
the winter may remain where grown; 
or they may be transplanted in February 
or March. 

The plants must stand a foot apart 
each way; be carefully freed of weeds, 
and especial care taken to keep away 
birds, as they are particularly voracious 
of the seed of this, and of all other spe- 
cies of brassica. When ripe in July or 
August, the stalks are cut; and when 
perfectly .dry, the seed beaten out and 
stored. No two varieties must be al- 
lowed to grow together. 

Manures, — The best manure for tur- 
nips is stable dung; and next in their 
order, guano, super-phosphate of lime, 
soot, and salt. 

For the injuries to which the turnip 
is liable, see Athalia, Amburv* and 
Black Fly. 

Turnip-cabbage (Brassica napo-bras- 
sica), and turnip-rooted cabbage (B. 
caulo-rapa). These species of brassica 
are but little cultivated, and, at most, a 
very small quantity of each is in request. 
The bulbs, for which they are cultivated, I and sand 
must have their thick outer skin re- | T U S S I L A G 0. 



moved, and, in other respects, be treat- 
ed as turnips in preparing them for 
use. 

Varieties. — Of the turnip-cabbase, 
which is so named on account of the 
round fleshy protuberance that is form- 
ed at the upper end of the stem, there 
are four varieties : — 

1. White turnip-cabbage. 

2. Purple turnip-cabbage. 

3. Fringed turnip-cabbage. 

4. Dwarf early turnip-cabbage. 
Of the turnip-rooted cabbage, which 

is distinguished from the above by its 
root having the protuberance near the 
origin of the stem, there are two varie- 
ties, the white and the red. 

Sowing.— They are propagated by 
seed, which may be sown broadcast or 
in drills, at monthly intervals, in small 
quantities, from the commencement of 
April until the end of June. 

Planting.— -The best mode is to sow 
thin, in drills two feet and a half apart, 
and allow the plants to remain where 
sown, the plants being thinned to a 
similar distance apart; or, if sown 
broadcast, to allow them to remain in 
the seed-bed until of sufficient size to 
be removed into rows, at similar dis- 
tances, for production, rather than, as 
is the practice of some gardeners, to 
transplant them, when an inch or two 
in height, in a shady border, in rows 
three inches apart each way, to be 
thence removed as above stated. 

Water must be given every night after 
a removal until the plants are again 
established ; and afterwards, in dry 
weather, occasionally as may appear 
necessary. 

Earth may be drawn up to the stem 
of the turnip-cabbage as to other species 
of brassica ; but the bulb of the turnip- 
rooted must not be covered with the 
mould. For directions to obtain seed, 
&c, see Brocoli, Turnip, &c. 

TURNIP-FLY. See Black Fly. 

TURNSOLE. Heliotr opium. 

TURPENTINE. Silphium terebintha- 
ceum. 

TURPENTINE MOTH. See Tor- 
trix resinella. 

TURPENTINE TREE. Pistacia te- 
rebinthus. 

TURRvEA. Five species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 



Twelve species. 



TWA 



615 



VAN 



Hardy or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials. Division. Common soil. 

TWAYBLADE. Listera. 

TWEEDIA. Two species. Hardy 
deciduous twiners. Cuttings or seeds. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

TYLOPHORA. Three species. 
Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
Peat and loam. 

TYPOGRAPHER BARK BEETLE. 
See Bostrichus. 

TYTONIA natans. Stove aquatic 
annual. Seeds. Rich loamy soil, in 
water. 

ULCER. See Canker. 

U L E X . Furze. Four species. 
Hardy evergreen shrubs. U. Europcea 
is increased by young cuttings, and all 
by seeds. Common light soil. 

ULMUS. Elm. Thirteen species 
and many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
trees. Layers or grafts. Common soil. 
U. integrifolia is a stove evergreen 
tree. The Wych elm (U. montana) is 
also propagated by seed ripened here. 

UMBILICUS. Four species. Hardy 
and half-hardy herbaceous perennials. 
Offsets, cuttings, and seeds. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

UMBRELLA TREE. Hibiscus gui- 
neensis. 

UMBRELLA WORT. Oxybaphus. 

UNCARIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Peat 
and loam. 

UNDER-GROUND ONION. See Po- 
tato Onion. 

UNONA. Ten species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs, trees, and climbers. Ripe 
cuttings. Light turfy loam. 

URANIA speciosa. Stove herbace- 
ous perennial. Newly imported seeds. 
Turfy loam and peat. It requires to be 
well watered. 

URARIA. Six species. Stove and 
green-house evergreen shrubs, except 
U. lagocephala, a stove herbaceous pe- 
rennial. Seeds or young cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

UREDO. See Barberry and Mildew. 

URINE. See Dung. The urine of 
all animals is excellent as a manure; 
but it must be given only to plants 
whilst growing, and in a diluted state. 
One of the most fertilizing of liquid 
manures is composed of cabbage-leaves, 
and other vegetable refuse, putrefied in 
the urine from a house or .stable, and 
diluted with three times its quantity of 
water when applied. If mixed with 



bleaching powder (chloride of lime), 
there will be no offensive smell. Gyp- 
sum mixed with urine, or a little oil of 
vitriol poured into it, adds to its utility 
as a manure. Sulphate of iron, in the 
proportion of seven pounds to every 
hundred of urine, prevents the escape 
of ammonia during putrefaction. 

UROPETALON. Six species. Half- 
hardy and green-house bulbous peren- 
nials. Offsets and seeds. Loam and 
leaf-mould. 

UTRICULARIA. Hooded Milfoil. 
Three species. Hardy aquatic peren- 
nials. Division. Water. 

UVARIA. Six species. Stove ever- 
green shrubs; U. zeylanica, a twiner. 
Ripe cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 

UVULARIA. Six species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
sandy soil. 

VACCINIUM. Whortleberry. Thirty- 
two species and some varieties. Chiefly 
hardy deciduous shrubs; V. caracasa- 
num and V. meridionale are stove ever- 
greens ; and a few are hardy and half- 
hardy evergreen trailers. Layers, 
seeds, and the stove species cuttings : 
sandy peat. 

VALERIANA. Valerian. Nineteen 
species. Hardy herbaceous perennials, 
except V. capensis, which belongs to 
the green-house, and V. sisymbrifolia, 
is a hardy biennial. Division. Loam, 
peat, and sand, for the natives of warm 
climates, and common soil for the 
hardy species. 

VALERIANELLA. Three species. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

VALLARIS pergulana. Stove ever- 
green twiner. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
and peat. 

VALLESIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

VALLISNERIA spiralis. Green- 
house aquatic perennial. Seeds. Wa- 
ter. 

VALLOTA purpurea, and its variety. 
Green-house bulbous perennial. Off- 
sets. Peat and sand. 

VANDA. Five species. Stove 
epiphytes. Division. Wood, and some 
of the stronger kinds, sphagnum and 
potsherds. 

VANDELLIA. Four species. Stove 
annuals, except V. hirsuta, which is 
hardy. Seeds. Sandy loam. 

VANGUERIA. Three species. Stove 



VAN 



616 



VER 



evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

VANILLA. Three species. V. bi- 
color, a stove epiphyte, increased by 
division, and growing on wood. The 
other two increase by cuttings. Moss 
and turfv peat. 

VARIEGATION is the col our of 
leaves different from green, such as i 
c 'the silvery and golden margins, and 
varieties of spots, which are common i 
among garden plants, as in myrtle, j 
sage, ivy, holly, the Agave Americana, 
Sempervivum arboreum, and many of 
the Pelargonice. These spots are not 
diseases, for the whole plant has all the 
signs of being in a perfectly healthy 
state. But neither are they effects of 
a law of nature, like the spots of Orchis 
maculata, and the red-coloured leaves 
of Caladium bicolor and Amaranthus 
tricolor, inasmuch as they are not con- 
tinued by propagation by seed. Such 
discoloured spots are incapable of per- 
forming the usual function of leaves, 
namely, the exhalation of oxygen 
gas.*' — Decandolle. 

Yet this variegation does not render 
the plant more tender; for the varie- 
gated holly and ivy are as hardy as 
those with leaves entirely green. 

VASCOA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Loam and peat. 

Vegetable manures. See 

Green Manures, Ashes, Manures. 

VEGETABLE MARROW. See 
Gourd. 

VELEZIA rigida. Hardy annual. 
Seeds. Light soil. 

V E L L A Pseudo - cytisus. Cress 
Rocket. Green-house evergreen shrub. 
Young cuttings. Common soil. 

VELLEJA. Three species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. Division 
or seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 

VELTHEIMIA. Three species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets. Light loamy soil. 

VENTILATION. See Stove. 

VENUS'S COMB. Scandix pecten- 
veneris. 

VENUS'S FLY-TRAP. Dionceamus- 
cipula. 

VENUS'S HAIR. Adiantum capillis 
veneris. 

VENUS'S LOOKING-GLASS. Spe- 
cularia speculum. 

VENUS'S NAVEL WORT. Ompha- 
lodes. 



VEPRIS obovata. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Cuttings. Peat, loam, and 
sand. 

VERATUM. Six species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division or 
seeds. Rich soil. 

VERBASCUM. Sixty-four species. 
Chiefly hardy biennials, and a few 
herbaceous perennials. V. spinosum is 
a half-hardy evergreen shrub; V. hce- 
morrhoidale, and V. pinnatifidum, are 
green-house biennials. Seeds ; the pe- 
rennials by division. Common soil. 

VERBENA. Vervain. Thirty-two 
species. Hardy, half-hardy and green- 
house herbaceous perennials, and hardy 
and half-hardy annuals and biennials. 
These latter increase by seed, the pe- 
rennials by cuttings. Light loam. 

Choice Varieties are — ■ 

Scarlet. — V. Atrosanguinea; V. 
Boule de Feu. 

Orange Scarlet. — V. formosa ele- 
gans ; Gladiator. 

White. — Princess Royal ; Monarch ; 
Alba magna. 

Purple. — V. Stewartii ; Emma. 

Reddish Purple. — V. rubra ; V. pur- 
purea ; Renown ; V. rubescens. 

Ruby. — Defiance ; Ruby. 

Rose. — Bridesmaid ; Wood's Princess 
Royal; Beauty ; Supreme ; Teucriodes 
Rosea ; Rose d'Amour. 

Mulberry. — Mulberry. 

Cream. — V. lutescens. 

Lilac. — Messenger ; Giant. 

Propagation. — By Seed. — Sow to- 
wards the end of February in shallow 
pans, to be placed in a gentle heat. 
The seedlings may be planted out in 
summer in a warm part of the garden, 
where they will flower in the autumn. 

By Cuttings. — In the last week of 
August or first week of September, 
take cuttings from laterals not in bloom. 
Pot them in sixties, filled firmly with 
sandy loam and leaf-mould; water and 
plunge in a hot-bed, temperature not 
more than 45°, under a hand-glass, 
shading from sunshine, and when rooted 
pinch off their tops. 

By Layers. — Verbenas in the open 
borders are readily propagated by peg- 
ging down the laterals in September in 
pots filled with earth and sunk into the 
bed near the plants. The layers will 
be rooted in about six weeks, when they 
may be separated from the parent 
plant. Put them into a gentle heat, 
repot them, and keep through the 






VER 



617 



VI N 



winter in a cold frame, giving very 
little water during that season. 

General Culture. — Mr. G. Fielder, 
gardener to W. Brisco, Esq., of Hast- 
ings, says that six plants of a kind are 
usually enough to obtain cuttings and 
layers from for bedding out. His mode 
of proceeding is as follows : — 

" In the first or second week in July 
strike in sixty pots as many cuttings of 
the different kinds as required for fill- 
ing the beds in the following year, 
about six pots of a sort being usually 
sufficient. Early in August, the pots 
being filled with roots, prepare as many 
boxes, two feet square sorts, filling one- 
third of each box with broken tiles, 
and the rest with one part sand, one 
leaf-mould, and two parts good rich 
loam. Plant in them at equal distances 
apart, and the shoots being pegged 
down they soon take root all over the 
box, and form one mass. Place in a 
cold frame during the winter, and the 
lights thrown off except in wet or frosty 
weather. Early in the spring they begin 
to make young shoots, which pot in sixty 
pots and strike in a cucumber frame ; 
these will be ready to plant out by the 
end of April, at which time the boxes 
are turned out, one side being removed 
and the mass planted in the centre of 
a bed. The bed is then filled up with 
the young plants from the sixty pots ; 
those out of the boxes, being oldest 
and strongest, take the lead and keep 
it."— Gard. Chron. 

In Pots. — Some of these trained over 
a trellis should always be on the green- 
house. All the particular attention 
required is that they should be kept 
regularly shifted into pots of a larger 
size as they require it, and should be 
grown either in a pit or green-house, 
where they receive the full benefit of 
the sun and air. Any free rich soil 
will suit them. 

Such are the directions for its culture 
as given in the English edition of this 
work. In the United States the climate 
is more favourable for the Verbena, and 
when turned out in an open border 
early in summer, the only care requisite 
seems to be lest it take entire posses- 
sion of the garden. 

VERBESINA. Eight species. Green- 
house and hardy herbaceous perennials. 
V. boswallia is a green-house annual, 
and V. atriplici 'folia an evergreen shrub. 
Division. Light rich soil. 



VERNONIA. Fifteen species. Hardy 
green-house and stove herbaceous pe- 
rennials, and stove evergreen shrubs. 
V. linearis is a stove annual. Seeds 
and young cuttings, and the herbaceous 
kinds by division. Light rich soil. 

VERONICA. Speedwell. One hun- 
dred and twenty-five species. Chiefly 
hardy herbaceous perennials. Some 
are deciduous trees and trailers, and a 
few evergreen shrubs and creepers. 
The green-house shrubs increase by 
cuttings. The hardy annuals by seeds. 
The herbaceous by division. Common 
soil suits them all. 

VERVAIN. See Verbena. 

VESICARIA. Nine species. Hardy 
and half-hardy annuals, biennials, her- 
baceous perennials, and evergreen 
shrubs. Seeds. Sandy loam. 

VESTIA lycioides. Green-house de- 
ciduous shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
loam. 

VIBORGIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 

VIBURNUM. Twenty-seven species 
and some varieties. Hardy deciduous 
and evergreen shrubs ; a very few be- 
long to the stove and green-house, and 
one or two are half-hardy. Layers or 
cuttings. Peat and loam ; V. opulus is 
the Guelder Rose. 

VICIA. Vetch. Seventy-seven spe- 
cies. Chiefly hardy annuals and climb- 
ing annuals or deciduous climbers. 
Seeds : and the few perennial kinds by 
division and seeds. Common soil. 

VIEUSSEUXIA. Eleven species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. V. 
glaucopis is half-hardy. Offsets or 
seeds. Peat, loam, and sand. 

VIGNA globea. Hardy training an- 
nual. Seeds. Common soil. 

VIGUIERA. Two species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Sandy 
peat and loam. 

VILLARSIA. Ten species. Hardy, 
half-hardy, green-house and stove 
aquatic and herbaceous perennials. Di- 
vision or seed. Peat and sand ; and 
the perennial, or marshy kinds, in 
pots placed in water. 

VILMORINIA multiflora. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Seeds and cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

VIMINARIA. Two species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
Light loam and peat. 

VINCA. Periwinkle. Three spe- 



VIN 



618 

— • — 



VIO 



Hardy 
Corn- 



See Grape 



cies and several varieties, 
evergreen trailers. Division, 
mon soil. 

VINE. Vitis vinifera. 
Vine. 

VINE BOWER. Clematis Viticclla. 

VINE LEEK. Allium ampeloprasum. 

VIOLA. Violet. Ninety-nine spe- 
cies. Chiefly hardy herbaceous peren- 
nials, annuals, deciduous and evergreen 
trailers, a few are half-hardy, and a 
few others belong to the green-house. 
The herbaceous kinds increase by di- 
vision or seeds : the shrubs by cuttings. 
The annuals by seeds. Loam, peat, or 
leaf-mould, and sand suits them best. 

VIOLET. Viola odorata. 

Varieties. — The best are Neapolitan, 
double pale blue; Russian, blue ; Tree 
Violet, semi-double, blue, stem eighteen 
inches high. Double Blue; White; 
Pink. 

Soil. — All the varieties prefer a light 
rich soil on a well drained subsoil. 
Stable manure makes them too luxuri- 
ant; and when they require the addi- 
tion of a fertilizer, none is so beneficial 
as leaf-mould, or the bottom of an old 
wood stack. 

Propagation. — By Division, &c. — 
They all multiply by parting the roots, 
and by their side shoots rooting in the 
earth. They may be parted or slipped 
in spring, summer, or autumn, as soon 
as they have done flowering, in moist 
weather. Each plant may be slipped 
or divided into several slips, not too 
small ; and planted either at once to 
remain, or the weakest may be planted 
in nursery beds ; and in either method 
each slip will soon increase into a large 
tuft, and flower abundantly the next 
year. 

By Seed. — Sow it either soon after it 
is ripe, or early in the spring, in a bed 
or border of light earth, and raked in ; 
and when the plants are come up an 
inch or two high in summer, prick them 
out in a shady border to grow till Oc- 
tober, and then plant out to remain. 

Pink Violets. — The best time to 
plant them is in September, but they 
should be planted in a dry situation, 
and not fully exposed to the sun at any 
part of the day. The principal points 
to attend to are, never to disturb them 
by clearing or digging about them, 
and always to plant them in a shaded 
place. 



Russian and Neapolitan Violets— - 
J There are two double varieties of the 
I Russian, the purple and the white. At 
the close of autumn, in a rich yet light 
soil, some year-old plants of each va- 
riety should be planted, some in a bor- 
der which is exposed to the full meridian 
sun; some in a border which only re- 
ceives its morning rays ; and a third 
quantity in pots on a north border. The 
only attention they require is to keep 
them free from weeds, and to remove 
all runners as they appear. These will 
bloom in succession from March until 
the end of May; and if those in pots in 
the north border are prevented from 
blooming by having their flower-buds 
picked off as they appear until late in 
May, and are then plunged in the 
border which enjoys the morning sun, 
they will, if carefully watered and at- 
tended, bloom in June and early in July. 
The double purple may be most suc- 
cessfully cultivated in this way. For 
forcing, Mr. Ayres directs some year- 
old plants of the Neapolitan varieties 
to be taken up after having done flower- 
ing, and planted in a light rich border, 
a foot apart each way, care being taken 
to remove all runners, but to injure the 
roots as little as possible. A copious 
watering is to be given at the time of 
planting ; they should be shaded through 
the summer, and all runners removed 
as they appear. In September, the 
Neapolitans with good balls of earth 
are to be placed in forty-eight or thirty- 
two size pots, and removed into a gentle 
hot-bed, and protected by a frame. If 
air be admitted freely and the heat be 
kept up very gently, these may be 
brought to bloom in February. Another 
mode of making the Neapolitan violet 
bloom during the winter is to plant some 
of the runners at the end of April, in 
small pots filled chiefly with leaf-mould, 
watering them until rooted, and then 
moving them to a cold shaded place, as 
the north side of a wall — the colder the 
better. In October bring them under 
the sunny side of the green-house, or 
into an empty frame to be closed at 
night, and then move them the second 
week in December into a sunny window 
or green-house. They will bloom in 
January, and for some months after, by 
having a proper succession. 

Dr. Lindley says — il To have Russian 
violets in flower during winter, you 
must treat them in the following man- 



VIO 



619 

— ♦— 



WH A 



ner: as soon as they have done flower- 
ing, about March, sift a little light soil 
over them, and encourage their growth 
as much as possible, to obtain early 
strong rooted runners from the old 
plants, which if properly managed will 
be about the end of May. Transplant 
the young runners into a nursery-bed in 
a rather shaded but not confined situa- 
tion. The soil should be fresh sandy 
loam and peat, with a small portion of 
leaf-mould, hut by no means made rich 
with dung, as that causes the plants to 
grow too vigorously. About the begin- 
ning of August prepare a place for their 
final reception, an old cucumber or 
melon bed will do well, taking away 
the soil from the frame, and filling the 
place with a mixture of good loam and 
sandy peat, adding about one quarter of 
well rotted cow-dung to it, well water 
the whole, and let it remain for a few 
days to settle. After this remove the 
young plants from the nursery-bed with 
good balls, and plant them in rows 
about six or nine inches apart each way, 
and afterwards place the lights on for a 
few days until the plants recover the 
shift. They will afterwards require no 
further trouble except watering and 
keeping free from slugs and weeds, 
which must be attended to. When the 
weather becomes cold in the autumn, 
the lights must be put on during the 
night, and in rough wet weather; and 
finally the violets must be well protected 
from frost during winter, by covering 
them at all times when the weather will 
permit, to prevent their damping off". 
Treated in this way, they will then 
flower freely from December to Febru- 
ary. They may also be potted and 
cultivated in the same manner, and 
when in flower may be planted in the 
green-house; but they will not bloom 
during the winter, if exposed to the in- 
clemency of the weather, or if in a damp 
situation." — Gard. Chron. 

Water should only be applied to them 
when they really want it, and then it 
should be given freely, and early in the 
morning, so that the plants may have 
plenty of time to dry before the frame 
is closed. 

Tree Violet. — This requires to be pot- 
ted in a mixture of peat and sandy 
loam, and requires no further attention 
than to be kept in a shady part of a 
green-house ; supplying it plentifully 
with water and air. 



VIOLET THLASPI. Clypeola Ion 
Thlaspi. 

VTORNA. Clematis viorna. 

VIPER'S BUGLOSS. Echium. 

VIPER'S GRASS. See Scorzonera. 

VIRGILIA. Six species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs, except V.lutea, 
a hardy deciduous tree. Young cut- 
tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 

VIRGINIAN CREEPER. Ampelopsis 
hederacea. 

VIRGINIAN POKE. Phytolacca de- 
candra. 

VIRGIN'S BOWER. Clematis Viti- 
cella. 

VISCARIA. Three species. Hardy 
annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 

V I S C U M album. The Mistletoe. 
Parasite, increased by putting the ber- 
ries on trees after cutting the bark. See 
Mistletoe. 

VISMIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

VITEX. Twelve species. Stove, 
green-house and hardy evergreen shrubs 
and trees. Cuttings. Loam and peat, 
and the hardy kinds of common soil. 

VITIS. Eleven species and some 
varieties. Hardy deciduous or stove 
evergreen climbers. V. vinifera is the 
common grapevine: seed, cuttings or 
layers. Strong rich soil. See Grape 
Vine. 

VITTARIA. Two species. 
Stove herbaceous perennials, 
or seeds. Loam and peat. 

VOANDZEIA subterranea. 
creeping annual. Seeds. Rich mould. 

VOLKAMERIA aculeata. A stove 
evergreen shrub, and V. japonica, a 
green-house evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

VOUAPA bifolia. Stove evergreen 
shrub. Ripe cuttings. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

VOYRA rosea. Stove herbaceous 
perennial. Seeds. Sandy loam and 
peat. 

VRESIA psittacincu Stove epiphyte. 
Suckers. Leaf-mould and potsherds. 

WACHENDORFIA. Eight species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets or seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

WAHLENBERGIA. Four species. 
All hardy ; W. grandiflora, an herb- 
aceous perennial ; W. repens, an ever- 
green creeper; the other two are an- 
nuals. Division and seeds. Loam and 
peat. 



Ferns. 
Division 



Stove 



W AL 



620 

— • — 



W AL 



WALDSTEINIA geoides. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Division or 
seeds. Common soil. 

WALKERA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
loam and peat. 

WALKS. See Gravel. It may be 
observed here, that of whatever material 
a walk is composed, that it is essential 
to have it well under-drained, and for 
this purpose an understratum offlints or 
brick-bats, twelve inches deep, is not 
too much. Walks so founded, are never 
wet or soft. Coal ashes, or which is 
still better, fresh tan, makes a pleasant 
winter walk, particularly on tenacious 
soils, as it never adheres to the shoes, 
either during rain or after frost; half 
an inch I think is sufficient. It likewise 
makes a soft and pleasant summer walk, 
and from its loose nature, is readily 
cleared from weeds. If not wanted 
during summer, it may readily be swept 
clean off after a few dry days. It is in- 
valuable for covering walks or footpaths 
in the kitchen garden, when there is 
much wheeling of manure or soil, to be 
done during frost, which is too often 
obliged to be suspended after ten or 
eleven o'clock, when there is clear sun- 
shine, from the ground getting soft and 
clammy. With a covering of tan, the 
operation may be continued throughout 
the day, and even during wet weather. 
If the tan remain permanently, it will 
require renewing every two years. — 
Gard. Chron. 

WALL CRESS. Arabis. 

WALL-FLOWER or STOCK-GIL- 
LIFLOWER. Cheiranthus. 

C. arboreus. Shrubby W. F. Yel- 
low. June. 

C. cheiri. Common W. F. Yellow, 
crimson, brown. June. 

C.firmus. Permanent W. F. Yellow. 
July. 

C. linifolius. Flax-leaved W. F. Pur- 
ple. July. 

C. scoparius. White, yellow, and 
purple. June. 

C. semperflorens. Everblooming W. 
F. White. July. 

Besides these species and varieties, 
there are many German Wall-flowers 
imported, mostly semi-double, and well 
worthy of culture for their peculiar co- 
lours and habits. 

Sowing is best done in June, the 
seedlings to be transplanted into nur- 
sery beds when three inches high. They 



will bloom in the spring, and the best 
may be then selected. Watering in 
very dry weather, lengthens the dura- 
tion of their bloom. Saltpetre one 
ounce to the gallon, given once in ten 
days, heightens their colour and vigour. 

Cuttings. — The double varieties are 
thus propagated. When the old plants 
are done blooming, cut off their heads ; 
water them freely, and they will pro- 
duce shoots along with their entire stem; 
these when from four to six inches long, 
must be cut off close to the stem, and 
be planted in a light rich shady border, 
under a hand-glass ; watering occasion- 
ally until rooted. 

Soil. — A light rich loam, mixed with 
a little lime rubbish, suits it best. See 
Stock. 

WALLICHIA. Two species. Stove 
palms. Seeds. Strong rich soil and a 
strong heat. 

WALLS are usually built in panels, 
from fifteen to thirty feet in length, one 
brick thick, with pillars for the sake of 
adding to their strength, at these speci- 
fied distances ; the foundation a brick 
and a half thick. The plan of Mr. Sil- 
verlock, of Chichester, is worthy of 
adoption, since if well constructed, it is 
equally durable, and saves one-third of 
the expense. Walls so constructed are 
stated to become dry after rain, much 
more rapidly than a solid wall of the 
same or any other thickness, and there 
appears not a shadow of a reason why 
it should not ripen fruit equally well. 

He forms the wall hollow, nine inches 
in breadth, by placing the bricks edge- 
wise so as to form two facings, they are 
laid in good mortar, and the joints care- 
fully finished. They are placed alter- 
nately with their faces and ends to the 
outsides, so that every second brick is 
a tie, and in each succeeding course, a 
brick with its end outwards is placed 
on the centre of one laid lengthwise on 
either side. The top of the wall must 
be covered with a coping of stone or 
bricks, projecting two inches. It is 
strengthened at every twenty feet, by 
piers of fourteen inch-work, built in the 
same manner, with bricks laid on edge. 
The mode of constructing the piers, 
obviating the disadvantages arising from 
training branches round their sharp 
angles, which often causes them to 
gum, recommended by the Rev. T. Cul- 
lum, of Bury St. Edmonds, is to have 
their corners bevelled. He also advises 



W AL 



621 

— • — 



W AL 



the copings to project much further 
than they are usually made to do, even 
as much as twelve inches ; but his rea- 
soning refers more immediately to the 
management of wall fruit. 

It is a practice sanctioned by econo- 
my, to build the wall half brick thick, 
on a nine inch foundation, and to com- 
pensate for its want of strength, a 
waved form is given. Both the small- 
ness of its substance and its form, are 
found, however, to be inimical to the 
ripening of fruit. 

In every instance a wall should never 
be lower than eight feet. The thick- 
ness usually varies with the height of 
the wall, being nine inches, if it is not 
higher than eight feet; thirteen and a 
half inches, if above eight and under 
fourteen feet; and eighteen inches, 
from fourteen up to twenty feet. 

Fruit trees will succeed quite as well 
against a stone wall as against a brick 
one, although the former is neither so 
neat in appearance, nor can the trees 
be trained in such a regular form upon 
it as upon the latter. The last disadvan- 
tage may be in a great measure reme- 
died by having a wooden or wire trellis 
affixed to it. — Gard. Chron. 

If it be desirable that the roots of the 
trees should benefit by the pasturage 
outside the wall, it is very common to 
build it upon an arched foundation. 

Colour has very considerable influence 
over a body's power of absorbing heat. 
If a thermometer on a hot summer's 
day, be exposed to the sun, it will indi- 
cate a temperature of about 100°; but if 
the bulb be blackened with Indian ink 
or the smoke of a candle, it will rise 
from ten to twenty degrees higher. 
The reason for this is that the polished 
surface of the glass reflects some of the 
sun's rays, but the blackened surface 
absorbs them all. Blue absorbs all but 
the blue rays — red all but the red — 
green and yellow all but those of their 
own name — and white reflects all the 
rays. The lightest coloured rays are 
the most heating, therefore light co- 
loured walls, but especially white, are 
the worst for fruit trees. The ther- 
mometer against a wall rendered black 
by coal tar, rises 5° higher in the sun- 
shine, than the same instrument sus- 
pended against a red brick structure of 
the same thickness ; nor will it cool 
lower at night, though its radiating 
power is increased by the increased 



darkness of its colour, if a proper screen 
be then employed. — Johnson's Princ. of 
Gard. 

Inclined or Sloping Walls have been 
recommended, but have always failed 
in practice. It is quite true that they 
receive the sun's rays at a favourable 
angle, but they retain wet, and become 
so much colder by radiation at night 
than perpendicular walls, that they are 
found to be unfavourable to the ripen- 
ing of fruit. 

" The Flued-wall or Hot-wall," says 
Mr. Loudon, " is generally built entire- 
ly of brick, though where stone is 
abundant and more economical, the 
back or north side may be of that ma- 
terial. A flued wall may be termed a 
hollow wall, in which the vacuity is 
thrown into compartments, to facilitate 
the circulation of smoke and heat, from 
the base or surface of the ground, to 
within one or two feet of the coping. 
Such walls are generally arranged with 
hooks inserted under the coping, to ad- 
mit of fastening some description of 
protecting covers, and sometimes for 
temporary glass frames. A length of 
forty feet, and from ten to fifteen high, 
may be heated by one fire, the furnace 
of which, being placed one or two feet 
below the surface of the ground, the 
first course or flue will commence one 
foot above it, and be two feet six inches, 
or three feet high, and the second, third, 
and fourth courses, narrower as they 
ascend. The thickness of that side of 
the flue, next the south or preferable 
side, should for the first course, be four 
inches or brick and bed, and for the 
other courses, it were desirable to have 
bricks cast in a smaller mould : say for 
the second course three, for the third 
two and three quarters, and for the 
fourth two and a half inches in breadth. 
This will give an opportunity of bevel- 
ing the wall, and the bricks being all of 
the same thickness, though of different 
widths, the external appearance will be 
everywhere the same." — Enc. Gard. 

Mr. Paxton has the following excel- 
lent observations upon Conservative 
Walls, or walls so constructed as to 
shelter trees trained against them from 
winds, and other natural modes of 
rapidly lowering the temperature: — 

" In forming a conservative wall, it is 
necessary that it should have a south or 
a south-western aspect. It is also desi- 
rable, in order to give it an ornamental 



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appearance, that there should be promi- 
nent parts at certain intervals, or that 
the whole should be divided into re- 
cesses and projections. The latter, by 
being of limited dimensions, would 
serve for the display of the more hardy 
plant, and also afford additional shelter 
to the remaining portions. If, more- 
over, the whole be surmounted by an 
appropriate coping, its beauty will be 
greatly enhanced. 

"Much has been said of the conser- 
vative wall at Chatsworth, the leading 
characteristics of which are a practical 
illustration of the opinions now ad- 
vanced — large retiring compartments, 
covered with a neat trellis, and relieved 
by occasional small stone projections or 
piers ; and as the wall stands on a steep 
slope, each of the piers is raised con- 
siderably higher than the one below it, 
thus constituting as it were a series of 
very broad ascending steps on the top. 

" The advantage of having a slight 
wooden trellis against the wall, instead 
of fastening the plants to it in the usual 
way, need scarcely be pointed out. 
Independently of its superior appear- 
ance, which is a point too frequently 
neglected in such matters, the greater 
ease with which the branches can be 
attached to it, and removed or altered 
at any time, is quite sufficient to give it 
the preference, while the destruction 
and defacement of the wall consequent 
on the use of nails, and the injury they 
often occasion to the shoots of the 
plants, give a value to any system by 
which they can be discarded. The 
extra expense of the trellis is too tri- 
fling to be regarded. 

" It has been found, in attempting to 
grow exotics against open walls, that 
whatever tends to preserve the border 
in which they are planted comparatively 
dry, during the winter, does more to- 
wards sheltering them from the frost 
than extensive protection of any other 
kind. 

" As the fluids of plants are, for the 
most part, imbibed through the roots, 
and as the heat of vegetable bodies 
escapes mainly in proportion to the 
fluids they contain, protection to the 
medium in which they grow is perhaps 
even more necessary than to the stems 
and branches. It will therefore be seen, 
that the portion of the border where the 
roots lie must be covered, and that, if 
the canvas or other protection actually 



given to the wall does not extend over 
the border, a coating of dry litter should 
be spread over it, as soon as severe 
weather commences, and be retained 
on it until the spring. 

" The wall is composed of alternate 
prominent and retiring compartments. 
Each of the former includes two stone 
pillars, which stand out a little beyond 
all the remainder, and are to be left un- 
covered ; while, between these, is a 
division, over which is extended a trellis 
for supporting the hardiest sorts of 
climbers and those that demand no pro- 
tection. 

" The recesses are capable of being 
covered in cold weather with glazed 
sashes, which can be placed out of sight 
in a moment, whenever it is safe to re- 
move thern, by sliding them behind the 
other divisions. In these recesses the 
tenderest green-house plants may be 
cultivated, and trained against a trellis. 

" Thus are combined a handsome 
architectural elevation, and the means 
of having some of the finest exotic plants 
exposed in summer, without danger, 
and in a condition incomparably more 
healthy and attractive than they ever 
attain in the green-house. 

" If glazed sashes are too expensive, 
canvas, or other screens, can be readily 
substituted ; but, in that case, the plants 
will suffer from being kept in darkness 
during the winter. Where it is thought 
preferable, another set of rails, on the 
outside of those for the sashes, can be 
prepared, to carry some kind of cover- 
ing in rigorous weather. Where this is 
done, the necessity for fire heat will be 
trifling ; in fact it might be entirely dis- 
pensed with." — Paxton's Magazine of 
Botany. 

PLANTS FOR A CONSERVATIVE WALL. 

Abutilon striatum ; Acacia angustifolia, 
armata, cultiformis, dealbata, decur- 
rens, juniperina, lancelota, longissi- 
ma, lunata, and mucronata. 

Bignonia capreolata, grandiflora, and 
tweediana; Billardiera longiflora ; 
Bossiasa linophylla and scolopen- 
drium ; Brachysema bybridum and 
undulatum ; Brugmansia sanguinea 
and suaveolens; Budleya Lindleyana. 

Camellia Japonica; Ceanothus azureus; 
Ceratonia siliqua; Clematis azurea 
grandiflora, and sieboldi ; Correa 
bicolor, Harrisii, Lindleyana, and 
pulchella. 



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Diplacus pumiceus. 

Edwardsia grandiflora and microphylla; 
Erythrina crysta-galli ; Eutaxia myrti- 
folia. 
Grevillea rosmarinifolia. 
Hibbertia volubilis. 
Jasminum grandiflorum, and umbella- 

tum. 
Kennedya lilacina, longiracemosa, and 

ovata. 
Lagerstrremia indica; Linum trigynium. 
Malva creeana ; Manettia bicolor; Ma- 
rianthus caaruleo-punctatus ; Mimosa 
prostrata. 
Olea fragrans. 

Passiflora alata, casrulea, csrulea race- 
mosa, and raayani ; Plumbago capen- 
sis ; Polygala cordifolia and grandi- 
flora; Punica granatum. 
Rhodochiton volubile. 
Schinus molle; Siphocampyllus bico- 
lor; Sollya heterophylla and liniaris ; 
Swainsonia coronillaefolia. 
Tacsonia mollissima and pinnatistipula. 
WALNUT, ENGLISH. Juglans regia. 
Varieties. — Common Duck Nut ; Ha- 
tif; Highflyer; Double ; Tardif; York- 
shire. Of these Highflyer and Yorkshire 
are best. — London Hort. Soc. Catalogue. 
Propagation by Seed. — Sow in drills 
twelve inches apart and two inches and 
a half deep, and the nuts six inches 
apart. This may be done in October, 
or the nuts preserved in dry sand until 
February. They will come up the same 
spring, and, by the end of summer, the 
young plants will be half a foot ormore 
high, which, after having two years' 
growth in the seed-bed, plant out in the 
nursery. Previously, when taken up, 
shorten their tap roots ; but preserve 
their tops entire, and plant them in 
rows two feet and a half asunder, and 
about eighteen inches distant in each 
row. Here they are to remain a few 
years, training them with single stems, 
till five or six feet high, then transplant 
them where they are to remain. 

Those intended principally as timber 
trees, as well as to bear fruit, should be 
always planted out for good when from 
four to five feet high ; or, if the nuts 
were planted at once where the trees 
are designed to remain, without trans- 
planting, they would assume a quicker 
and stronger growth. 

By Grafting. — Mr. Knight first suc- 
ceeded in this operation, and the fol- 
lowing directions accord with his 
mode : — 



" The shoot to be grafted must be 
cut above the place where a young 
shoot is pushing; this shoot must be 
preserved, and the scion must be placed 
opposite to it, being fitted in the man- 
ner of whip-grafting, care being taken 
that the inner barks coincide. When 
the buds of the scion begin to swell, the 
point of the shoot left opposite on the 
stock must be pinched; and when the 
graft has fully burst into leaf, and is 
consequently in a condition to appro- 
priate the whole of the sap, the shoot 
on the stock may be then dispensed 
with. 

" The scions should be taken off in 
March, and their ends laid in the ground 
till required for use, as above men- 
tioned." — Gard. Chron. 

Soil. — It prefers a deep loam, though 
it will succeed on all light moderately 
fertile soils, provided they are well 
drained. 

Planting. — Walnut trees should 
never be planted nearer to each other 
than sixty feet. They require no 
pruning. 

Preserving the Fruit. — It is ripe in 
October, and should be allowed to hang 
upon the tree until the outer covering 
begins to crack. In this state, when 
the tree is shaken, many of the walnuts 
as they fall will roll out of the husk. 
These should be gathered into a basket, 
separate from those that retain their 
covering ; the latter should be laid aside 
for a few days, until the husks burst, 
and they can be taken out with ease. 
The great object is to prevent them 
from becoming mouldy ; they should, 
therefore, be wiped clean and dry, and 
laid on a shelf, in a dry place, where 
they can have a free current of air, until 
all tendency to mouldiness is overcome. 
Great care must, however, be taken that 
they are not over dried, for that will 
cause shriveling. When sufficiently 
dry they should be put into boxes in 
layers, alternately with bran, fine dry 
sand, or shreds of cloth, and kept for 
use in a cool dry situation. By this 
means they will retain their moisture 
and flavour, and the film will with ease 
peel off. — Gard. Chron. 

Taking the Fruit. — There is an un- 
gallant distich which says — 

"A woman, spaniel, and walnut tree, 
The better are, the more well thrash'd they 
be." 
But in the third instance most certainly 



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624 



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it is " a vulgar error." Walnuts should 
be literally gathered or shaken from the 
tree, for none other bleeds more freely 
if wounded : and no result of practice 
or suggestion of science can point out 
why the walnut tree, contrary to all 
others, is benefited by having its 
branches bruised and broken. 

WALNUT, BLACK. Juglans nigra. 

WARDIAN CASE. See Glass Case. 

WARREA cyanea. Stove. 

WARTWORT. Euphorbia helio- 
scopia. 

WASPS should be sedulously de- 
stroyed during April, May, and June, 
for all appearing in these months are 
queens, and the foundresses of nests. 
Their favourite resort at that season is 
the laurel, for the sake of the honey 
secreted by the midribs of its leaves. 
They may then be caught in the hooped 
gauze net of the entomologist. In Au- 
gust, wasps' nests should be destroyed, 
and spirit of turpentine is the best agent 
that can be employed for the purpose. 
The mode of using it when the nest is 
in the earth has been thus detailed. Put 
some of the turpentine into a large bot- 
tle, shaking it about until the whole 
of the inside is wetted by it; then fix 
the neck of the bottle in the nest's en- 
trance, and place over it a large flower- 
pot. By replenishing the bottle with 
turpentine once or twice, the whole of 
the wasps will be destroyed by the 
fumes. — Gard. Chron. 

If the nest, be in a place where the 
bottle cannot be employed, the spirit 
may be injected by a syringe, and the 
fume retained by covering up the nest's 
mouth. 

WATER being an essential applica- 
tion to the seed, as well as to the grow- 
ing plant, the source from whence it 
comes is by no means immaterial. The 
best for the gardener's purpose is rain 
water, preserved in tanks sunk in the 
earth, and rendered tight either by pud- 
dling or bricks covered with Parker's 
cement. To keep these tanks replen- 
ished, gutters should run round the eaves 
of every structure in the garden, and 
communicate with them. Every hun- 
dred cubic inches of rain water, con- 
tains more than four cubic inches of air, 
of which more than half are carbonic 
acid gas, and the remainder nitrogen 
and oxygen in the proportion of sixty- 
two of the former to thirty-eight of the 
last named. 



Liebig, from actual experiment on a 
large scale, states that both rain and 
snow contain ammonia; and its import- 
ance appears from the fact that if there 
be .only one-fourth of a grain in each 
pint of water, the annual deposition 
from the atmosphere would be more 
than sufficient, on half an acre of 
ground, to give all the nitrogen con- 
tained in the vegetable albumen of 150 
cwt. of beet root. Rain water also con- 
tains a peculiar substance, analogous to 
the extractive matter and gluten of 
plants, though differing from them 
chemically. To this substance, Dr. 
Daubeny has given the name of pyr- 
rhine. Traces of salts and oxides have 
also been found in rain water, but, 
compared with all other naturally pro- 
duced, it is so pure, and so abounds 
with the gases beneficial to plants, that 
none other can equal it for their service. 
That obtained from ponds or springs, 
invariably contains matters offensive or 
deleterious to plants. That known as 
hard water, containing an excess of 
salts of lime or magnesia, is invariably 
prejudicial, and pond water is scarcely 
less so. If it be stagnant, and loaded 
with vegetable extract, it is even worse 
than hard spring water; for it then con- 
tains carbnretted hydrogen and other 
matters noxious to vegetables. These 
last named waters, if obliged to be em- 
ployed to tender plants, should have a 
pint of the ammoniacal water of the 
gas works, mixed thoroughly with every 
sixty gallons, an hour or two before 
they are used. 

Mr. Paxton justly observes that 
" watering outdoor crops is frequently 
recommended during continued dry 
weather; but it should be avoided as 
long as possible, as the benefit of arti- 
ficial watering is but temporary, and it 
has the effect of exciting the roots, 
i thereby rendering them more liable to 
suffer when the water has evaporated. 
| When, in a case of emergency, it be- 
I comes necessary to water, it should be 
given morning and evening, more 
j abundantly than is usually done, and 
! never discontinued after its commence- 
I ment, until a change in the weather 
! renders it no longer necessary. Dis- 
i crimination should be used in selecting 
! proper objects for watering; for it is 
i no uncommon occurrence to see small 
I basins of soil formed round the stems 
! of fruit trees, on walls and other per- 






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625 

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manent plants, into which several pans 
of water are poured daily during 
drought. This must be useless or near- 
ly so, as the roots which would take up 
the water, for the benefit of the plants, 
will form a circle at a considerable dis- 
tance from the stem. Seed beds, or 
plants which can be regularly and tho- 
roughly watered, as radishes, lettuce, 
and salading, will be much benefited, 
butartificial watering outof doors, in the 
manner it is usually applied, is of little 
service ; and in the case of strawber- 
ries, and similar crops, mulching with 
straw, grass, or some such contrivance, 
which will prevent the rapid evapora- 
tion of moisture from the soil, is much 
preferable." — Gard. Chron. 

Mr. S. Taylor, of Stoke Ferry, in the 
Gardeners' Magazine for 1840, recom- 
mends the use of bottles with two small 
holes in the sides near the bottom, for 
watering plants. The bottles are buried 
to the neck, near the roots of the flower 
whieh requires watering, and after 
being filled and corked, the water is 
allowed gradually to exude through the 
holes. " This," says that good horti- 
culturist, Mr. W. P. Ayres, " though 
undoubtedly an ingenious method, is 
objectionable, because the roots of the 
plants are liable to be injured in plung- 
ing the bottles, and that it would require 
so many of them, where copious water- 
ing was necessary. A better plan is to 
take moderate sized flower-pots, and 
having placed an ineh or two of rough 
gravel in the bottom of each, to place 
them round the plant to be watered, 
and fill with water, which as it perco- 
lates gradually through the gravel, will 
soak into the ground. For plants such 
as standard roses, rhododendrons, &c, 
closely turfed over on lawns, or for any 
thing in a sloping situation, this is a 
most excellent plan, as the pots filled 
with water may be placed at night, and 
removed the next morning, so as not to 
become an eyesore. Watering plants 
in flower beds is at all times a difficult 
matter, because if the borders are suf- 
ficiently full of soil to give them a con- 
vex form, whieh they always ought to 
have, the water runs to the sides of the 
borders as fast as it is poured on. In 
such eases it will be found advisable to 
perforate the beds as thickly as possible, 
without injuring the roots, to the depth 
of six or eight inches, with a stick one 



ten or a dozen times, the ground will 
become thoroughly soaked. With 
annuals, verbenas, and other grouping 
plants, I have found this a most excel- 
lent method. In connection with the 
watering of strawberries, a radical im- 
provement is required; for although 
gardeners are prettly liberal with the 
limpid fluids over the heads of the 
plants, they are not good conservators 
of the quality of the fruit. It is true, 
by copious watering, both the size and 
quantity of the fruit is much increased ; 
but it is equally true that if water is 
used over the plants after the fruit is 
half grown, the latter will be much de- 
teriorated in quality. We all know 
that strawberries in a wet season are 
never so high flavoured as they are in a 
dry one, and what is the reason ? Why, 
because there is a superabundance of 
aqueous matter in the fruit; and so it 
is with the plants copiously watered 
overhead in dry seasons. In truth, it 
may be laid down as a rule, if fine fla- 
voured fruit be a desideratum, water 
ought never to come in contact with it 
after the saccharine or maturing assi- 
milation commences. Hence in water- 
ing strawberries, let it be poured from 
the spout of the watering pot upon the 
soil, but on no account is it to touch 
the fruit; or, what will be better, fork the 
ground over between the plants, give it a 
good soaking, to at least the depth of a 
foot, and cover it two or three inches 
deep with clean straw. This will both 
prevent the evaporation of moisture, 
and the radiation of terrestrial heat ; 
and as the straw, from its colour and 
non-conducting qualities, will reflect 
instead of absorbing the heat, the fruit, 
being subjected to increased tempera- 
ture, will, in consequence, be improved 
in flavour. If water is required after 
the straw is placed on the beds, let it 
be applied through pots, placed one 
foot apart, as recommended above for 
plants on a lawn." — Gard. Chron. 

I agree with those who recommend 
" sunrise as the best time for the water- 
ing of exposed plants. Evaporation no 
doubt will then go on freely ; but the 
atmosphere is beginning to get warmer, 
and the sun's rays to exert their coun- 
teracting influence. The darkened sur- 
face — that very condition which made 
the soil throw off its heat more readily 
during the night, causes it to imbibe the 



inch in diameter, and by filling these | heat of the sun's rays by day with in- 
40 



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626 



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creased facility, so that you thus have 
the greatest amount of the fostering 
agencies of heat and moisture for the 
growth of plants. When evening again 
comes round, the surface moisture has 
been dried up, and its colour again ren- 
dered of a lighter shade ; there is con- 
sequently little diminution of tempera- 
ture beyond surrounding objects, either 
from evaporation or radiation of heat." 
— Gard. Chron. 

Although an excess of water applied 
to the roots of plants is injurious to 
them, yet all of them are benefited by 
a due supply of that liquid, and the 
supply has to be regulated by the 
amount of their daily transpiration. The 
gardener knows that this differs in every 
species, and during different seasons. 
For instance, in a dry hot day, a sun- 
flower three feet and a half high trans- 
pired 111b. 4 oz., being seventeen times 
more than the human body; during a 
hot dry night, 3 oz.; during a dewy 
night there was no transpiration, and 
during a rainy night the plant absorbed 
3 oz. Therefore, the gardener finds it 
best to apply water during dry weather 
early in the morning, just before the 
chief demand occurs, which is from six 
A.M., till, two in the afternoon; and 
during moist weather he refrains from 
the application entirely. Then again 
the gardener keeps his agaves and other 
fleshy-leaved plants in a dry stove, for 
they transpire but sparingly in propor- 
tion to their mass, and require watering 
but seldom, and then abundantly ; for 
they take up, as in their native silicious 
habitats, a large supply, and retain it 
pertinaciously in defiance of the long- 
protracted droughts to which they are 
exposed. In the same species I have 
always found varieties transpire abun- 
dantly and require a large supply of 
water in proportion to the extent of 
their transpiring surface. Thus the 
broad-leaved fuchsias and pelargoniums 
transpire from two to three times as 
much as those varieties which have 
smaller and less abundant foliage. 
Excessive moisture induces that over 
succulency, which is ever attended by 
weakness, unnatural growth, and early 
decay. Such plants more than any 
others are sufferers by sudden vicissi- 
tudes in the hygrometric state of the 
atmosphere, and are still more fatally 
visited, if exposed to low reductions of 
temperature." — Princ. of Gard. 



WATER CRESS. Nasturtium of- 
ficinale. 

Varieties. — Small brown - leaved, 
hardiest; Large brown-leaved, best for 
deep water; Green-leaved, easiest cul- 
tivated. — London Hort. Soc. Trans. 

Planting in Water. — On this we 
have the following good directions in 
the Bon Jardinier. The depth of the 
trenches in which they are grown being 
entirely dependent upon that of the 
springs by which they are supplied 
with water, the former are so prepared 
that, as nearly as possible, a regular 
depth of three or four inches can be 
kept up. These trenches are three 
yards broad, and eighty-seven yards 
long, and whenever one is to be plant- 
ed, the bottom is made quite firm and 
slightly sloping, so that the water which 
flows in at one end may run out at the 
other. If the bottom of the trench is 
not sufficiently moist, a small body of 
water is allowed to enter to soften it. 
The cresses are then taken and divided 
into small sets or cuttings, with roots 
attached to them ; and these are thrown 
over the bottom of the trench at the 
distance of three or four inches from 
each other. The cress soon attaches 
itself to the damp earth; in three or 
four days the shoots straighten and be- 
gin to strike root. At the end of five 
or six days, a slight dressing of well 
decomposed cow-dung is spread over 
all the plants, and this is pressed down 
by means of a heavy board, to which a 
long handle is obliquely fixed. The 
water is then raised to the depth of 
two or three inches, and never higher. 
Each trench is thus replanted annually, 
and furnishes twelve crops during the 
season. In the summer the cresses are 
gathered every fifteen or twenty days, 
but less frequently during winter : care 
is taken that at each gathering at least 
a third part of the bed is left untouched, 
so that neither the roots may be ex- 
hausted, nor the succeeding gathering 
delayed. After every cutting, a little 
decayed cow-dung, in the proportion 
of two large barrowfuls to each trench, 
is spread over the naked plants, and 
this is beaten down by means of the 
rammer above mentioned. After the 
water cresses have been thus treated 
for a twelvemonth, the manure forms a 
tolerably thick layer at the bottom of 
the trench, and tends to raise its level. 
To restore it to its original level, all 



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627 



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the refuse should be thrown out upon 
the borders which separate the trenches 
from each other. These borders may 
be planted with artichokes, cabbages, 
or cauliflowers, which will here attain 
a great size. Cress-grounds should al- 
ways be at a distance from trees, on 
account of the leaves, which otherwise 
drive amongst the plants, and require 
much time to pick out. There are 
two weeds which, even in the cleanest 
cress-grounds, can scarcely be kept 
under; these are the Duckweed and 
Zannichellia palustris, which both mul- 
tiply so quickly, that unless carefully 
rooted out, they do great injury to the 
cresses. The Zannichellia may be 
kept under by careful hand-weeding, 
and the Duckweed by raising the wa- 
ter, so as to make it float above the 
cress plants, when it may be skimmed 
off. 

Planting in Borders. — This must be 
done in September and in a moist shady 
border. Plant slips, and the only cul- 
tivation necessary is to dig the earth 
fine, to draw a slight trench with a hoe, 
to fill this with water until it becomes 
a mud, to cOver it about an inch deep 
with drift sand, and then to stick in the 
slips about six inches apart, watering 
them until established. The sand keeps 
the plants clean. They will be ready 
for gathering from in a very few weeks, 
and the shoots should be invariably cut 
and not picked. They are not so mild 
flavoured as those grown in water, but 
then they are free from aquatic insects, 
&c. 

WATERFALL. See Cascade. 

WATER GERMANDER. Teucrium 
Scordium. 

WATERING ENGINE. See En- 
gine. 

WATERING POTS. These should 
have roses pierced with very fine holes ; 
the diameter of those usually used is 
too large. Long-spouted watering pots 
are required for watering plants in pots 
upon shelves. French watering pots 
have zigzag bends in the spout to break 
from the plant the force of the water. 
Shelf watering pots are small and flat- 
bodied for giving water to plants over- 
head, and near the glass in green-houses 
or stoves. 

" The accompanying engraving is of 
a watering pot from Mr. G. Thompson, 
390 Oxford Street, who states that its 
superiority consists in the roses being 



so formed as to give the water thrown 
from them the nearest resemblance to 
a gentle shower of rain, which renders 
it peculiarly suitable for watering seed- 
lings or other tender plants. As the 
brass joints which connect the roses to 
the spout are made water-tight, there 
is no danger of its returning outside, to 

Fig. 176. 




the annoyance of the person using it: 
a is the spout to which the roses are 
screwed ; b, the box to contain either 
spout out of use; c and d, the holes in 
which the joints are placed ; e, a large 
rose for watering flower beds; /, a 
smaller rose for watering plants in 
pots." — Gard. Chron. 

Another watering pot is the follow- 
ing, and suggested by Mr. Williamson. 

" No. 1 represents the original, 
which differs from a common watering 
pot in having its tube inserted in a 
horizontal position, with a brass valve 
near the point, through which passes a 
brass wire or rod, held in its proper 
position by two strong transverse pieces 
of wire, perforated in the centre, and 

Fig. 177. 




connected with a crank or lever, be- 
tween the lower part of which and 
the side of the pot is a steel spring, 
which propels the piston and shuts the 
valve. From the top of the lever is 



WAT 



WE A 



fixed a brass rod, which is kept in its 
place by a collar brazed to the side of 
the pot. In raising, the rod is pressed 
by the finger. No. 2 represents the im- 
provements, which consist in a double 
lever, acting like the key of a flute. 
Instead of the steel spring at the end 
of the lever, a spiral one of brass wire 
is fixed within the point of the tube, 
immediately before the valve, which it 
shuts; at the other end of the tube is a 
convex rose of copper, to prevent dirt, 
&c, passing into the tube, through the 
centre of which passes the rod in con- 
nexion with the lever and the valve. 
No. 3 differs from the preceding only 
in having a movable curved tube at- 
tached to the pipe, at the top of which 
is a very fine rose about an inch in 
diameter. From the length of tube 
(about twenty inches) the pressure of 
water is considerable, when the pot is 
held in an inclined position, producing 
a light shower admirably suited to small 
seeds." — Gard. Chron. 

A third invention is Mr. Saul's, and, 
he says, " it can be constructed at a 
very little more expense than those in 
general use. In the annexed sketch, 
Fig. 1 represents a section of the can ; 
1 1 are removeable tubes, having roses 
on their upper ends, while the lower 
ends slide over the tube 2, fixed into 



hand or the left : by drawing up the 
spring 6 with the forefinger, the valve 
is raised by means of the connecting rod 
o, and consequently the water flows 
into the tubes 1 and 2; as soon as the 
finger is removed from the spring, the 
valve falls, and the water is stopped. 
The spring is fixed on the under side of 
the handle, and nearly all inclosed in 
that part made to fit the hand. Fig 2 
represents the bottom of the can ; the 
dotted line showing the size of the 
valve ; 1 shows the point at which the 
water flows into the tubes." — Gard. 
Chron. 

WATER LEMON. Passiflora lauri- 
folia. 

WATER LILY. Nymphea. 

WATER MELON. Cucumis Citrui- 
lus, var. 

WATER PLANTS. See Aquarium. 

WATER PURSLANE. Peplis. 

WATER VINE. Tetracera potato- 
ria. 

WATER VIOLET. Hottonia. 

WATSONIA. Fifteen species. 
Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
sets or seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 

WAYFARING TREE. Viburnum 
Lantana. 

WEATHER. The gardener, even 
more than the farmer, is dependent upon 
the weather for opportunity to insert and 



the can ; 3 is a valve placed over this j to remove the plants under his care. I 
tube, made of strong leather, and hav- 
ing a small block of wood on the top 
like those in common pumps, the bot- 
tom of the can being wood, the valve is 
screwed on it, as shown at 4, in such a 




manner as to be easily taken off, when 
it requires to be repaired. The rod 5 
is connected with the valve 3, and the 
spring 6; when used, the can maybe 
held by the handle, either in the right 



hall, therefore, give him all the prog- 
nostics which appearworthy of attention. 

1. The hollow winds begin to blow, 

2. The clouds look black, the glass is low; 

3. The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep, 

4. And spiders from their cobwebs peep ; 

5. Last night ihe sun went pale to bed ; 

6. The moon in halos hid her head. 

7. The boding shepherd heaves a sigh, 
P. For see, a rainbow spans the sky ; 

9. The xvalls are damp, the ditches smell, 

10. Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernell ; 

11. Hark ! how the chairs and tables crack, 

12. Old Betty's joints are on the rack ; 

13. Loud quack the ducks, the peacocks cry, 

14. The distant hills are looking nigh; 

15. How restless are the snorting swine, 
lfi. The busy flies disturb the kine : 

17. Low o'er the grass the swallow wings, 

18. The cricket, too, how sharp he sings; 

19. Puss on the hearth, with velvet paws, 
Sits wiping o'er her whisker'd jaws : 

20. Through the clear stream the fishes rise, 
And nimbly catch th' incautious flies; 

21. The glow-worms, numerous and bright, 
Illumed the dewy dell last night; 

22. At night the squalid toad was seen 
Hopping and crawling o'er the green ; 

23. The whirling wind the dust obeys, 
And in the rapid eddy plays ; 



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629 

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24. The frog has changed his yellow vest, 
And in a russet coat is drest ; 

25. Though June, the air is cold yet still ; 

26. The blackbird^ mellow voice is shrill ; 

27. My dog, so alter'd is his taste, 
Quits mutton bones, on grass to feast ; 

28. And see yon rooks, how odd their flight, 
They imitate the gliding kite, 

And seem precipitate to fall, 
As if they felt the piercing ball ; 
'Twill surely rain, I see, with sorrow, 
Our jaunt cannot take place to-morrow. 

In the foregoing rhymes, attributed to 
Dr. Jenner, are comprised nearly all the 
natural phenomena which predicate ap- 
proaching rain, and most of them are 
sustained by our more scienced know- 
ledge. 

Thus the wind, when rain is ap- 
proaching, causes more moaning and 
whistling sounds in passing through the 
crevices and crannies of our houses, on 
the same principle that all other gases, 
in proportion as they are more or less 
heated, or more or less dry, cause 
louder or lower sounds in passing 
through the orifices of small tubes. 

Soot falls because it absorbs more 
moisture from the air as rain approaches, 
and becoming heavier breaks away from 
its slender attachment to the chimney's 
walls. A halo round the moon is caused 
by the rays of its light passing through 
moisture precipitated from the air, and 
the larger the halo, the nearer is such 
precipitated moisture to the earth, and 
consequently the rain is at hand. 

Walls become damp from the same 
cause that soot falls, when rain is ap- 
proaching, namely, because the moist- 
ure in the air is more abundant, and in 
a state of mixture with it more easily 
separable. Walls that thus become 
damp, contain chloride of calcium, or 
other salts which are deliquescent, that 
is, absorb moisture from the air. Ditches 
smell in rainy weather, because all 
odours are conveyed with more facility 
by damp than by dry air. Not only 
does thepimpernell (Anagallis arvensis) 
close its flowers when exposed to damp 
air, but those of many other plants are 
similarly sensitive. Convolvulus arvensis 
(field Bindweed), Anagallis arvensis, 
Calendula pluvialis, Arenaria rubra 
(purple Sandwort), Stellaria media 
(Chickweed or Stitchwort), and many 
others, are well known to shut up their 
flowers against the approach of rain ; 
whence the Anagallis has been called 
" the Poor Man's Weather Glass." It 
40* 



has been observed by Linnaeus, adds 
Sir J. E. Smith, that flowers lose this 
fine sensibility, either after the anthers 
have performed their office, or when 
deprived of them artificially ; nor do I 
doubt the fact. I have had reason to 
think that, during a long continuance of 
wet, the Anagallis is sometimes ex- 
hausted ; and it is evident that very sud- 
den thunder showers oftener take such 
flowers by surprise, the previous state 
of the atmosphere not having been such 
as to give them due warning. 

The cracking of furniture is the ne- 
cessary consequence of the dry woody 
fibre expanding when exposed to moist- 
er air. Distant objects appear nearer 
when rain is at hand, because the air ia 
rarer at such times, and objects always 
appear distinct in proportion to the 
rarity of the gaseous medium through 
which they are viewed. Swallows fly 
low at such times, probably for two rea- 
sons : insects are then more busy near 
the earth's surface, and the rarity of 
the atmosphere renders flying more la- 
borious in proportion to the height to 
which a bird soars. The changed habits 
of animals at the approach of rain, are 
perhaps to be accounted for by the al- 
tered state of the atmospheric pressure, 
and of the air's electricity causing a 
change of sensations which warns them 
by past experience that the season of 
discomfort or of pleasure, as their na- 
ture may be, is coming upon them. 

These natural phenomena combined 
with a careful attention to the indica- 
tions of the Barometer, are much less 
erring guides than tables founded upon 
the moon's changes. It is impossible, 
in the present imperfect state of our 
meteorological knowledge, to say that 
the moon has no influence upon the 
weather, but it is next to certain that 
other influences are much more power- 
ful and controlling. The same moon 
rises and sets and changes in Hindoo- 
stan as in England, yet in that climate, 
its wet and hot and cold seasons, its 
northeast and southwest monsoons ar- 
rive with a changeless regularity and 
intensity that demonstrate the moon's 
influence there has no paramount con- 
trol. 

The facts established by Mr. Forster 
and other acute observers of the ba- 
rometer, appear to be these: — 1. Not 
the great height or depression of the 
mercury is so much to be regarded as 



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630 

— • — 



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whether it continues to rise or decline. 
2. If the mercury falls when the wind 
blows nearly from due south, rain is 
approaching. 3. If it falls in hot wea- 
ther, there will be thunder. 4. If it 
rises in winter, frost is nigh ; and if, the 
frost continuing, it still rises, there will 
be snow. 5. If it falls much during 
frost, a thaw will set in. 6. A change 
taking place immediately after the mer- 
cury rises or falls, rarely endures. 7. 
If the mercury continues to rise during 
wet weather, or to fall during fine wea- 
ther, apermanent change will come. 

I am indebted to Mr. W. H. White, 
one of the intelligent Secretaries of the 
Meteorological Society, for the follow- 
ing observations: — 

BAROMETRIC FLUCTUATIONS. 

1. The barometer in calm serene wea- 
ther generally ranges pretty high, 
rather above thirty inches ; if the 
fluctuations daily are very small, but 
still rather getting higher, a fine se- 
ries of days or weeks may be expect- 
ed. 

2. When the barometer is below twen- 
ty-nine inches, and the clouds dis- 
perse with but little wind, it will be- 
come stationary for a day or two, till 
the electrical equilibrium of the air 
be destroyed : if it then rise, expect 
fair weather; if it fall, expect a storm 
of wind accompanied with rain or 
hail, according to the season. 

3. When the barometer ranges between 
29 and 29.60, if the clouds hang low 
and float before a west or southwest 
wind, almost every cloud will deposit 
its contents, especially if passing over 
an elevation, a wood, and sometimes 
a river. In all cases the hygrometer 
should be considered : if the air be 
dry and the barometer fall, wind will 
follow; if the air be saturated with 
moisture, rain or sleet, according to 
season. 

4. When the thermometer ranges in 
summer between 70° and 80°, and 
the barometer falls rapidly and exten- 
sively, thunder will follow with hail 
or heavy rain. 

5. In winter, when the thermometer 
ranges below freezing, and a low 
barometer begins to rise, expect 
snow to follow ; but if the thermo- 
meter rise and the barometer fall 
during frosty weather, a thaw will 
quickly follow. 



6. The barometer at all seasons of the 
year will fall very low and very ra- 
pidly on the approach of a storm of 
wind without rain ; on the approach 
of an earthquake too, though it be 
four or five hundred miles off! 

7. If the barometer fall with an easterly 
or northeast wind, rain will follow. 

8. If the crown of the mercury in the 
tube be convex, it indicates a rising 
will take place ; if concave, it will 
soon fall. 

These are a few of the changes pecu- 
liar to England. The operating causes 
of the oscillations involve one of the 
most interesting inquiries belonging to 
meteorology. Electricity is the grand 
mover of the barometric column. Many 
other rules might be gathered from the 
restlessness of animals, the flights of 
birds, and the gambols of fishes ; all 
indicating by their motions that there is 
a change taking place in the electrical 
condition of the atmosphere. 

NATURAL APPEARANCES. 

1. In winter, a red sky at sunrise indi- 
cates the speedy approach of rain. 

2. In summer, the same appearance de- 
notes refreshing showers. 

3. Squalls of wind generally follow 
these appearances: — "It will be foul 
weather to-day, for the sky is red and 
lowering." Matt. xvi. 3. 

4. Small patches of white clouds, like 
flocks of sheep at rest, indicate con- 
tinued fine weather. 

5. Large mountainous (or Jupiterian) 
clouds, called cumulo stratus, pro- 
duce sudden showers in spring and 
autumn, and hail-storms in summer 
and winter. 

6. When large clouds diminish in size, 
fine weather will follow ; if they in- 
crease, rain or snow. 

7. Rainbows denote frequent showers. 
Spiders generally alter their webs 

once in twenty-four hours ; and a rule 
has been deduced from this, whereby 
to foretell the coming change. If they 
thus alter their web between six and 
seven in the evening, there will be a 
fine night; if in the morning, a fine 
day ; if they work during rain, expect 
fine weather; and the more active and 
busy the spider is, the finer will be the 
weather. If spiders' webs (gossamer) fly 
in the autumn, with a south wind, expect 
an east wind and fine weather. If gar- 
I den spiders break off and destroy their 



WE A 



631 

♦ 



WEE 



webs, and creep away, expect continued 
rain and showery weather. 

The Leech also possesses the pecu- 
liar property of indicating approaching 
changes of the weather in a most emi- 
nent degree. In fair and frosty weather 
it remains motionless and rolled up in a 
spiral form at the bottom of the vessel ; 
previously to rain or snow, it will creep 
to the top, where, should the rain be 
heavy, or of long continuance, it will 
remain for a considerable time ; if tri- 
fling, it will descend. Should the rain 
or snow be accompanied with wind, it 
will dart about with great velocity, and 
seldom cease its evolutions until it 
blows hard. If a storm of thunder or 
lightning be approaching, it will be ex- 
ceedingly agitated, and express its feel- 
ings in violent convulsive starts at the 
top of the glass. These animal move- 
ments are all induced, probably, by 
sensations in the animal occasioned by 
changes in the atmospheric electricity. 

Rain may be Expected — When the 
sounds of distant waterfalls, &c, are 
distinctly heard — When the sun rises 
pale and sparkling — When the sun rises 
amidst ruddy clouds — When the sun 
sets behind a dark cloud — When there 
is no dew after heat in summer — When 
there is much hoar frost in winter — 
When mists rest on the mountain tops 
— When snails and frogs beset your 
evening walk — When gnats bite vigor- 
ously — When animals are unusually 
restless. 

Fair Weather may be Expected 
— When none of the signs of rain just 
given occur — When the sun sets red 
and cloudless — When the moon's horns 
are sharp — When the stars shine bright- 
ly — When smoke rises easily — When 
moths and beetles appear in numbers. 

Clouds. — " When it is evening, ye 
say, It will be fair weather, for the sky 
is red." {Matt. xvi. 2.) " And this 
observation of nineteen centuries past 
is explained by the optical fact, that dry 
air refracts more of the red rays of light, 
than when it is moist ; and as dry air 
is not perfectly transparent, those rays 
are reflected in the horizon." — Davy's 
Salmonia. 

Rainbow. — " When this is seen in the 
morning, it betokens rain ; but if in the 
evening, fair weather; and Sir H. Davy 
thus explains this phenomenon : — ' The 
bow can be seen only when the clouds 



depositing the rain are opposite to the 
sun, — thus in the morning the bow is in 
the west, and in the evening it is in the 
east ; and, as the rains in this country 
are usually brought by westerly winds, 
a bow in that quarter indicates that the 
rain is coming towards the spectator; 
whereas a bow in the east indicates that 
rain is passing away.' " — Salmonia. 

Wind. — Mr. Christensen says, that 
the wind changing to any point of the 
compass between e.s.e. and n.n.w. 
causes the mercury to rise ; and a 
change to any point between w. and s. 
causes it to be depressed. 

WEEDS should be warred upon un- 
remittingly by the gardener, for not only 
does their presence detract from that 
neatness which should be the all-per- 
vading characteristic of the garden, but 
every weed robs the soil of a portion of 
the nutriment which should be devoted 
to the crops. 

To destroy them, the hoes and weed- 
ing irons should be unremittingly at 
work. Neither should weeds be al- 
lowed to remain where cut down, but 
should be gathered together, and mixed 
with saline matters, to convert them 
into most valuable fertilizers. Never 
burn them. No weed will endure being 
continually cut down, and when cut 
down, it should be carried to a common 
heap, and a peck of common salt, and 
a gallon of gas ammoniacal liquor, 
mixed with every barrow load. The 
whole speedily becomes a saponaceous 
mass ; all seeds in it are destroyed ; and 
it is rendered one of the best fertilizers 
the gardener can command. 

WEEDING TOOLS. See Hoe. Be- 

Fig. 179. 



Fig. 180. 




WEE 



632 

— ♦— 



WIR 



sides spuds, weeding pincers, and hoes, 
there are several implements invent- 
ed for eradicating the deeper-rooting 
weeds. Such are Hall's Land Crab 
(Fig. 179), Dockspuds and the Guernsey 
Weeding Prong (Fig. 180). 

WEEVIL. See Anthonomus and 
Otiorhyncus. 

WEIGHTS. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

16 Drachms, 1 ounce. 

16 Ounces, 1 pound. 

28 Pounds, 1 quarter. 

4 Quarters, 1 cwt. 

20 Cwt., 1 ton. 

WEIGHTS AS IN ENGLAND. 

14 Pounds, 1 stone. 
8 Pounds, 1 stone butchers* 
meat. 

56 Pounds, 1 truss of hay. 

36 Pounds, 1 truss of straw. 

36 Trusses, 1 load. 

WELCH ONION. See Ciboule. 

WENDLANDIA particulate/.. A Stove 
evergreen tree ; and TV. populifolia, a 
green-house evergreen twiner. Cut- 
tings. Loam, peat and sand. 

WESTRINGIA. Ten species. Green- 
house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
tings. Light rich soil. 

WHEELBARROWS. The greater 
the diameter of the wheel of a barrow, 
and the smaller the axis or spindle on 
which it turns, the less power will be 
required to drive it forward; for the 
friction is proportionately reduced. 

The diameter of the wheel might be 
increased with manifest advantage to 
double that now employed, for even 
then it would be below the point of 
draught or impulsion (the hand of the 
labourer) ; and the nearer it can be 
brought to a level with this, the more 
efficiently he exerts his power. 

The breadth ofthe wheel's periphery, 
or felloes, might be also increased two 
inches advantageously; for, as it is al- 
ways employed upon a surface in some 
degrees soft, such an increased breadth 
would decrease the depth to which the 
wheel of a loaded barrow usually sinks 
into the soil, and would proportionately 
decrease the power required to over- 
come the augmented opposition. In a 
wheelbarrow so constructed, a man 
might move with more ease eight hun- 
dred weight, than he now impels five 
hundred weight, which is a full barrow 
load. 



If a wheelbarrow be made of wood, 
the feet and handles should be capped 
with iron, and its joints strengthened 
with bands of the same metal. Iron 
barrows are now made weighing no 
more than ninety-two pounds, and they 
run very light. 

The longer the handles of a wheel- 
barrow are, and the nearer the load to 
the wheel, the easier is that load lifted, 
and the easier is the barrow turned over 
to discharge the load. 

WHIRLING PLANT. Besmodium 
gyrans. 

WHITE BEAN TREE. Pyrus Aria. 

WHITE CEDAR. Cupressus thy- 
oides. 

WHITE SPRUCE. Pinus Alba. 

WHITE TREE. Melaleuca Leuca- 
dendron. 

WHITE VINE. Clematis vitalba. 

WHITEFIELDIA lateritia. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Leafy 
mould and loam. 

WHORTLE BERRY. Vaccinium. 

WIDOW WAIL. Cneorum. 

WIGANDIA caracasana. Stove de- 
ciduous shrub. Seeds. Loam and peat. 

WILDERNESS. See Labyrinth. 

WILD LIQUORICE. Abrus. 

WILD SERVICE. Pyrus torminalis. 

WILDENOVIA. Two species. 
Grasses. Division. Loam and peat. 

WILLEMETIA africana. Stove 
evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

WILLOW. Salix. 

WILLUGHBEIA edulis. Stove ever- 
green shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

WIND FLOWER. Gentiana Pneu- 
monanthe, and Anemone. 

WINGED PEA. Tetragonolobus pur- 
pur eus. 

WINTER ACONITE. Eranthis. 

WINTER BERRY. Prinos. 

WINTER CHERRY. Physalis, and 
Cardiospermum Halicacabum. 

WINTER CRESS. Barbarea. 

WINTER MOTH. See Cheimatobia. 

WINTER SWEET. Origanum hera- 

cI-GOtzCUTTL 

WIRE- WORMS are the larva? of 
various species of Elater, Click Beetle, 
or Skip Jack. Of these there are more 
than fifty species ; but the most common 
are: — 

E. segetis, of which the wire-worm is 
often so abundant in old pastures, and 



WIR 



633 

— • — 



WOR 



of which the ravages are so great oc- 
casionally upon our corn crops. 

E. sputator. Spring beetle. The 
larva or wire-worm of this is particularly 
destructive to the lettuce and carrot. 

The following general description of 
the click beetles and their larva?, is 
given by Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, in the 
Farmers' Encyclopedia : — 

"Click beetles are readily known by 
having the sternum produced behind in 
a strong spine fitted to enter a groove 
in the abdomen, situated between the 
intermediate pair of legs. By bringing 
these parts suddenly into contact, the 
insects are enabled to spring to some 
height into the air, and thus recover 
their natural position when they happen 
to fall on their backs, which they fre- 
quently do when dropping from plants 
to the ground. A special provision of 
this kind is rendered necessary in con- 
sequence of the shortness and weakness 
of their legs. 

"The wire -worms have a long, 
slender, and cylindrical body, covered 
by a hard crust, which has obtained for 
them the above name. They are com- 
posed of twelve segments, fitting closely 
to each other; and are provided with 
six conical scaly feet, placed in pairs on 
the three segments next the head. The 
latter is furnished with short antennae 
palpi, and two strong mandibles or 
jaws. 

'< To remove the wire-worm from a 
soil, no mode is known but frequently 
digging it and picking them out, as their 
yellow colour renders them easily de- 
tected. To prevent their attack upon a 
crop, mix a little spirit of tar, or a larger 
quantity of gas lime, with the soil. It 
has been stated that growing white 
mustard drives them away, and it is 
certainly worth the trial. To entrap 
them, and tempt them away from a crop 
they have attacked, bury potatoes in the 
soil near the crop ; and if each potato 
has a stick thrust through it, this serves 
as a handle by which it may be taken 
up, and the wire worms which have 
penetrated it be destroyed. To decoy 
them from beds of anemones, ranuncu- 
luses, &c, it is said to be a successful 
plan to grow round the beds an edging 
of daisies, for the roots of which they 
have a decided preference. 

" If a crop be attacked, as the pansy 
or carnation, our only resource is to 
bury in the soil other vegetable matters, 



of which they are fonder than they are 
of the roots of those flowers. Potatoes, 
with a string tied round them to mark 
where they are, and to facilitate their 
being taken out of the soil in which 
they are buried ; and carrots similarly 
thrust into the earth where the wire- 
worm is ravaging, are successful lures. 
The vermin prefers these, buries itself 
in them, and may be easily removed. 
The roots of the white mustard also are 
said to drive the wire-worm away from 
the soil on which it is grown." — Brit. 
Farm. Mag. 

Mr. Glenny says, " that Mr. May, 
nurseryman, Tottenham, plants the 
common daisy round his principal beds, 
finding the wire-worm prefer it to the 
carrot." — Gard. Gazette. 

And Mr. Oram, Edmonton, says "that 
the double daisy is employed by one of 
his friends, who, in one summer, from 
a row of daisies three hundred feet 
long, has taken 2,000 wire-worms." — 
Gard. Chron. 

WISE MEN'S BANANA TREE. 
Musa Sapientum, 

WISTARIA. Two species. Hardy 
deciduous climbers. Layers, and also 
cuttings. Light rich soil. W. sinensis 
requires the shelter of a wall, and to be 
pruned about the beginning of March ; 
cut the leading shoots about half-way 
back, and spur the others in rather short. 

WITCH HAZEL. Hamamelis. 

WITHERINGIA. Seven species. 
Stove and green-house evergreen shrubs 
and herbaceous perennials. W. pur- 
purea is tuberous rooted ; W.phyllantha t 
a green-house annual. Cuttings or 
seeds. Light rich soil. 

WITSENIA. Three species. Green- 
house herbaceous perennials. Offsets 
or seeds. Sandy peat. 

WOLF'S BANE. Aconitum lupu- 
linum. 

WOOD ASHES. See Ashes. 

WOODBINE. Caprifolium Pericly- 
menum. 

WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. See 
Bombyx. 

WOODLICE. See Oniscus. 

WOODROOF. Asperula. 

WOOD SORREL. Oxalis. 

WOOLLEN RAGS. See Animal 
Matters. 

WORKING is a gardener's term for 
the practice of grafting. " To work'* 
upon a stock is to graft or bud it. 

WORMS are beneficial in all the 



WOR 



634 

— ♦ — 



XIP 



compartments of the garden, acting as 
a kind of underdrainers, by their bur- 
rowings. To keep them from coming 
near the surface of lawns, it may be 
sprinkled with salt at the rate of five 
bushels per acre, three times a year, in 
spring, summer, and autumn. The 
most speedy destruction is brought upon 
them by dissolving two ounces of corro- 
sive sublimate in every forty gallons of 
water, and applying this profusely on 
the grass infested. The worms come 
to the surface and may be destroyed by 
thousands. The sublimate is a virulent 
poison. Lime-water always must be an 
uncertain application, because even if 
the lime be fresh from the kiln, there is 
never any certainty of its being per- 
fectly calcined, and every particle 
which remains combined with carbonic 
acid, is still chalk, and insoluble. The 
strength of lime water is consequently 
never uniform. 

Worms should not be allowed to re- 
main in garden pots, for they puddle 
the soil in so confined a space. 

WORMIA dentata. Stove evergreen 
tree. Ripe cuttings, with the leaves on. 
Light loam, or loam and peat. 

WORMWOODS. Artemisia. These 
are perennial rooted bitter aromatics, 
and cultivated solely for medicinal pur- 
poses. Common wormwood (Artemisia 
absinthium) ; Sea-wormwood (A. mari- 
tima) ; Roman wormwood (^4. Pontica) ; 
Santonicum, or Tartarian wormwood 
(A. Santonica). 

Soil. — The soil best suited to them is 
one that is dry, light, and poor, other- 
wise they grow luxuriantly, and are de- 
fective in their medicinal qualities, as 
well as in their power to withstand the 
rigour of the winter. Any situation will 
suit the common and sea wormwoods, 
that is open and unconfined, but the 
exotic species require to be sheltered 
from the severe aspects. In a severe 
winter, the Tartarian can only be pre- 
served under a frame. The sea worm- 
wood seldom flourishes, from the want 
of a genial soil ; the application of salt 
would undoubtedly be beneficial. 

Propagation. — They are all propa- 
gated by seed, as well as slips and cut- 
tings, the first of which may be sown in 
March or April ; and the latter planted 
during June, July, and beginning of 
August. The seed is sown thinly broad- 
cast ; and when the plants arrive at a 
height of two or three inches, are weed- 



ed and thinned to six inches asunder ; 
and those taken away pricked at a like 
distance ; water being given if the wea- 
ther is at all dry. The slips and cut- 
tings are planted in a shady border, 
about eight inches apart, and water 
given regularly every evening until they 
have taken root. 

The only cultivation required is to 
clear away the decayed stalks in au- 
tumn, and to keep them constantly clear 
of weeds by frequent hoeings. To 
obtain seed no further care is required 
than to gather the stems as they ripen 
in autumn. The Roman seldom per- 
fects its seed. 

WOUNDWORT. Anthyllis vulnera- 
ria. 

WOUNDS. See Extravasated Sap. 

WRIGHTIA. Four species. Stove 
evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
Sandy loam and peat. 

WULFENIA carinthiaca. Hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Division or 
seeds. Light rich soil. 

WURMBEA. Four species. Green- 
house and half-hardy bulbous peren- 
nials. Offsets. Sandy peat and loam. 

WYCH ELM. Vlmus montana. 

XANTHORIZA apiifolia. Hardy 
evergreen shrub. Suckers. Common 
soil. 

XANTHORRH^EA. Six species. 
Green-house evergreen shrubs, or herb- 
aceous perennials. Offsets. Loam and 
peat. 

XANTHOSIA rotundifolia. Green- 
house evergreen shrub. Cuttings or 
seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 

XANTHOXYLUM. Fourteen spe- 
cies. Stove and green-house evergreen 
and hardy deciduous trees and shrubs. 
Ripe cuttings. Common soil. 

XERANTHEMUM. Three species. 
Hardy annuals. Seeds. Light rich soil. 

XEROPHYLLUM. Four species. 
Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
or seeds. Peaty soil. 

XIMENESIA. Five species. Hardy 
annuals and biennials, and green-house 
herbaceous perennials. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

XIMENIA. Two species. Stove 
evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
peat. 

XIPHIDIUM. Two species. Stove 
herbaceous perennials. Division. Loam, 
peat, and sand. 

XIPHOPTERIS. Two species. One 
a stove, the other a green-house peren- 



XYL 



635 

— • — 



Z YG 



nial. Division or seeds. Loam and 
peat. 

XYLOMELUM pyriforme. Green- 
house evergreen tree. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam, peat, and sand. 

XYLOPHYLLA. Eleven species. 
Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
Loam and peat. 

XYLOPIA. Three species. Stove 
evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
and peat. 

YELLOW SULTAN. Centaurea sua- 
veolens. 

YELLOW-TAILED MOTH. See 
Bombyx. 

YEW TREE. Taxus. 

YUCCA. Adam's Needle. Thirteen 
species. Hardy, stove, and green-house 
evergreen shrubs, and a few hardy herb- 
aceous perennials. Y.pendula, a vari- 
ety of Y. aloifolia, is a hardy deciduous 
tree. Suckers. Light rich soil. 

** Cut the flower-stem off Yucca glori- 
osa directly it has done flowering, and 
take away all the suckers, except two 
or three of the strongest. Then remove 
a little of the soil round the bottom of 
the plant, and replace it with a dressing 
of equal parts of sandy loam and cow- 
dung." — Gard. Chron. 

ZAMIA. Twenty-one species. Stove 
or green-house herbaceous perennials. 
Suckers. Light sandy soil. 

ZEBRA PLANT. Calathea zebrina. 

ZEPHYR ANTHES. Eleven species. 
Green-house and half-hardy bulbous pe- 
rennials, and a few hardy and half-hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Offsets. Turfy 
loam, peat, and sand. 

ZEXMENIA tagetiflora. Half-hardy 
herbaceous perennial. Seeds. Com- 
mon soil. 

ZICHYA. Three species. Green- 
house evergreen twiners. Young cut- 
tings. Sandy loam and peat. 



ZIERIA. Ten species. Green-house 
evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. San- 
dy loam and peat. 

ZIGADENUS. Five species. Hardy 
herbaceous perennials. Division or 
seeds. Peaty moist soil. 

ZILLA. Two species. Half-hardy 
evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Light rich 
soil. 

ZINZIBER. Ginger. Thirteen spe- 
cies. Stove herbaceous perennials, 
except Z. iniega, which belongs to the 
green-house. Division. Loam, peat, 
and sand. 

ZINNIA. Eight species. Hardy an- 
nuals. Seeds. Rich mould, or common 
soil. 

ZIZIA. Three species. Hardy herb- 
aceous perennials. Division or seeds. 
Moist soil. 

ZIZIPHORA. Seven species. Hardy 
annuals, Z. acinoides a hardy deciduous 
trailer, and the others half-hardy ever- 
green shrubs. The latter increase by 
cuttings, the former by seeds. Common 
soil. 

ZIZYPHUS. Lotus. Fourteen spe- 
cies. Stove, green-house, hardy, and 
half-hardy evergreen, and a few hardy 
deciduous shrubs. The stove and green- 
house kinds increase by ripe cuttings, 
and succeed in loam, peat, and sand ; 
the hardy kinds by ripe cuttings or lay- 
ers, and require a rich soil. 

ZORNIA. Seven species. Stove an- 
nuals and green-house herbaceous pe- 
rennials. Seeds. Peat and loam. 

ZYGOPETALUM. Six species. Stove 
orchids. Division. Peat and potsherds. 

ZYGOPHYLLUM. Thirteen species. 
Green-house and stove evergreen shrubs. 
Cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. Z. 
prostratum is a trailer ; Z. simplex, a 
half hardy annual ; and Z.fabago is in- 
creased by seeds only. 



THE END. 




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